Due by 5 PMAt Least 1 page APA formatEthics in Rese.docx

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Due by 5 PM At Least 1 page APA format Ethics in Research Briefly describe the population from which data will be collected from during future implementation of the action research study. View the Belmont Report, Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research . Then watch the following videos*: *WARNING: The following videos contain strong or potentially offensive language. Obedience to Authority_Stanley Milgram Experiment (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Feature Film – The Stanford Prison Experiment (Documentary) (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Apology to survivors of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. According to Mills (2014), “all research studies involve ethical considerations. Therefore, all researchers must be aware of and attend to the ethical considerations related to their studies” (p. 27). Therefore, identify the potential ethical concerns associated with the topic you selected in Week One in collecting the type of data you plan to collect from this particular population. How will you address those ethical concerns when designing your action research project around this topic? Be sure to keep in mind the big three ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice, as well as informed consent, assessment of risk, and selection of subjects as discussed in the Belmont Report and to refer to them in your response. Having no ethical considerations is not an option. ...

Education

According to Mills (2014), “all research studies involve ethical
considerations. Therefore, all researchers must be aware of and
attend to the ethical considerations related to their studies” (p.
27). Therefore, identify the potential ethical concerns
associated with the topic you selected in Week One in
collecting the type of data you plan to collect from this
particular population. How will you address those ethical
concerns when designing your action research project around
this topic? Be sure to keep in mind the big three ethical
principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice, as
well as informed consent, assessment of risk, and selection of
subjects as discussed in the Belmont Report and to refer to
them in your response. Having no ethical considerations is not
an option.

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Lab Bad Blood: A Case Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project PART I: Directions Read Fourtner, Fourtner, and Herried (2000) â€œBad Blood: A case study of the Tuskegee Syphilis Projectâ€. While reading, create a timeline of events of the project and then answer the following questions. Questions Compare your timeline of the Syphilis Project to the timeline of ethical protocols from the NIH training (see below). Which ethical protocols did the researchers violate and how? (use outside sources if needed, but cite them) Evaluate the study using our current ethical principles. Which principles were violated and how? What was the original researchersâ€™ purpose and hypothesis? Did it change over time? Who were the target population of the Syphilis Study? Who did they sample? How did they recruit subjects? What would have been a more ethical way to recruit subjects? Was there any pre-existing experimenter bias? What could have been done to avoid this conflict of interest? image1.png .

Lab Bad Blood- A Case Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis ProjectPART I- Di.docx

hye345678

Forum Question: Select from one of the two sets of questions (Paradigms and the Belmont Report) 1) Paradigms Identify a sociological topic of interest to you. Access the "Common Paradigms" link. Discuss how three (3) of the specific qualitative research paradigms could be used to study this topic. Are some paradigms better suited for certain topics? Which paradigm(s) raise the biggest ethical concerns? 2) Belmont Report - Access the Belmont link in the course material Explain what led to the creation of the Belmont Report? What are the ethical considerations in research? Explain the three principles of ethics? THE BELMONT REPORT Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research The Belmont Report was written by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Commission, created as a result of the National Research Act of 1974, was charged with identifying the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects and developing guidelines to assure that such research is conducted in accordance with those principles. Informed by monthly discussions that spanned nearly four years and an intensive four days of deliberation in 1976, the Commission published the Belmont Report , which identifies basic ethical principles and guidelines that address ethical issues arising from the conduct of research with human subjects. READ THE BELMONT REPORT Read the full text of the Belmont Report WATCH A VIDEO ABOUT THE BELMONT REPORT This video describes the basic ethical principles that underlie research involving human subjects and demonstrates how they can help resolve ethical conflicts in research VIEW 25th ANNIVERSARY INTERVIEWS This collection of videos includes interviews with members and staff of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research from the 25th anniversary of publication in 2004 READ OTHER REPORTS BY THE NATIONAL COMMISSION Explore a compilation of related reports published by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research between 1974 and 1978 Protecting Human Subjects in Research Content created by Office for Human Research Protections Content last reviewed on March 15, 2016 Common Paradigms Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Qualitative and quantitative approaches are rooted in philosophical traditions with different epistemological and ontological assumptions. Epistemology - is the theory of knowledge and the assumptions and beliefs that we have about the nature of knowledge. How do we know the world? What is the relationship between the inquirer and the known? Ontology - concerns the philosphy of existence and the assumptions and beliefs that we hold about the nature of being and existence. Paradigms - models or frameworks that are ...

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alisoncarleen

This week, reflect on what you learned from the NIH materials about protecting the rights of human research participants. · · · · Describe the circumstances that influenced the need for a policy to protect human research subjects. Give examples of specific ways human research subjects can be harmed by researchers. · Identify three vulnerable populations and the special restrictions associated with human research among these groups. Evaluate the requirements and restrictions. Do you think they are adequate? Why or why not? · The Belmont Report summarizes the ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Three core principles are identified: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Even though these principles are considered equal, prioritize them in order of importance to you. Explain your decisions. · Although you are not implementing a change project at this time, and you may not be directly involved in research as part of your professional responsibilities, explain the reasons why it is important for you to know about these rights and protections. 3 pages only 2 scholarly articles Protecting Human Research Participants NIH Of fic e of E xt ramural R e se a rc h Introduction Research with human subjects can occasionally result in a dilemma for investigators. When the goals of the research are designed to make major contributions to a field, such as improving the understanding of a disease process or determining the efficacy of an intervention, investigators may perceive the outcomes of their studies to be more important than providing protections for individual participants in the research. Although it is understandable to focus on goals, our society values the rights and welfare of individuals. It is not considered ethical behavior to use individuals solely as means to an end. The importance of demonstrating respect for research participants is reflected in the principles used to define ethical research and the regulations, policies, and guidance that describe the implementation of those principles. Who? This course is intended for use by individuals involved in the design and/or conduct of National Institutes of Health (NIH) funded human subjects research. What? This course is designed to prepare investigators involved in the design and/or conduct of research involving human subjects to understand their obligations to protect the rights and welfare of subjects in research. The course material presents basic concepts, principles, and issues related to the protection of research participants. Why? As a part of NIH's commitment to the protection of human subjects and its response to Federal mandates for increased emphasis on protection for human subjects in research, the NIH Office of Extramural Research released a policy on Required Education in the Protection of Human Research Participants in June 2000. This course is specifically designed for extramural investigat ...

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1 7 Annotated Bibliography Lua Shanks Walden University Research Theory, Design, and Methods Dr. Arome 11-7-2021 Annotated Bibliography Introduction Autism researchers continue to grapple with activities that best serve the purpose of fostering positive interpersonal relationships for children with autism. Children have benefited from therapy sessions that provide ongoing activities to aid their ability to engage in healthy social interactions. However, less is known about how K–12 schools might implement programs for this group of individuals to provide additional opportunities for growth, or even if and how school programs would be of assistance in the end. There is a gap in understanding the possibilities of implementing such programs in schools to foster the social and mental health of children with autism. The six articles I selected for this assignment present research on different types of therapeutic programs that have been used to promote social interactions in children with autism. Annotated Bibliography on Autism Wimpory, D. C., & Nash, S. (1999). Musical interaction therapy – therapeutic play for children with autism. Child Language and Teaching Therapy, 15(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/026565909901500103 Wimpory and Nash provided a case study for implementing music interaction therapy as part of play therapy aimed at cultivating communication skills in infants with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The researchers based their argument on films taken of play-based therapy sessions that introduced music interaction therapy. To assess the success of music play, Wimpory and Nash filmed the follow-up play-based interaction between the parent and the child. The follow-up interactions revealed that 20 months after the introduction of music play, the child developed prolonged playful interaction with both the psychologist and the parent. The follow-up films also revealed that the child initiated spontaneously pretend play during these later sessions. After the introduction of music, the child began to develop appropriate language skills. Since the publication date for this case study is 1999, the results are dated. Although this study found that music interaction therapy is useful, emerging research in the field has undoubtedly changed in the time since this article was published. Wimpory and Nash wrote this article for a specific audience, including psychologists and researchers working with infants diagnosed with ASD. Their focus means that others beyond these fields may not find the findings applicable to their work. I am interested in the role of music in therapy to foster social and mental health in children with ASD. Therefore, Wimpory and Nash’s research is useful to me for background information on the implementation of music into play-based therapy in infants with ASD. Wimpory and Nash presented a basis for this t ...

1 8Annotated Bib

VannaJoy20

Ethical Dimensions of Research Studies: In the best-selling book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (Skloot, 2010), the author highlights the true story of an African-American woman who died in 1951 from cervical cancer. What makes her story unique is that prior to her death, cells from her tumor were removed and successfully grown in a petri dish. This was the first time scientists were able to successfully replicate cells outside the body, and it is estimated that billions of Lacks’ cells have been used in medical research. However, Henrietta Lacks was never asked for permission to take a sample and her family was never made aware of the widespread use of her cells. Although the culturing of her cells has been pivotal for advancing research, strong ethical concerns later arose about using these cells without patient or family approval. This week’s readings describe historical examples of unethical research, such as a study of syphilis among African-American men in which treatment was withheld and a study in which live cancer cells were injected into elderly patients. Today, stricter controls that seek to protect study participants are placed on researchers, but breaches still occur. Careful attention must be given toward preventing unethical behavior. In this Discussion, you explore ethical considerations and issues in research. To prepare : Select a current health-related case involving research ethics. (If none come to mind, browse the Internet to familiarize yourself with recent cases.) As you review the case that you have selected, reflect on the ethical principles discussed in “What Are the Major Ethical Issues in Conducting Research?” article found in this week’s Learning Resources. Which principles were breached in the case you have identified? Question: ( 1 page ) : A description of the case that you selected and the ethical issues involved. Analyze the ethical principles that were breached by the researchers or organizations in your selected case as well as the possible cause of the breach(es). Suggest how the research might have been conducted differently to avoid or minimize the ethical problems. Discuss how research can be done on sensitive issues while still protecting the rights of the research subjects. .

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Checklist for Preparing a Research Proposal A good research proposal should impress someone (e.g., a teacher, a faculty committee, an Institutional Review Board [IRB], or a funding agency) with the project’s worthiness, feasibility, ethical treatment of participants and the community, and appropriateness of its design. The following items usually, but not always, appear in a research proposal. I. A Title- A title captures the theme or thesis of the proposed project in a nutshell. II. A Statement of the Project’s Problem or Objective - In this section, you should answer questions such as 1. What exactly will you study? 2. Why is it worth studying? 3. Does the proposed study have practical significance? III. Literature Review - In general, a good literature review justifies the proposed research. (See Appendix C for a discussion of literature reviews in research reports. Literature reviews in research proposals should do the same things that literature reviews in research reports do.) In a literature review, one normally cites references that appear in the proposal’s reference section (see later) using a style that is appropriate to one’s disci- pline (e.g., American Sociological Association style for sociology, American Psychological Association style for psychology and education). It is often appropriate to end the literature review with a statement of a research question (or research questions) or of a hypothesis (or hypotheses) that will guide the research. The literature review normally accomplishes this goal (of justifica- tion) by addressing some of the following: 1. What have others said about this topic and related topics? 2. What research, if any, has been done previously on the topic? 3. Have other researchers used techniques that can be adapted for the purposes of the proposed study? 4. References used 5. Statement of research question or hypothesis IV. Methods- In a methods section, you should answer questions such as: 1. Whom or what will you study to collect data? 2. How will you select your sample? 3. What, if any, ethical considerations are relevant? 4. What method(s) of data collection will you use—a questionnaire, an interview, an observation, and/or an available data? You might also, depending on the nature of the study (e.g., whether it is quantitative or qualitative), want to answer questions such as 1. What are the key variables in your study? 2. How will you define and measure them? 3. Will you be borrowing someone else’s measures or using a modified form of measures that have been used before? 4. What kind of data analysis, or comparisons, do you intend to do, or make, with the data you collect? V. Plan for Sharing Your Findings- In this section, you will want to answer questions like these: 1. Will you write up your results in the form of a paper (or book) to be shared with others? 2. What kinds.

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bissacr

After completing the assigned readings and watching the provided video links, review the following classic psychological experiments: Johnson's Monster Study Loftus, E.F. (1999). Lost in the Mail: Misrepresentations and Misunderstandings. Ethics & Behavior, 9(1), 51. Milgram's Obedience Experiment Watson's Little Albert Experiment Zimbardo's Stanford Prisoner Experiment After you have become familiar with these five classic studies, select one. Using headers to organize your paper, answer the following questions: Scientific Merit / Knowledge Gained. What are the benefits of this study (to society, research, or subjects)? What are the practical implications (i.e., real-world applications of the findings)? What are likely consequences to society if this study had not been conducted? What were the potential psychological costs of this study? Were the research participants in the study at risk for psychological injury? Could this type of research have been conducted without the use of deception? Do you feel the use of deception was justified given the potential cost to participants? If you were a member of a human subjects’ Institutional Review Board, would you approve the research described in the article? Do you feel that the contributions of this study outweigh the costs? Would you have minded if you discovered you participated in that study? Would you want to (or be willing to) participate as a research assistant for this study? Risk of Psychological Injury. Deception. Decision. Participation. Research experience. Be sure to incorporate information from the Fisher text as well as include information from at least two academic journals discussing the ethics of the experiment. Length: 3-5 pages .

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How do you define research ethics? Discuss Ethics and the Research Process. Why researcher should be ethical. Discuss General Ethical Theories and Ethical Principles. What are the Specific Ethical Problems? Describe Ethics and Online Research. Ethics are the moral principles that a person must follow, irrespective of the place or time. Behaving ethically involves doing the right thing at the right time. Research ethics focus on the moral principles that researchers must follow in their respective fields of research.

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8B20M017 Teaching Note SOBEYS—PROJECT SUNRIS.docx

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875 words Include citations for all unoriginal ideas, facts, or definitions in an APA-formatted reference list. Do not use Wikipedia, Quora, Yahoo Questions or other crowdsourced websites as references. Visit the American Civil Liberties Union Supreme Court Cases website to see civil liberties cases that the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled on, organized by term. Select one of the cases on civil liberties that interests you. Provide an analysis that addresses the following: The civil liberty that is addressed in the case, including the text of the amendment from the Bill of Rights An explanation of the Supreme Court's involvement, including the following: The importance of the ruling (why it is significant) How the case moved through the lower courts to eventually be heard by the Supreme Court The powers granted to the Supreme Court by the constitution that allowed them to rule on the case .

875 words Include citations for all unoriginal ideas, .docx

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81 Journal of International Studies © Foundation of International Studies, 2015 © CSR, 2015 S ci en ti fi c P ap er s Wuhan, Li Suyuan, Adnan Khurshid Ocean University of China China [email protected] Abstract. Th e main reason of this study is to test the interest rate impact on investment in Jiangsu Province of China. Jiangsu has the largest quantity of investment in China. For long run, nexus Johansen Co-integration test is employed. Whereas, vector er- ror correction model (VECM) is used to fi nd short run association over the period of 2003-2012. Th e results indicate that there is a long-term relationship association among variables. It has negative relation in the long run but positive in short run. Th is research also produces suggestions that will help in terms of interest rate policy as well as improving investment that promotes economic growth in Jiangsu Province. Keywords: Interest rate, investment, Jiangsu Province, VECM JEL Codes: E40, E20, C22 INTRODUCTION Changes in interest rates can refl ect the basic situation of the operation of macro economy; it also eff ects all the macroeconomic variables such as GDP, price level, the level of employment, international balance of payments, the rate of economic growth, etc. Obviously the interest rate is an important economic variable that plays an important role in both macro and micro economy activity. Th erefore, a change in interest rates is one of the main factors to judge the macroeconomic situation and the interest rate trend analysis is the main method to predict the macroscopic economic situation. Western economists believe that the market rate of interest, the total social savings and investment are closely linked. Th erefore, the current interest rates aff ect the investment activities. At the same time, current interest rates also aff ect the scale of investment in the future by adjusting the savings. If the interest rate rises, bond prices fall, if the interest rate falls, bond prices rise. Th e infl uence of interest rate on investment scale is operate as the opportunity cost of investment on total investment, Under the condition of unchanged in investment income, the rising interest rates increase the cost of investment and then inevitably cause lower income investors to withdraw from the area of investment, so that the demand for investment is reduced. However, falling interest rates means that investment costs decline, thereby stimulating investment and the total social investments increase. Received: February, 2015 1st Revision: April, 2015 Accepted: May, 2015 DOI: 10.14254/2071- 8330.2015/8-1/7 Th e eff ect of interest rate on investment; Empirical evidence of Jiangsu Province, China Wuhan, Li Suyuan, Adnan Khurshid “Th e eff ect of interest rate on investment; Empirical evidence of Jiangsu Province, China”, Journal of International Studies, Vol. 8, No 1, 2015, pp. 81-90. DOI: 10.14254/2071-8330.2015/8-1/7 Journal .

81Journal of International Studies© Foundation .docx

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8/29/16 f_ch02.docx: 45 Chapter 2 From Public Regulation to Private Enforcement How CSR Became Managerial Orthodoxy Richard P. Appelbaum The safety and well-being of workers across our supply chain is the Responsible Sourcing group’s top priority, which is why Walmart suppliers are contractually required to sign our Standards for Suppliers before they’re approved to produce merchandise for sale at Walmart. These Standards for Suppliers make clear our fundamental expectations for suppliers and factories regarding the treatment of workers and impact on the environment. Suppliers are also required to display our Standards for Suppliers in the local language in all factories where products are made for us, so workers know our expectations of suppliers and factory management. —Walmart 2014 Global Responsibility Report, Statement on Compliance and Sourcing Walmart, the world’s largest corporation in 2015, invests in “comprehensive social audits across our global supply chain.” Its factory audits—reportedly often unannounced—are conducted by “independent accredited and internationally recognized auditing firms.” Factories are then said to be reaudited every six to twenty-four months, based on the results. This comprehensive auditing system is designed to verify that factories “meet or exceed” Walmart’s standards, which include assurance that all labor is voluntary, prohibitions against child labor, requirements that hours are 8/29/16 f_ch02.docx: 46 not excessive (and are consistent with local laws or regulations), and that factories provide safe and healthy working conditions (Walmart 2014). On November 24, 2012, a fire at the Tazreen Fashion apparel factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, claimed 112 lives and injured 200 others, making it the deadliest factory fire in the history of a country long plagued by factories fires. Workers found themselves trapped by the absence of safe and accessible fire exits, windows blocked by iron grills, a lack of adequate fire preparedness training, and the fact that the building was at the time under construction: five additional stories were being added to the original three-story structure, even as garment production continued as usual. In this unsafe environment, ten workers perished on Tazreen’s fifth floor, where they were sewing Walmart’s Faded Glory shorts. Walmart, one of the many companies producing garments at the factory (Maquila Solidarity Network 2012b), 1 claimed it was unaware that its Faded Glory shorts were being sewn at Tazreen through a subcontracting arrangement. Yet the factory’s owner reported that Walmart’s local office had audited the factory a year earlier, finding only problems with excessive overtime. A Walmart spokesperson confirmed this, acknowledging that the company had conducted at least two inspections in 2011, but claiming that Walmart had stopped production “many months before the fire” (Yardley 2012). .

82916 f_ch02.docx 45 Chapter 2 From Public Regulat.docx

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8.1 What is the difference between RFC 5321 and RFC 5322? 8.2 What are the SMTP and MIME standards? 8.3 What is the difference between a MIME content type and a MIME transfer encoding? 8.4 Briefly explain base64 encoding. 8.5 Why is base64 conversion useful for an e-mail application? 8.6 What is S/MIME? 8.7 What are the four principal services provided by S/MIME? 8.8 What is the utility of a detached signature? 8.9 What is DKIM? No Copy Paste striclty .

8.1 What is the difference between RFC 5321 and RFC 53228.docx

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8. On the likely aftermath and long term effects of the coronavirus outbreak on business and society (Module 12) This discussion board is devoted to the likely aftermath and long term consequences of the coronavirus for business and society. We will be posting some reading material related to this topic in Module 12. respond 1 Effects of the Coronavirus Outbreak on Business and Society The coronavirus outbreak has not only led to a massive loss of life globally but also altered social and economic structures in a manner that will persist for a long time. As the pandemic continues devastating communities across the globe, wealth has emerged as the best defense against catastrophes. Wealthy individuals have invested in systems that allow them to work from home to minimize interactions and avoid contracting the virus (Bonacini et al., 2021). Less wealthy individuals cannot afford to stay at home because most of them rely on daily wages to meet their basic needs. Additionally, low-income earners might not avoid interactions because most of them live in places with crowded housing. Moreover, Covid-19 has increased the health burden on low-income earners while decreasing job opportunities. Therefore, the pandemic is likely to exacerbate the economic inequality in society because the rich are amassing more wealth while the poor are suffering from high unemployment. Besides increasing inequality, the pandemic will transform working habits in the future owing to company responses to regulations aimed at curbing the virus’s spread. At the onset of Covid-19, governments established regulations to restrict people's movement. These rules have changed business practices, promoting working from home and demonstrating the importance of technology in the corporate world. The change from working in offices to operating from home is likely to be permanent because most employers are beginning to question the purpose of a workplace. Over time, companies will establish effective policies to facilitate working from home, making it the new norm in business. Likewise, organizations will embrace technology more to serve customers who have shifted to online shopping to decrease physical interactions. Reference Bonacini, L., Gallo, G., & Scicchitano, S. (2021). Working from home and income inequality: Risks of a ‘new normal’ with COVID-19. Journal of Population Economics, 34 (1), 303-360. respond 2 ong Term Effects of COVID-19 on Business and Society As we can and have seen, there have been and will continue to be long-term effects on how COVID-19 can and will impact business and society moving forward. Businesses will likely see a resurgence of possible re-closings. Depending on where you're located in our country, many businesses that were able to re-open may have to close again due to sparks in new COVID-19 cases. While it seems more people are no becoming vaccinated, the likelihood of this is still very evident. Many companies have learned from ini.

8. On the likely aftermath and long term effects of the coronavi.docx

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8 pages Select an agency of the US government and a specific public policy issue. Discuss, in detail, the mission and vision of the agency. Why did you select this particular agency? Broadly describe a current issue that your selected agency trying to solve. Make sure that you address the following questions: What is the issue? What evidence is there that it is an issue? What are the players (both institutions and individuals)? What are the possible solutions proposed? What solution was selected and why? What are the political implications of the public policy? How does it impact our democratic system? Are there any constitutional issues? Please make sure that your paper has a thesis sentence and a conclusion. .

8 pagesSelect an agency of the US government and a specific pu.docx

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8 pages Select an agency of the US government and a specific p.docx

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8-1 Discussion: Immigration Laws It is a violation of the immigration laws to “bring” an illegal alien into the United States. Can a defendant who does not essentially or technically cross the border with an illegal alien be found guilty under these laws? What must the prosecution prove? Review the posts of your fellow learners and respond to at least two. In your response posts, you must do one or more of the following: Ask an analytical question. Offer a suggestion. Elaborate on a particular point. Provide an alternative opinion supported with research. Be sure to support your initial post and follow-up posts with scholarly examples from the module readings and additional literature where appropriate. You must cite all references according to APA style. To complete this assignment, review the Discussion Rubric document. .

8-1 Discussion Immigration LawsIt is a violation of the immigra.docx

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776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century in Europe and America appealed greatly to Watteau’s wealthy patrons, whom, even as he was dying from tuberculosis, he still depicted as carefree and at leisure in his most unusual painting, Signboard of Gersaint (!"#. 26-7B). François Boucher. A$er Watteau’s death brought his bril- liant career to a premature end at age 36, F%&'()"* B)+,-.% (1703–1770) rose to the dominant position in French painting, in large part because he was Madame de Pompadour’s favorite artist. Although Boucher was an excellent portraitist, his success rested primarily on his canvases depicting shepherds, nymphs, and god- desses gracefully cavorting in shady glens engulfed in pink and sky-blue light. Cupid a Captive (!"#. 26-8) presents a rosy pyramid of infant and female /esh set o0 against a cool, leafy background, with /uttering draperies both hiding and revealing the nudity of the 1gures. Boucher used the full range of Italian and French Baroque devices—the dynamic play of crisscrossing diagonals, curvilinear forms, and slanting recessions—to create his master- ful composition. But he dissected powerful Baroque curves into a multiplicity of decorative /ourishes, dissipating Baroque drama into sensual playfulness. Lively and lighthearted, Boucher’s artful Rococo In Pilgrimage to Cythera (!"#. 26-7), luxuriously costumed lovers make a “pilgrimage” to Cythera, the island of eternal youth and love, sacred to Aphrodite. (Some art historians think that the lovers are returning from Cythera rather than having just arrived. Watteau provided few clues to settle the question de1nitively.) 2e elegant 1gures move gracefully from the protective shade of a woodland park 1lled with playful cupids and voluptuous statuary. 2e poses of the 1gures, which blend elegance and sweetness, are hallmarks of Watteau’s style, both in ambitious multi1gure compositions such as Pilgrimage to Cythera and in single-1gure studies such as L’Indi!érent (!"#. 26-7A). Watteau prepared his paintings using albums of draw- ings in which he sought to capture slow movement from di3cult and unusual angles, searching for the smoothest, most poised, and most re1ned attitudes. As he experimented with nuances of posture and movement, Watteau also strove for the most exquisite shades of color di0erence, de1ning in a single stroke the shimmer of silk at a bent knee or the shine appearing on a glossy surface as it emerges from shadow. 2e haze of color, the subtly modeled shapes, the gliding motion, and the air of suave gentility tinged with nostalgia 26-7B WATTEAU, Signboard of Gersaint, 1721. 26-7 A!"#$!% W&""%&', Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717. Oil on canvas, 49 30 ( 69 4 120. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Watteau’s fête galante paintings depict the outdoor amusements of French upper-class society. The haze of color suited the new Rococo taste and was the hallmark of the Royal Academy’s Rubénistes. 26-7A WATT.

776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism The 18th Century in E.docx

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8 | New Scientist | 4 January 2020 THE tropics are the most biodiverse regions on Earth. Now there is evidence that they are also the main source of evolutionary innovation and diversity. Complex animals have dominated Earth for 541 million years, a time span called the Phanerozoic eon. Huge numbers of species have evolved and gone extinct during this time, in a complex story that includes fish, giant reptiles and whales. However, in the 1980s palaeontologist John Sepkoski analysed the overall pattern of evolution in the sea, where the fossil record is best. He concluded that marine evolutionary history could be broken down into three supergroups, which he called “great evolutionary faunas”. The first group was dominated by trilobites, which resembled woodlice, and bristle worms; the second by shellfish-like creatures called brachiopods; and the third by molluscs, which have persisted to the present day. Other animals like land mammals probably followed similar patterns, but their fossil record isn’t complete enough for us to know. Now, by analysing nearly 18,300 marine genera from the Phanerozoic fossil record, Alexis Rojas-Briceno of Umeå University in Sweden and his colleagues have found that the evolution of complex marine life is best described using four great groups of fauna, not three (bioRxiv, doi.org/dg98). The first supergroup existed between 541 and 494 million years ago, spanning the Cambrian explosion in which many animal groups first emerged. As in the original analysis, trilobites dominated. The second supergroup, dubbed the Palaeozoic, lasted from 494 to 252 million years ago. Creatures with hard outer shells were now widespread, including brachiopods. This phase ended when the end- Permian extinction wiped out almost all complex life on Earth. This matches Sepkoski’s analysis, but the new study splits his third great fauna into two. In this version, the third supergroup is called the Mesozoic. It began in the wake of the Permian extinction and ended 129 million years ago, in the middle of the dinosaur era. This time cephalopods, the group that includes squid and octopuses, were the rulers. The fourth and final supergroup, the Cenozoic, is still dominant today. During this time, clams and snails have made up much of the diversity. The team found that all four supergroups originated in the tropics, then expanded through the oceans. This is in line with the idea that the tropics are hotbeds of evolutionary innovation, which has been promoted by David Jablonski at the University of Chicago. It may be that the warmer temperatures and ample sunlight ensure there is plenty of food to nourish a multitude of species. However, John Alroy at Macquarie University in Australia isn’t convinced. “I have always been sceptical about the out-of-the-tropics hypothesis, because they have never seriously dealt with sampling biases, as far .

8 New Scientist 4 January 2020THE tropics are the most.docx

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7 HYPOTHETICALS AND YOU TESTING YOUR QUESTIONS 7: MEDIA LIBRARY Premium Videos Core Concepts in Stats Video · Probability and Hypothesis Testing Lightboard Lecture Video · Hypothesis Testing Difficulty Scale (don’t plan on going out tonight) WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS CHAPTER · Understanding the difference between a sample and a population · Understanding the importance of the null and research hypotheses · Using criteria to judge a good hypothesis SO YOU WANT TO BE A SCIENTIST You might have heard the term hypothesis used in other classes. You may even have had to formulate one for a research project you did for another class, or you may have read one or two in a journal article. If so, then you probably have a good idea what a hypothesis is. For those of you who are unfamiliar with this often-used term, a hypothesis is basically “an educated guess.” Its most important role is to reflect the general problem statement or question that was the motivation for asking the research question in the first place. That’s why taking the care and time to formulate a really precise and clear research question is so important. This research question will guide your creation of a hypothesis, and in turn, the hypothesis will determine the techniques you will use to test it and answer the question that was originally asked. So, a good hypothesis translates a problem statement or a research question into a format that makes it easier to examine. This format is called a hypothesis. We will talk about what makes a hypothesis a good one later in this chapter. Before that, let’s turn our attention to the difference between a sample and a population. This is an important distinction, because while hypotheses usually describe a population, hypothesis testing deals with a sample and then the results are generalized to the larger population. We also address the two main types of hypotheses (the null hypothesis and the research hypothesis). But first, let’s formally define some simple terms that we have used earlier in Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS As a good scientist, you would like to be able to say that if Method A is better than Method B in your study, this is true forever and always and for all people in the universe, right? Indeed. And, if you do enough research on the relative merits of Methods A and B and test enough people, you may someday be able to say that. But don’t get too excited, because it’s unlikely you will ever be able to speak with such confidence. It takes too much money ($$$) and too much time (all those people!) to do all that research, and besides, it’s not even necessary. Instead, you can just select a representative sample from the population and test your hypothesis about the relative merits of Methods A and B on that sample. Given the constraints of never enough time and never enough research funds, with which almost all scientists live, the next best strategy is to take a portion of a lar.

7 HYPOTHETICALS AND YOU TESTING YOUR QUESTIONS7 MEDIA LIBRARY.docx

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