What Are The Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction

What Are The Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this investigation was to identify and investigate the relationship between various factors and the rate of a reaction. The reaction that
was tested, used the combination of a potassium starch solution mixed with a sodium solution, commonly known as the 'Iodine Clock Reaction'. The
two clear solutions are mixed together, which after a given time will form a dark blue solution. The factors used in this investigation are the
concentration of two substances and the temperature at which the reaction occurred.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Kinetics is essentially the study of reaction rates and how they can be affected. Factors such as concentration, pressure, temperature, and enzyme
activity, are commonly tested regarding their impact on the rate of a reaction (Khan Academy, 2017). It is important to recognise and understand the
components that affect the rate of chemical reactions as this allows control over the reaction process.
Chemical reactions progress naturally at different rates. Achemical reaction involves the rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of
substances as they change into other substances by the breaking of bonds in reactants and the formation of bonds in products (Wilbraham, 2002).
Collision theory can be used to explain why chemical reactions proceed at different rates. Collision Theory states that atoms, ions and molecules must
collide in order for a reaction to proceed and form products (Stubbings, 2017). Thus, the
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Baking Soda Vs Vinegar Essay
To begin, did you know when you combine vinegar with baking soda it will create a chemical reaction that can make a balloon fill up with carbon
dioxide gas? The reaction between baking soda and vinegar is an acid–base reaction as vinegar is a dilute acid called acetic acid. This project is to see
when baking soda and vinegar are combined, if varying the amounts of vinegar will make a balloon fill up faster.
Therefore, when baking soda and vinegar combine, they create a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is a process that includes the rearrangement of
the molecular or ionic structure of a substance, as opposed to a change in physical form or a nuclear reaction. A chemical reaction is accompanied
physical effects, such as the emission of heat and light, the formation of a precipitate, the evolution of gas, or a color change. Chemical reactions are
constantly occurring in the world around us. Everything from the rusting of an iron fence to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Baking Soda is a bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and vinegar is an acetic acid (HCH3COO). Vinegar contains acetic acid, each molecule of which contains a
hydrogen atom, and an acetate ion. Because Sodium bicarbonate is alkaline, meaning it falls into the base section of the pH scale, it helps to neutralize
acids.
Each molecule of baking soda contains a sodium atom, a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom, and a carbon dioxide molecule.
To conclude, there are many reasons why vinegar and baking soda react, some people agree with the theories and some people disagree with the
reasons why they create a chemical reaction. Baking soda and vinegar erupt because the baking soda and vinegar react to form carbon dioxide gas
inside of the mixture. Baking Soda and Vinegar react with each other because they exchange atoms.
When baking soda and acetic acid react, three new molecules are formed: water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sodium acetate

Diel-Alder Reaction Lab
Introduction: The Diel–Alder reaction is a concerted cycloaddition between a diene and a dienophile. The first people to investigate this were Otto
Diels and Kurt Alder, they were able to reported large variety of the dienes which turned out to be useful and so the procedure was named after them.
This method is an efficient way to build rings that are stereospecific. A Diel–Alder reaction involves cyclic rearrangement of bonding electrons and
forming and breaking bond(s) simultaneously. The reaction happens with in a single transition state. It has the smallest volume of all the other starting
materials that are use during this reaction. Diel–Alder reaction is updraft reaction, which is starts when you add heat. During this reaction, it... Show
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This involves breaking bond and creating another ring to it. The lab has revealed that the reaction occur and it has form the final product of
cis–Norbornene–5, 6–eno–dicarboxylic anhydride but it was as accurate it supposed to due to some mistakes that had happen during synthesis of the
reaction. The data has been collected is prove that reaction has happen but doesn't have a great product at the end. The crystallization techniques will be
applied more accurately to other synthesis and will make difference in getting final product amount that is suitable for the experiment. Lab did
accomplish as it set out to be but just human errors during the process made product amount and purity less than

The Effect Of Dehydration Of Cyclohexene
In this experiment, dehydration is carried out using cyclohexanol to obtain cyclohexene. This acid–catalysed reaction involves E1 elimination
mechanism. The dehydration of alcohol will remove OH– from cyclohexanol to form cyclohexene. Cyclohexene contains a single double bond in the
molecule. It is a six carbon aromatic hydrocarbon. Phosphoric acid is mixed with cyclohexanol in the round–bottomed flask and is heated. The
phosphoric acid act as a catalyst that increases the rate of reaction but it does not change the overall stoichiometry. The acid catalyst will convert the
hydroxyl group into a good leaving group. It is an equilibrium reaction in which the equilibrium is forced to the right (alkene). (Department of
Chemistry 2014) Boling chips are added to the distillating flask. If not, the liquid may over boil and shoot out of the ... Show more content on
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E1 reaction is a two–step mechanism which includes the protonation of hydroxyl group and the formation of carbocation intermediate
(rate–determining step).
Questions:
1. Dehydration of cyclohexanol gives cyclohexene. Draw mechanism for the reaction.
2. What alkene(s) will be produced when each of the following alcohols is dehydrated?
a) t–butyl alcohol CH3CH3 CH3 COHCH3C = CH2 + H2O CH3 Ans: 2–methyl–1–propene
b) 3–methylcyclohexanol
Ans: 1–methylcyclohexene, 3–methylcyclohexene and 4–methylcyclohexene.
3. The dehydration of 3,3–dimethyl–2–butanol yields three different products. Write equations to show how carbocation rearrangements explain two of
the products.
Ans: A secondary carbocation is formed initially, it then rearranges to a tertiary carbocation when a neighbouring methyl group with its bonding
electron pair migrates to the positive carbon. The charge is transferred to the tertiary

LAB 4 Observations of Chemical and Physical Change Part 1
LAB REPORT 4
Observations of Chemical and Physical Change PART 1– OBSERVATIONS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
No credit will be given for this lab report if the Data section is not completely filled out and if the required photographs are not received. At least one
photograph must show the student's face.
OBJECTIVES
1. Observe physical and chemical changes.
2. Define physical and chemical change.
3. Identify the relationship between a chemical change and a chemical reaction.
4. Observe several indicators of a chemical reaction.
5. Associate chemical properties with common items (food, household products).
PROCEDURE
Please complete the entire experiment as instructed in the lab manual except for any modifications noted below. Fill out the ... Show more content on
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Define physical change. . A chemical change is usually reversible change in the physical properties of a substance, as size or shape.
2. Define chemical change. A chemical change is usually irreversible chemical reaction involving the rearrangement of the atoms of one or more
substances and a change in their chemical properties or composition, resulting in the formation of at least one new substance.

Six Types Of A Chemical Reaction
Some people may ask what exactly is a chemical reaction? A chemical reaction is a process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic
structure of a substance. There is six types of chemical reactions named Synthesis, Decomposition, Single Replacement, Double Replacement,
Combustion, and Acid base reactions.
Synthesis is when two or more reactants combine to form one product. Synthesis always forms a compound. The equation for synthesis is A + B–––>
AB. Water, which is H2O is a good example of a synthesis reaction. An example of a synthesis reaction is when a metal or nonmetal reacts with
oxygen to form an oxide. One way that synthesis reactions connect to the real world is salt. Salt is a synthesis reaction of NaCl which is sodium
chloride. The equation would be Sodium (Na) + Chlorine (Cl) –––> Sodium Chloride (NaCl) and this would make it a synthesis reaction.
The opposite of a synthesis reaction would be a decomposition reaction. A decomposition reaction is when one reactant is broken down into two or
more products. This means a compound is broken down into separate products. The equation would be the opposite of synthesis which is AB –––> A +
B. An example of a decomposition reaction is 2H2O –––> 2H2 + O2. The lab we did in chemistry class called Electrolysis of Water is a good example
of decomposition because decomposition was produced by passing an electric current through the substance in the container with the screw and nail
inside which represent the

1-Bromo-3-Phenylpropane Reaction
Reaction 1 involved a primary alcohol (OH), weak leaving group in the starting material and a reaction with a strong nucleophile (sodium bromide)
and a polar protic solvent (sulfuric acid). The reaction was carried out through reflux and the product had a relatively high yield (75%) (Scheme 1).
Scheme 1. Substitution of 3–phenyl–1–propanol to form 1–bromo–3–phenylpropane The reaction was determined to be SN2 after careful reading of
the data obtained and the procedure followed. Increasing the amount of NaBr used in the reaction did not have an effect on the product yield. The
conditions of the reactions were acidic due to the solvent used. The acidic conditions prevent an E2 substitution reaction from occurring. In this
reaction, the OH leaving group is replaced with the nucleophile Br. The bromine attacks the first carbon and the OH group leaves in the same step.
This is a concerted process or bimolecular substitution mechanism (SN2). The location of the leaving group (primary) also indicates the reaction is
SN2. The data obtained from 1H NMR was found to confirm the correct product was formed. The data showed the correct location and coupling of
hydrogens in the product. There should be a difference of polarities between the starting material and the product. The product should travel further on
the TLC plate than the starting material because the starting material should be more polar than the product. The TLC results confirm the product was
less polar than the

Prostaglandin
In 1990, Morrow, Roberts, and colleagues reported the formation of prostaglandin (PG)–like compounds in vivo, termed isoprostanes, by free
radical–induced peroxidation of arachidonic acid (Morrow, Harris et al. 1990). Analogous to the cyclooxygenase enzymatic pathway, intermediates in
the IsoP pathway are PGH2–like bicyclic endoperoxides. In aqueous media, PGH2 is unstable and undergoes rearrangement to form
пЃ§–ketoaldehydes, levulinaldehyde derivatives termed levuglandin E2 and D2 (Salomon, Miller et al. 1984). Levuglandins comprise approximately
20% of the total rearrangement products of PGH2. Considering that the IsoP endoperoxides undergo rearrangement in vivo to form E2–IsoPs,
D2–IsoPs, and isothromboxanes along with F2–IsoPs (Morrow, Minton et al. 1994, Morrow, Awad
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1996), Brame and colleagues explored whether such rearrangement also results in the formation of levuglandin–like compounds. Their findings
concluded that пЃ§–ketoaldehydes are also formed via the IsoP pathway, and was termed isoketals (IsoKs). Although the characterization of another
lipid peroxidation product is exciting, there are perhaps thousands of other minor oxidation products formed during peroxidation. What makes the
discovery of isoketals remarkable? Is the yield of isoketals likely to be a consequential lipid peroxidation product? In order to address these concerns,
the yield of levulinaldehyde product from the rearrangement of H2–IsoPs was determined by using PGH2 as a precursor. PGH2 was used instead of
arachidonic acid because of the relative expediency of obtaining this isomer enzymatically versus isolating the various H2–IsoPs from the mixture
formed by oxidation of arachidonic acid. Incubation of PGH2 in phosphate buffered solution results in 22% yield of пЃ§–ketoaldehyde (Salomon,
Miller et al. 1984). One note to emphasize, formation of H2–IsoPs occurs while the arachidonic acid moiety is still esterified to the phospholipids
(Morrow, Awad et al. 1992), therefore, a

Introduction Of A Primary Alcohol
Substitution
5. Introduction In this experiment, a primary alcohol was converted into a primary bromoalkane using hydrobromic acid. The reaction was done under
reflux and then distilled to obtain a product of higher purity. The degree of the alkyl halide obtained from the experiment was tested with silver nitrate
and sodium iodide. An infrared (IR) spectra and the weight of the product were obtained for further analysis. The IR gave information on the present
functional groups and product weight was used to calculate the percent yield.
6. Data and Results The product obtained after reflux was a yellow liquid. With the halide tests, the product reacted faster with sodium iodide to form a
precipitate than with silver nitrate. This indicates that the degree of the product was primary and that bromine did replace the alcohol group. The IR of
the product showed four peaks at 3326.36, 2932.86, 1465.34, and 1028.73. These peaks indicate O–H, C–H, C–H3, and C–O bonds, respectively,
within the product. 2.032 grams of product were recovered from the reaction. With this, a percent yield of 27.14% was calculated. 7. Discussion and
Conclusion Nucleophilic aliphatic substitution is the replacement of one group for another at a saturated, sp3–hybridized carbon atom. This process is
often used to interconvert functional groups, such as in the preparation of alkyl halides. In these reactions, nucleophiles attack the carbon atom–which
the electronegative leaving group breaks its bond

Analyzing And Determining Subsitution Reactions Through Sn1
Analyzing and Determining Subsitution Reactions Through SN1 & SN2 reactions involving Alcohol–Containng Compounds to verify production and
succsess of alkyl halides. *Harpravjeet Malhi, Robert Sorg, Heather Reeves Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, IUPUI, 402 N. Blackford
St., Indianapolis, IN 46202 hmalhi@imail.iu.edu This experiment was ran to stimulate real life application scenarios in which products were
determined through various techniques learned from the past. Requiring analytical thinking and preparation, as a product was synthesized within the
right time frame, with limited amount of starting material. The three compounds shown above are reacted with various reagents, to yield the best
halide–containing product. These reactions are conducted to test the prediction that reaction 1 proceeded through a bimolecular nucleophillic
substitution (SN2) and reactions 2 and 3, went through unimolecular nuclephillic substitution (Sn1), due to carbocation rearrangements forming 2
products each through a stepwise process. Conducting various tests through separation and purification methods can test the reactions and their
hypothesized pathway, also Analyzing data through infrared spectroscopy (IR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) and gas chromatography
(GC) can give a final overall picture to the synthesized product, along with purity of the product and efficiency of the reactions. Throughout these
experiments many important features of substitution

Magnesium Combustion Lab
Magnesium Metal Strip Combustion Experiment
Introduction
When a chemical change occurs/takes place, new substances are formed in a chemical reaction. These new products may have very different properties
from the substances that were present at the start of the reaction. Magnesium is a silver–white metal, used to make strong lightweight alloys. It is used
in flash bulbs (flash bangs) and pyrotechnics, as it burns with a brilliant white flame. When magnesium burns, it is actually reacting with oxygen in the
air and not with fire. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to make a compound called magnesium oxide. The bright light results because this reaction is
exothermic.
Aim
We are examining and identifying this investigative experiment to find out if a chemical change of combustion has occurred when you place a
magnesium metal ribbon in contact with a working, blue flame from a Bunsen burner which will ignite the magnesium metal strip.
Hypothesis
If we follow the method correctly and successfully then the magnesium metal ribbon will ignite then combust into a bright, white light because a
chemical change ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The chemical reaction that occurred was a combustion reaction, it is an exothermic reaction in which something reacts with oxygen and then ignite
into a burning white bright light. One of the products used was magnesium, magnesium is a silvery white metallic chemical element, it forms a thin
layer around itself to help prevent itself from rusting when exposed to air. In the experiment The magnesium was reacting with oxygen in the air and
not with the fire. Fire is the heat and light produced when things burn. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to make a compound called magnesium oxide.
The bright light results because this reaction produces a lot of

Conversion of Alcohol to Alkyl Halides Essay
Conversion of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides Ankita Patel August 6, 2013 Introduction This lab consisted of the conversion of alcohols into alkyl halides
through common substitution methods. These methods include SN1 and SN2 mechanism, both of which can occur for this type of reaction. For both
reactions, the first step of protonation will be to add hydrogen to the –OH group and then the rest of the reaction will proceed according to the type of
mechanism. SN1 reactions form a cation intermediate once the H2O group leaves, then allowing a halide (such as Br) to attack the positively charged
reagent1. On the other hand, SN2 reactions are one–step mechanism in which no intermediate is formed and the halide attaches as the leaving... Show
Thus, one could safely assume the product from 1–propanol was 1–bromopropane. This is mainly due the C–H wag around 1260cm–1 indication it was
a terminal alkyl halide. This reaction went through SN2 mechanism not only because the alcohol was primary but also because there were no
rearrangements. If a rearrangement would have occurred, it would have indicated that it was a SN1 mechanism. Further analysis was then done to
determine the exact identity of the product and the chemical makeup. B B C C A A B B C C A A Figure 2: NMR Spectrum for 1
–propanol The
results from the NMR of 1–propanol showed 3 different prominent peaks with the peak at 2.2 cm–1 being the acetone. Because 1–bromopropane has
three non–equivalent hydrogens it was found to represent this set of NMR data. The other product, 2–bromopropane only had 2 different types of
hydrogens and would have only had 2 peaks. Further analysis of the structure of 1–bromopropane showed that the hydrogens closest the bromine group
were an indication of peak A in the graph. Because of the electronegativity of the bromine, this peak was located further downfield. There were 2
neighboring hydrogens so using the n+1 rule gave the 3 peaks. Going down peak B showed the next carbon which had 5 neighboring hydrogens thus
giving 6 peaks. Finally, the carbon furthest away from the bromine was found at peak C. It had 2 neighboring hydrogens and provided 3 peaks.

Strong Nucleophilic Substitution Report
Identifying Substitution Reactions of Strong Nucleophilic Compounds and Polar Protic Solvents with Analytical and Experimental Instruments
Oshi Bonhomme, Courtney Lasher, Olivia Trusty*
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, IUPUI, 402 N. Blackford St., Indianapolis, IN 46202 otrusty@indiana.edu The three reactions
investigated through various experimental testing contain an alcohol leaving group positioned on primary or secondary carbons. The substitution
method (SN1 or SN2) used in the reactions vary and are influenced by various factors. The position of the alcohol and the number of steps are variables
used to identify the substitution method. The products formed are influenced by the substitution mechanism. The data reported shows ... Show more
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In order for SN1 and SN2 reactions to occur, the leaving group must be attached to an alkyne or alkene (alkyl halides) 3. In nucleophilic substitution,
there are two events that occur, development of a new Пѓ bond to the nucleophile and the Пѓ bond to the leaving group breaks. The timing of these
events determines the type of mechanism2. The main difference between the two mechanisms is that the SN2 reaction occurs in one step and the SN1
reaction occurs in two steps. The number of steps in the reactions is influenced by many factors, including the rate law, nucleophile, and solvent. The
rate law (unimolecular or bimolecular) is the rate determining step. For a SN1 reaction has a weak (neutral) nucleophile and is unimolecular, which
means that the rate of the reaction is depending on the concentration of the substrate. A SN2 reaction has a strong (negatively charged) nucleophile
and is bimolecular, where the rate of the reaction is dependent on the concentration of the substrate and nucleophile 3. The strength of the
nucleophile is important in identifying the type of reactions because SN1 usually has weak nucleophiles and SN2 usually has strong nucleophiles.
The type of solvent used in the reaction is also an important factor in determining the number of steps because SN1 reactions favor polar protic
solvents (alcohols, carboxylic acids, and water). SN2 reactions tend to proceed with polar aprotic solvents (DMSO and acetone) 3. Another factor
involves the location of the leaving group. SN2 reactions favor leaving groups in the primary location but can also work for leaving groups in the
secondary location. SN1 reactions favor leaving groups in the tertiary location and can work for the secondary

The Effect Of Temperature On The Reaction Rate Of...
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on the reaction rate of hydrochloric acid and magnesium.
Introduction: Chemistry happens everywhere, not just in a lab. Matter interacts to form new substances through a process called a chemical reaction.
Your body lives and grows because of chemical reactions, whether by taking medicine or even a breath. Achemical reaction is defined as the process
that involves rearrangement of the ionic structure of a substance. Areaction rate is how fast or slow a reaction takes place. Chemicals that proceed
quickly have a fast reaction rate, whereas slowly proceeding chemicals have a slow reaction rate. There are many ways to increase the reaction rate of
chemicals, for example temperature. If the temperature of the substance is increased, the particles would have higher kinetic energy resulting in more &
more collisions. A greater proportion of collisions results in a reaction. Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid are the two chemicals investigated
throughout. Magnesium is an important supplement in the human body as well as its uses in many lightweight products such as car seats, luggage as
well as fireworks and sparklers. Hydrochloric Acid can be found in the human body as a digestive acid.
Question: Does temperature make a reaction rate change?
Hypothesis: If Hydrochloric Acid & Magnesium were placed in hot water then it is expected that the reaction rate would be faster than the substance
placed in cold water.
Justification of

Enzyme Lab Report
Essay 1: Enzymes have the capability to make specific reactions take place at a faster rate. This means that enzymes are a catalyst, meaning that is
speeds up reactions and is not consumed by the reaction. Enzymes are good for cells because they do not require an increase of energy to make the
reaction happen. Amino acids make up enzymes, and all the amino acids are linked by peptide bonds in a straight chain. This chain is called a
polypeptide or protein. One example of an enzyme is a hydrolases. A hydrolases works as a digestive enzyme, breaking down food into the nutrients
and elements we need. It works by breaking apart single bonds and adding in the element water. Another enzyme is called a lyase. A lyase catalyzes
the formation of double bonds, and does this by either adding or subtracting chemicals. A third enzyme is a transferase, which aids in transferring
molecules to one another. Moreover, another enzyme is called an isomerase. An isomerase functions by catalyzing the rearrangement of molecular
structure. This works by breaking and forming bonds to rearrange a molecule, while still keeps the same amount and type of atom.
Essay 2: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These two cells are almost completely different in how they function and how they are made up. To begin, prokaryotic cells are unicellular cells that
lack internal organelles. These cells do not contain a nucleus, instead they have what is called a nucleoid. A nucleoid is a single chromosome of DNA
that is found in the plasma of the cell. This DNA has a circular structure. Furthermore, prokaryotic cells are, for the most part, bacterial cells. Some
examples include streptococcus bacterium (the strep throat virus) and Escherichia coli bacterium (which is found in warm–blooded organisms'

The And Characterization Of Project Mn ( Bpmp )
Syntheses and characterization of [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] catalysts
BPMP was synthesised via the published procedure [2b] and expected, the piperazine ring adopts the more stable chair configuration, and the
methylpyridyl substituents are found in the equatorial positions. Reaction of BPMP with Mn(OTf)2 (ratio 1 : 1) in CH3CN under air the atmospheric
conditions this complex [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. Removing of the volatiles and washing with diethyl ether leads to white solid that analyses as
[Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. while uncoordinated BPMP was identified in the ether (washing) phases. The molecular structure is shown in Figure (compare
Scheme 1). The coordination around the manganese atom can be described as distorted trigonal prismatic, and the piperazine ... Show more content on
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This heterogeneous catalyst can be applied to a wide variety of activated and non–activated primary and secondary alcohols. As shown in Table 3,
benzyl alcohol and substituted benzyl alcohols are converted to their corresponding aldehydes efficiently. In the case of benzyl alcohol, after 30 min,
only benzaldehyde was obtained in 99% yield. In longer reaction times (1h), the obtained products are 97% p–OCH3 benzaldehyde and 3% p–OCH3
benzoic acid. The results show that the substituent's have no major effect on the oxidation of benzylic alcohols. A good selectivity experimental in the
case of cinnamyl alcohol and only oxidized in alcoholic group and no epoxide yield was obtained. Manganese(II)non–heme was also used for oxidation
of secondary alcohols and their corresponding ketones were obtained in good yields. We used hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as the oxidant and
[Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] as the catalyst for the oxidation of alcohols. To a mixture of substrate (1mmol), manganese non–heme catalyst (1mol %), and
solvent (CH3CN = 3mL) was added H2O2 (1.2mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 min at room temperature. This system has shown high
catalytic activities for the oxidation of non–activated and activated alcohols under mild conditions as shown in Table 4. Secondary alcohols were
easily converted to the corresponding ketones in excellent yields and reaction selectivity was over 99% in all cases. Cyclic alcohols

Mento Nucleation Lab
Objective To determine the reaction caused when a mento is placed in diet coke.
Introduction This experiment will discuss the reaction caused when a mento is placed inside a bottle of diet coke. Reactions between substances can
either be physical or chemical. A physical reaction is a process that affects the form of achemical substance, but not its chemical composition. A
chemical reaction is a process that involves rearrangement of the ionic or molecular structure of a substance. The reaction caused by the mento
dissolving in the diet coke can be classified as a physical change due to the process of nucleation. Nucleation is the the initial process that occurs in
the formation of a crystal from a solution, a liquid, or a vapour, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or molecules become arranged in a pattern
characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon which additional particles ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The control was diet coke.
Hypothesis If a mento is placed inside a bottle of diet coke, the reaction caused is a physical reaction because the occurrence of nucleation.
Materials 2 litre bottle of Coca–Cola Diet coke, a package of mint Mentos, a bucket.
Procedure The listed materials were taken to an outdoor workstation. The small bucket was then placed onto the ground. The bottle of diet coke was
then placed into the bucket and the cap was taken off. Then, with caution, one mento was placed into the diet coke bottle. After the experiment ended,
the Mentos wrapper and diet coke bottle were thrown out and the bucket was returned to the workstation.
Observations When the mento was placed into the diet coke bottle, bubbles began to form due to nucleation. These bubbles expanded to the point
where there was not enough area in the bottle to contain them, subsequently erupting out of the diet coke bottle and ascending 4 inches into the air.

Alkylation of Azole Derivatives Essay
Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................
Background....................................................................................
Previous Work..............................................................................
Results and Discussion.....................................................................
Future Work......................................................................................
Experimental Procedures........................................................................
References..........................................................................................
Introduction Synthesis of molecules is very important in the development of natural products used in medicine today.1 However, there are many
problems with the current synthesis method that conflict with many of the guidelines in the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry and are potentially
hazardous.2 The proposed research plan includes the formation of a salt by allylation followed by the Aza–Claisen rearrangement which ... Show more
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To achieve this goal, Green Chemistry focuses specifically on preventing waste, designing safer chemicals and synthetic methods, and saving energy
and money.4 This research of azole synthesis is a study incorporating these practices of green chemistry, consequently improving the current synthesis
method for pharmaceutical production. The benefits of Green Chemistry are countless. From an economic point of view, businesses can save large
amounts of money by eliminating the costly efforts of excessive pollutant prevention. Also, increasing efficiency of materials used and improving the
yields of reactions is minimizing the cost of materials for production. Using organic solvents along with reducing pollution creates a safer environment
for workers and enhances public safety. 4 Therefore, these improvements are very important and should be included in the current synthetic methods
used in industries today. Forming C–C bonds at the C2 of azoles is a necessary step in the beginning of the current azole synthesis method which
generally requires using strong bases, low temperatures, and/or expensive, toxic precious metal catalysts.5,6,7 By substituting these issues with organic
solvents, ambient temperature, and weaker bases, a synthesis method better suited for pharmaceutical industries is created.
Background Even though previous methods of azole synthesis have

Alka Seltzer Experiment Lab Report
The scientist's topic reveals around temperature. The scientist trying to figure out which temperature has the fastest reaction time. The independent
variable for this experiment is the different temperatures being used, the dependent variable is the reaction time for the Alka–Seltzer tablets. The
scientist hypothesis is if reaction time is related to temperature, then placing Alka–Seltzer tablets in hot water will cause it to react faster the other
temperatures involved. The scientist will place Alka–Seltzer tablets into water and see which temperature has the fastest reaction time. This experiment
has been done many times just simply in different forms. These scientists first began by researching about what temperature would increase or decrease
the reaction rate. One of the sources state "Particles can only react when they collide" which shows in order for energy to be activated heat must be
applied.So because of the disproportionately large increase in the number of high energy collisions, increasing the temperature increases reaction rate.
The important words and concepts related to the scientist's experiment and their deffinitions are: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Alka–Seltzer–an effervescent antacid and pain reliever first marketed by the Dr. Miles Medicine Company of Elkhart, Indiana. It was developed by
head chemist Maurice Treneer. sodium bicarbonate– chemical compound with the formula NaHCOв‚ѓ. It is a salt composed of sodium ions and
bicarbonate ions. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder.
Molecule– a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical

Benzoin
Benzoin has a secondary alcohol as well as a ketone functional group which is oxidized into benzil with nitric acid. Oxidation of alpha–hydroxyketone
occurs to form alpha–diketone. Hydroxyl group adds as a nucleophile on the carbonyl carbon of alcohol with nitric acid to form organic nitrate. Nitric
acid is protonated to form benzil. Rearrangement of alpha–diketone benzil occurs. Hence, the addition of potassium hydroxide to benzil yields a
carboxylic salt. Hydrochloric acid added to the potassium benzilate produces the final product of benzilic acid. The yellow color of the crystals
determined that benzil was formed. The melting point of benzil is 94–96п‚°C (ChemSpider). However, the melting point achieved was 86п‚°C, as seen
in Table 3. It was a narrow melting point range, thus indicating that benzil had impurities, such as solvent or reactant. Benzilic acid has a melting point
of 148–152п‚°C (ChemSpider). As seen in Table 4, benzilic acid had a melting point of 145.4п‚°C. Benzilic acid also contains solvent or reactant
impurities. The overall yield is computed by multiplying the pure, crude, and benzilic acid. The effect of low overall yield, hence indicates that the
reaction was not successful.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An error in the experiment was the low percent yield, which states that impurities occurred. Therefore, if the reaction time was increased there would
not be as much excess reactant. Another improvement would be to decrease the proportion of ethanol, which would increase the amount of crystal
formation. Although, the impurities will be the same, the yield will be higher. Allowing more time for the reaction mixture to cool would be beneficial
because the crystals would not be formed immediately but over a period of time. Another improvement may be to increase drying time because the low
percent yield may indicate that the crystals were still

Decomposition Of Nahco3
The guiding question for the ADI lab was, "Which balanced chemical equation best represents the thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate?" The
goal of the lab was to determine which one, of the four given, chemical equations best represents how atoms are rearranged during the thermal
decomposition of the compound (NaHCO3). The atomic theory states that a chemical reaction is the rearrangement of atoms with no atoms being
destroyed and no new atoms being produced during the process. Since that is true it helps to explains The Law of conservation of mass, which states
that mass is conserved during a chemical reaction. The goal of this observational lab was achieved by conducting and observing an experiment. Before
beginning, some dimensional analysis was done to each of the four given equations (Table 1). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The experiment started by measuring 2 grams (1 вЃ„42 of a mole) of the solid substance, NaHCO3, in a crucible (10.4 grams including crucible) and
then placing it on a pipe–stem triangle over a bunsen burner. The substance was left over the bunsen burner for a total of 13 minutes. In those minutes
observations were made, like a gas releasing from the crucible. After those timed minutes, the burner was turned off and the crucible, with the
remaining substance still left inside, was left on the pipe–stem triangle to cool. After seven minutes of cooling the crucible was then remeasured, on a
scale, and weighed 1.2 g of NaHCO3 (9.6 grams including crucible). With this it was determined that the second potential explanation best represented
the thermal decomposition of sodium

The Importance Of Chemical Interaction
Kinetics is essentially the study of reaction rates and how they can be affected. Factors such as concentration, pressure, temperature, and enzyme
activity, are commonly tested regarding their impact on the rate of a reaction (Khan Academy, 2017). It is important to recognise and understand the
components that affect the rate of chemical reactions as this allows control over the reaction process. Chemical reactions progress naturally at different
rates. Achemical reaction involves the rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of substances as they change into other substances by the
breaking of bonds in reactants and the formation of bonds in products (Wilbraham, 2002). Collision theory can be used to explain why chemical
reactions proceed at different rates. Collision Theory states that atoms, ions and molecules must collide in order for a reaction to proceed and form
products (Stubbings, 2017). Thus, the higher frequency of successful collisions, the faster the reaction rate will be. Kinetic theory states that particles
of matter are in constant motion thus, kinetic energy is the energy acquired as a result of an object's motion (Wilbraham, 2002). In order for collisions
to be successful however the molecules must acquire a minimum amount of kinetic energy called their activation energy and they must collide at a
precise orientation. The rate of reaction can be modified with the appropriate knowledge and understandings of the factors affecting the collisions of

Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction Of A Chemical...
consumed. They have the ability to increase the rate of reaction in a chemical reaction. Catalysts achieve this by lowering the amount of energy
required for a reaction to take place, which means that it occurs at a quicker rate. Potentially, molecules that would once have taken years to interact,
can take seconds with the addition of a catalyst. The overall purpose of a catalyst is to ensure that reactions proceed effectively which is why a range
of catalysts are commonly used in many elements of society. Common examples of where catalysts are used include; plastics, clean energy, converting
energy sources to fuels, digestion and pharmaceuticals (Hamers, 2017).
1.2Types of Catalysts
Whilst all catalysts do the same thing, there are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is extremely dependent on the way in which molecules combine. When the molecules of a system combine slowly, the reaction tends to have a slow
reaction rate. Likewise, when molecules combine quickly, the reaction rate is said to be fast. The reaction rate in a system is known as the change in
concentration of the products per unit time and can be denoted using the following equation:
Reaction Rate= (в€† Concentration)/(в€† Time)
(Chemistry LibreTexts, 2016)
Many factors that affect the reaction rate in a system include pressure, temperature, activation energy and concentration. The temperature of a system
particularly affects the rate at which a reaction happens. Temperature is a form of kinetic energy and with the addition of energy; more collisions
occurs which increases the likelihood that the reactants will exceed the activation barrier. This is similar to the collision theory, as discuss below.
1.5Collision Theory
Reaction rate also directly relates the well–known theorem of collision theory. In order for a chemical reaction to occur, the reactant particles of a
system must collide. However, collisions with too little energy are not likely to produce a reaction. The collision theory states that as more collisions in
a system occur, there will be more combinations of molecules interacting with each other. The potential combinations result in a higher chance that the
reaction will take place and hence, the

RDA Fragmentation Research
Still another example showing a RDA fragmentation phenomenon is the mass spectrum of 5,7dihydroxy –4– methoxyisoflavanone.
(C16 H14 O5 M 286)
In this molecular ion cleavage occur through RDA reaction. In the ionization process ene and diene with charges are formed. The base peak is at m/z
134, is due to the ene and the diene is at m/z 152, these fractions favor the fallowing mechanism, with the dissociation of ring present in the compound.
From the study of mass spectrum of Isoflavanone, masses and structures of the fragments ene, and diene can be ascertained, and from this the structure
of compound can be determined. The position of substituent on the ring, can be determined by preparing the derivatives and studying the mass
spectrum of these derivatives with a known substituent in the fragment ene ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These substances show a RDA cleavage–phenomenon in their mass spectrum, and through this their structure and molecular formula are determined.
THE MacLofferty REARRANGMENT FRAGMENTATION PROCESS
Basically the hetero atom, or functional group in a molecule facilitate the fragmentation, and it is expressed with О±–cleavage. In MacLofferty
rearrangement the essential feature is the double bond, with or without heteroatom, with a Оі–hydrogen. This type of arrangement is commonly
encountered in the compounds, with C–(carboxylic acid, esters, aldehydes ketones, amides, lactams, lactones) compounds with C=N (azomethines, or
shiffs base, hydrazones, oximes, semicarbazones) compounds with S=O, (sulfonic acid esters) and compounds with C=C (alkylarene, alkylhetero
cycles, benzyl ethers, olefene).
In MacLafferty cleavage, H–atom at Оі–position to double bond, transfer to double bond via six–member ring formation, and simultaneously double
bond moves in between the adjacent atoms, and a part of molecule fragment detach from the molecule, the mechanism of fragmentation is as

Specific Heat Of Calorimeter Lab Report
John Yu
Meyer
AP Chem
9 October, 2016
In this experiment, hot water was mixed with room temperature water in a calorimeter to calculate the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter. The
specific heat of the calorimeter was then used to find the enthalpy of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, ammonia and hydrochloric acid, and
ammonium chloride and sodium hydroxide by mixing each, respectively, into the beaker after each other. The beaker was washed with distilled water
after each reaction. The enthalpy of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid and ammonia and hydrochloric acid were subtracted together to calculate
the enthalpy of ammonium chloride and sodium hydroxide to prove Hess' Law.
The lab errors that occurred in this lab would be the heat escaping while the reactants were being added to the calorimeter because there is an opening
and way for the heat to escape in that moment. This caused the reaction to lose heat and energy to the lab and cause the reaction to report less energy
than there should be. Also, some of the heat was lost from the calorimeter because no perfect calorimeter can exist. This caused the reaction to lose
energy as well. The reactants have not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This lab observed the Law of Energy Conservation that all the energy in the reactions was from the reactants breaking and forming new bonds. The
Law of Energy Conservation was also observed when the energy lost as heat from the beaker was found in the calorimeter. In the calculations, Hess'
Law was tested and proved with adding the enthalpies of reaction two and three equalling the enthalpy of reaction one. This lab also observed
endothermic reactions through neutralization and the forming of salts. Thermal equilibrium was observed temperature stabilizing in the calorimeter with
the mixing of hot and cold water. Since the reactions were giving off heat, the enthalpy of the reactions were negative and the reactions are product

Law Of Gratitude Essay
8.The Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude plays out similar to the Law of Cause and Effect or the natural principle of action and reaction. As we
look at the law itself, when we express thankfulness to the God Force for that which we have "received" (even though it is still in the unseen), it is an
expenditure of force, therefore our gratitude cannot fail to reach God, and when it does the reaction is an instantaneous move toward you. Consider
two properly aligned magnets. They are two forces moving in opposite directions while moving toward one another. Gratitude draws you and the
Creative Force, God, directly toward each other. If our gratitude is strong enough and consistent then there will always be a move of that which we are
co–creating toward us. When the God Force moves toward us it brings all that it is. The Law of Gratitude also dictates that if our heart is not full of
gratitude, then something else will take its place. Physics teaches that nature will not tolerate a vacuum. That is to say that if something is removed
then something else must take its place. If our hearts are not filled with gratitude, then our hearts will be filled with ungratefulness. An ungrateful heart
will take you from what you want as rapidly as a grateful heart will take you toward what you want. The Law of Gratitude nourishes our faith, because
as a grateful heart and mind continually expects good things, expectation becomes faith. This faith then, becomes both the cornerstone and the capstone
of what it is we are building which comes only from our Universal Supplier, God. Gratitude toward God has the power ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The eight Universal Laws that I feel you should at least be aware of that take a role in the process of co–creation or what we like to call manifesting. I
do realize that they do have a similarity to one another and in some respects, one produces the other and so on but it is after all about harmony and
balance don't you

Apothecary: What Is A Projectile?
So what exactly is a projectile? A projectile is any object propelled with massive amounts of force acting upon it. For example, a fire arm is
considered a projectile, because the bullet has a small explosive charge, then that cause a chain of reaction. The powder in the cartage lights and creates
gas and that pushes force on to the bullet tip or full metal jacket, and the pressure propels the bullet at the intended target. The thing is that the force of
the bullet recoils the gun, showing Newton's third law of motion (action and reaction). Another thing portaging to this experiment is the chemical
reactions do to lighting of the match. And a chemical reaction is a process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of ... Show
''Some Chinese scholars speculate that the invention was made in 577AD by women of the Northern Qi, who were unable to leave the confines of
their city to search for tinder, because it was under siege by the Northern Zhou and Chen.'' ''In 1826, John Walker, an apothecary in Stockton
–on–Tees,
conducting an experiment in his laboratory, stirred a mixture antimony sulfide, potassium chlorate, gum, and starch with a wooden stick, and
subsequently scraped the stick on the stone floor of the lab to remove a glob of the solution that had dried on the end of it. When the stick burst into
flames, Walker realized he had created something of interest, and made several of the sticks, which he demonstrated for the amusement of friends and
colleagues. One of the observers at a demonstration in London was Samuel Jones. Jones realized the invention's commercial potential, set up a match
business in London, and cleverly named his product "Lucifer's." The term persisted as slang in the 20th Century. Lucifer's caught on, and following
their introduction in London, tobacco smoking of all kinds greatly increased. However the Lucifer's were unpredictable, often giving off violent bursts
of flame, and emitted an extremely noxious odor of sulfur. Boxes of Lucifer have carried a printed warning: "persons whose lungs are delicate should
by no means use

Pericyclic Reaction Lab Report
Received 00th January 20xx,
Accepted 00th January 20xx
DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x www.rsc.org/ Pericyclic Rearrangements
A. N. Authorname,a A. N. Authornameb and A. N. Authornamec
Abstract text goes here. The abstract should be a single paragraph that summarises the content of the article
Introduction
Pericyclic reactions is a concerted rearrangement of the electrons with a cyclic transition state, which cause sigma and ПЂ–bonds to simultaneously
break and form. There are numerous examples of both unimolecular and bimolecular concerted reactions. Pericyclic reactions are usually
rearrangement reactions. We discuss several categories of concerted pericyclic reactions, including Diels Alder and other cycloaddition reactions,
electrocyclic reactions, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, heating of (2E,4E)–2,4–hexadiene leads to the formation of a cyclobutene with trans methyl groups, whereas cyclization with light forms
a cyclobutene with cis methyl groups (Scheme 4). Scheme 4
For more understanding of this stereoselectivity the HOMO (High Occupied Molecular Orbital) of the acyclic conjugated polyene should be
considered. Also, the investigation of the p orbitals on the terminal carbons of the HOMO determine the orientation of the orbitals that the like phases
are on the same side or on opposite sides of the molecule (Figure 1). Figure 1
In general, electrocyclic rearrangement occurs only when like phases of orbitals overlap and form a bond. Two methods are possible for orbitals
rotation. When like phases of the p orbitals are on the same side of the molecule, the two orbitals must rotate in opposite directions, one clockwise and
one counterclockwise. Rotation in opposite directions is said to be disrotatory. When like phases of the p orbitals are on opposite sides of the
molecule, the two orbitals must rotate in the same direction, both clockwise or both counterclockwise. Rotation in the same direction is said to be
conrotatory (Figure

The Magic Growing Capsules
Our project is testing how various liquids affect the growing rates and growth of Magic Growing Capsules. We were inspired to perform this
experiment because we had done a similar experiment in 6th grade science class working with growing capsules, and we were curious to find out
more about how the substance affects the speed at which the capsules grow. The Magic Growing Capsules are made of a large polymer, which is a
substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or entirely of a large number of similar units bonded together. When the capsule is
submerged in water, the polymer expands, causing the capsule to turn into a sponge animal. To better our understanding before we began
experimentation, we researched and defined certain

The Reaction Of The Alcohols
The alcohols 1–propanol and 2–pentanol were converted into alkyl halides through a certain series of steps. The first step was reflux, and the purpose
of reflux is to add energy to the solution and not lose any solution to evaporation. This energy helps initiate the acid–catalyzed dehydration reaction and
also promotes rearrangement. The next step was distillation, which functioned to separate liquids based on boiling points. The distillation utilizes
boiling points to separate the alkyl halide products from many impurities that might exist. Reflux is the first step instead of distillation because
refluxing allows the reaction to progress. If distillation was performed first, separation would begin before the reaction was allowed time to ... Show
For example, since the voltage adapter connected to the sand bath may not have been working properly, inconsistent heating patterns could have
proposed a problem during reflux. Also, a few extra drops of water may have invaded the product while the flask was cooling in the ice bath during
distillation. Furthermore, it is possible that not all of the organic layer was drained out of the separatory funnel during separation, and maybe the
drying agent was not allowed enough time to remove all of the water. Errors will always hinder the success of a reaction, which will greatly effect the
percent yield.
Infrared spectroscopy (IR) is a very useful tool that can read a molecule's functional groups from a small sample. By monitoring the disappearance
and appearance of certain groups, it is possible to confirm wether compounds have formed. In this experiment, for example, the reactants are alcohols,
whose IRs will show a large and broad absorption around 3500 cm–1. These hydroxide groups are eventually replaced during the reactions, and the
final products will not contain any hydroxides. Therefore, the IR of the products will not show the large and broad hydroxide absorption. Monitoring
the disappearance of the hydroxide stretch will allow the reaction progression to be monitored also. The complete disappearance of this stretch will
confirm that a new product has been formed. However, IR

Hydrazone Reaction Lab Report
The lines in Figures 6 (A) to 6 (F) indicate predicted values, using fitted rate constants for the reaction. The rate constant valueswere found to increase
as expected as the temperature was increased. The activation energies were determined from the temperature dependency of the rate constants to be
831, 2494, 3076 and 2660 J/molfor hydrazone, tryptophol, cinnoline derivative, and polyindole formation, respectively(Table 2). The values indicate the
amount of energy required to cross the energy barrier so that,the reaction can takes place. The activation energy for hydrazone formation is low(Table
2) indicating that, the reaction takes place at lower temperatures buttheactivation energy barrier is higherfor tryptophol formation. This indicate that the
temperature of the reaction mixture should be higher for the sigma–tropic rearrangement reaction, but further increasing temperature also leads to side
product formation such as polyindole and cinnoline derivative, which are still higher activation energy reactions. Thus, by conducting the reaction at
higher temperatures allows the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the current work, the surface tovolume ratio was commissionedat1mm–1. As a result of the enhanced surfacetovolume ratio, the temperature
difference between the reaction mixture passing through the reactor and reactor wall was insignificant.17Thisbetter heat transfer characteristicresults in
effective cyclization of hydrazone to tryptophol in shorter reaction time. The structures of indole moiety present in many drug molecules that are
widely synthesized in the pharmaceutical industry are more complex, and one could expect a vast number of intermediates and corresponding reaction
products. However, the typical approachshouldremain similar and can beused in developingproperkinetic models for other indoles as

Ring Contraction Of A Ring
RING CONTRACTION
All the carbons of a ring are equivalent (a ring has no ends like an open–chain compound does),1 ring compounds can be classified as either
monocyclic or polycyclic compounds.
As the word "contraction" means shrinking, ring contraction can be defined as the process of shrinking larger ring compounds which are less strained
into a more strained smaller ring structures. Instead of making small strained ring by chemical reaction which is very strenuous to do, ring contraction
is a process of easing the stress of forming smaller strained ring on their own.
A ring contraction reaction is a type of organic reaction in which usually a hydrocarbon ring is reduced in size.2 Ring contraction reactions are an
important method to increase molecular complexity in a single step, because, in many cases, the reorganization of the bonds occurs with a high level of
selectivity, affording products not easily accessible by other synthetic approaches.2. and 3.
The smallest ring compound possible is cyclopropane, this is so because we need at least three carbon atoms to form a ring structure. Cyclopropane is
the most strained ring compound due to the fact that its carbon atoms are sp3 hybridized, sp3 carbon have an angle of 1090, but the carbon atoms in
cyclopropane are strained in an angle of 600. Scheme 1: Mechanism of a typical ring contraction
METHODS FOR RING CONTRACTION
Ring contraction occurs through rearrangement of carbon atoms to form a smaller ring structure. Two

Lab Report On The Dehydration Reaction Of 2...
DEHYDRATION OF METHYLCYCLOHEXANOLS
Nicholas Van Horssen
CHMY 321
TA: Michael Giroux
10/31/17
Introduction: The purpose of this lab was to carry out a dehydration reaction of 2–methylcyclohexanol by heating it in the presence of phosphoric acid
and determining which alkene product would be the major product. Methylcyclohexanols were dehydrated in an 85% phosphoric acid mixture to yield
the minor and major alkene product by elimination reaction, specifically E1. The alkenes were distilled to separate the major and minor products and
gas chromatography was used to analyze the results and accuracy of the experiment. The hypothesis was the major product of the reaction would be the
most substituted product. This conclusion was made because of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Distillation of the first product began at 83 В°C. A Pasteur pipette was used to remove 1–ml of the distillate into a vial. A second vial was filled with
distillate until it reached 1–ml. As the second vial is being filled, observe the temperature and remove the apparatus from the heat source if there is an
observed drop in temperature. Once the distillate had been collected into two separate vials, both distillates were washed with aqueous sodium
bicarbonate (1.5–ml, 5%). The aqueous layer (lower) was extracted from both vials using a pipette and put into a chemical waste bin. The organic
(alkene) layer was then dried with anhydrous calcium chloride pellets (3 pellets per vial). Both distillates were analyzed using gas chromatography,
and each peak shown was identified to be one of the alkenes. Analysis of the graph was used to determine the major and minor products of the reaction.
Results: M.W. (g/mol)Boiling point (В°C)Density (g/mL)
2–methylcyclohexanol114.21660.930
Phosphoric Acid (85%)98.0–1.70
1–methylcyclohexene96.21100.813
3–methylcyclohexene96.21040.801
Table 1: Properties of the reagents and possible products for the reaction. The boiling point of Phosphoric acid is not important because it is a reagent.
Figure 2: Gas Chromatography analysis from the first sample. From top to bottom the peaks are ordered as followed: 3–methylcyclohexanol (A),
1–methylcyclohexanol (B), and 2–methylcyclohexanol

Organic Solvents : A New Approach For Organic Synthesis
"ON WATER" REACTIONS: A NEW APPROACH FOR ORGANIC SYNTHESIS
Technically, water is considered as the universal solvent in Nature. However, the prevalent notion among today's chemists is that water is often
forgotten in organic synthesis; many considerations are taken in the process of selecting solvents, reagents, and conditions which are water–free. In
addition to the obvious problem that concerns about the surrounding water–sensitive reactants, the main problem is solubility which is the requirement
for reactions to occur, and it is a justification for the use of many organic solvents at the exclusion of anything else in organic synthesis. Nevertheless,
many living biochemical reactions mostly happen in an aqueous medium. The concern about environment and safety is another reason that has flamed
up the interest in Green Chemistry, which prompted more researches into alternatives to traditional organic solvents. Therefore, water is a very
promising candidate for the future choice of solvent as it is cheap, reusable, nonvolatile and safe to handling of exothermic or heat–releasing reactions.
Even though water has many advantages in organic synthesis, the low solubility of organics reagents has prevented the expanding utilization of water
as a standard solvent.
In the past, water was not quite a common choice in the process of organic synthesis. However, one of the earliest experiments that took advantages of
water as solvent was Wohler's urea synthesis in 1828, as well as

Dicumarol Reaction Lab Report
The reaction is rapid (less than 15 seconds stirring time) employing commercially available reactants and the interfacial reaction system that is
currently employed in the synthesis of aromatic amides and polycarbonates. Thus, the process can employed in the production of grams to tons of
product. Product yields are high, all above 90%, with the exception of the dioctyltin product. It is possible that the extended chain length of the octyl
moiety inhibits rapid close contact of the reactants resulting is decreased yield. It is instructive to remember that the active form of the dicumarol is
the form as shown in Figure 2 since strong base, NaOH, is added forming the deprotonation of the aromatic hydroxide groups of the dicumarol. Table
1 also contains the average chain lengths for each of the products. The products are low to medium polymers with chain length ranging from 36 to 370
repeat units. There appears to be no trend with... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The dioctyltin product shows the lowest yield yet the highest chain length. The shortest alkyltin chain length, the dimethyltin, shows the next greatest
chain length. The lack of specific trends is not unexpected since the reaction is complex and chain length and yield probably depend on a number of
factors including solubility in each phase, rapidity that the reactants enter the reaction zone, and product solubility since the products are collected as
precipitates from the reaction system. Infrared Spectroscopy Infrared spectral analysis was carried out for all of the samples over the range of
4000–650 cm–1. All band locations are given cm–1. Infrared spectral analysis is consistent with the proposed structure and with other reported analyses
[11–24]. The spectra all show bands characteristic of both reactants and new bands for the product assigned to the

Substitution And Elimination Reaction Lab Report
Substitution and Elimination Reactions Substitution reactions replace a functional group with a new group. These reactions compete with elimination
reactions in which a group is eliminated and a ПЂ (pi) bond is formed. Substitution reactions occur when a nucleophile is added to an electrophile
/substrate. Elimination reactions occur when a base is added to an electrophile/substrate. The electrophile must contain a leaving group to be
considered a substrate. Alkyl Halides Alkyl Halides are the common substrate used in substitution and elimination reactions. Alkyl Halides are halogen
containing alkane compounds. These compounds are commonly used as the electrophile in substitution reactions. Naming Alkyl Halides is similar to
naming alkanes. Halogen substituents are named just like alkane substituents, for example if there is a chlorine attached to an ethane the chlorine
substituent will be named using the word chloro–. The other halogens are named using the words flouro–, bromo–, and iodo– respectively. These
possible substituents are listed alphabetically along with the alkane substituents. When dealing with alkyl halides it is important to note that the
carbons attached to the halogens and the carbons attached to those carbons are involved in the reaction process, therefore we designate these carbons
with special symbols to differentiate them from the rest of the molecule. The carbon atom that is bonded to the halogen is designated the О± (alpha)
carbon. The carbons that are

Part a: Dehydration of 1-Butanol & 2-Butanol/Part B:...
Ashley Droddy
CHM 235LL–Monday, 3/19/2012 & 3/26/2012
Part A: Dehydration of 1–butanol & 2–Butanol/Part B: Dehydrobromination of 1–Bromobutane & 2–Bromobutane
Abstract
The objective of this experiment is to successfully perform a dehydration of 1–butanol and 2–butanol, also dehydrobromination of 1–bromobutane and
2–bromobutane to form the alkene products 1–butene, trans–2–butene, and cis–2–butene. The dehydration reactions react under and acid–catalysis
which follows an E1 mechanism. It was found that dehydration of 1–butanol yielded 3.84% cis–2–butene, 81.83% trans–2–butene, and 14.33%
1–butene, while 2–butanol is unknown due to mechanical issues with the GC machine. For the dehydrobromination, with the addition of a ... Show
That the more stable alkene trans–2–butene, is the major product at approximately 82%. While, the two minor products would be 1–butene at 14%, and
cis–2–butene at only approximately 4%.
Although, dehydration was not performed on 2–butanol, it would also produce the 3 isomeric alkenes like 1–butanol via an E2 mechanism. The
percentages would probably be very similar as well. With trans–2–butene, being the major product, and cis–2–butene and 1–butene being minor
products as well. The GC results would appear again very similar to 1–butanol with 3 peaks representing the 3 alkenes produced, however, 2–butanol
has a lower BP, so it takes longer to react and produce gaseous mixture because it is a secondaryalcohol.
Part B: Dehydrobromination of 1–bromobutane & 2–bromobutane Compound| Temperature (вЃ°C)| Products| Peak Area(mm2)| % Composition|
1–bromobutane| 90| Trans–2–butene| –––––| ––––| | | Cis–2–butene| –––––| ––––| | | 1–butene| 17500| 100| 2–bromobutane| 80| Trans–2–butene| 2469|
49.95| | | Cis–2–butene| 3336| 13.09| | | 1–butene| 8741| 36.97|
–(GC) Calculations for relative amount of products:
1–bromobutane:
Total peak area=17500 mm2
17500 mm2/17500 mm2x100%=100%, 1–butene
2–Bromobutane:
Total peak area=6679mm2
2469 mm2/6679 mm2x100%=36.97%, 1–butene

3336 mm2/6679 mm2x100%–=49.95% trans–2–butene
8741 mm2/6679 mm2x100%=13.09% cis–2–butene
1–bromobutane with a strong base reacts

Millier Reaction Lab Report
Figure 2: Sample Millard reaction (image from "Why Foods Brown")
From there the N–Glycosylamine undergoes Amadori rearrangement, acid or base catalyzed isomerization, to become ketosamines ("Maillard
Reactions"). The resulting ketosamines can then react with each other to form cyclic structures. These reactions are very complex, relying on
temperature, pH, the exact proteins and sugars involved, and many other factors (Fox). Temperature is one of the most important since the higher
temperatures increase the rate of the reaction as well as accelerate the evaporation of the water the process generates (Myhrvold), meaning that this
reaction is endothermic. The exact reactions are hard to control, which is why every batch of cookies turn out a little differently. The products of these
reactions can also react with each other leading to even more diversified and complex taste and smells. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This process is a type of pyrolysis, which is the decomposition of an organic material though exposure to high temperatures that does not involve
reactions with oxygen, water or other reagents ("Caramelization"). The oxidized sugars create long chains of polymers. While these reactions are very
complex, they are very clearly temperature driven. The thermodynamics of both Maillard reactions and caramelization will still follow the trend of all
the other cooking reactions. The heat does not contribute to a phase change, although that is what it looks like, especially in the case of caramelization,
but rather to making certain chemical reactions that more thermodynamically favorable. Ultimately, these series of reactions must minimize the Gibbs
free energy in this scenario and the cookie will spontaneously reach this state of

Bozeman Science: Exothermic And A
The term MRE stands for "Meal, Ready to Eat", its created for people who can't start fire to cook and it is an instant meal, so it benefits the armies and
campers. These kind of meals uses a chemical reaction such as exothermic reaction to heat up the food. An exothermic reaction causes the temperature
outside goes up because it passes on energy to the objects around. However, the temperature outside goes down due to an endothermic reaction because
it takes in energy from the object around. As a result of these reaction an exothermic reaction is use instead of an endothermic reaction, because
exothermic reaction causes the surroundings to heat up and yet endothermic reaction takes in the energy such as heat from the surroundings and for this
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
–When was it written?The credentials are Mr. Kent's Chemistry Page: Endothermic and Exothermic Process and Bozeman Science: Endothermic and
Exothermic Reactions. The Bozeman Science: Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction was created in 25 September 2013, however, the other source
doesn't have a written date on the website. This source is reliable, because the author is a teacher has studied for many years and she had evidence to
back up. Utility (Usefulness) –Which focus questions does this information help answer? –How user–friendly is the source? –How technical is the
language? –Does it contain useful graphics/images?This information has massively help to answer by explain the difference between endothermic and
exothermic in common language which also helped me know why an exothermic reaction can be used to heat food but an endothermic reaction cannot.
Although these include common language, it also has these scientific such as endothermic, exothermic and chemical bonds, but it doesn't contain
graphs or

What Are The Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction

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What Are The Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction