Tài liệu cắt may nước ngoài 1

1. DRAFT July 2009

2. DRAFT July 2009
Content Page
5.1 Garment Ease and Fitting 1
5.1.1 Garment Ease 1
5.1.2 Garment Fitting 3
5.2 Pattern construction 7
5.2.1 Measurement and Sizing 7
5.2.2 Methods of Pattern Construction 13
5.2.3 Individual and Commercial Pattern Construction
Process
21
5.3 Garment Construction 23
5.3.1 Construction of Garment Parts 23
5.3.2 Trimmings and Fastenings 58
5.4 Industrial Technologies 69
5.4.1 Industrial Sewing Machine 69
5.4.2 Laser Technology 72
5.4.3 Automatic Data Collection System 75

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5.1 Garment Ease and Fitting
5.1.1 Garment Ease
Garments require adequate ease to provide and allow room for movement. Ease is the
extra allowance added on the body measurement in pattern construction. Ease is
different between garment measurement and body measurement. The exact
dimensions of the body are without any addition room for comfort or movement.
There are two types of ease: Wearing Ease and Design Ease. The measurement of a
garment should consider the measurement of the wearer’s body, wearing ease and
design ease.
Body
Measurement
+
Wearing
Ease
+
Design
Ease
=
Fashion Style
or Silhouette
Figure 5.1 The sizing design of a fashion garment
Wearing ease Design ease
Figure 5.2 Wearing ease – to show the basic ease on the dress for allowing the
body to move comfortable. Design ease – extra ease to add into the dress by the
designer to change the silhouette.

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(A) Wearing Ease
Wearing ease (comfort ease or fitting ease) must be required in all garments for body
movement. Without wearing ease, wearers will feel uncomfortable. Garments appear
tight and wrinkled and wear out more quickly from the strain on seams and fabric.
The major factors that affect wearing ease are (a) body movement, (b) fabric
characteristics, (c) style of the garment and (d) customer preferences.
(i) Body Movement
Too little ease may restrict body movement and stress fabric but too much wearing
ease may affect appearance of the garment.
Example for movement:
The hip shape changes shape as we walk or sit down. Therefore ‘ease' must be added
to the hip measurement (girth) and in the area from hip to waist (length), especially for
trousers.
Example for expansion:
The rib cage must expand when we breath therefore 'ease' is added to the chest /bust
measurement (girth) and in the area from bust to waist (length).
(ii) Fabric Characteristic
Rigid fabrics are hard and stiff. They require more wearing ease than stretch fabrics.
Stretch fabrics may require less comfort allowances.
Fabric Characteristic Wearing Ease
Stretch Fabric:
- Knitted fabric (e.g. jersey, rib)
- Woven fabric with lycra
- Depend on the style of garment and fabric
stretchability
- Negative ease to be added to skin-fitted
swimwear or Tee-shirt
Rigid Fabric :
- Woven fabric (e.g. denim, twill)
- Must add ease allowance for body
movement
Figure 5.3 Relationship between fabric characteristics and wearing ease

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(iii) Style of the garment
Some garment requires additional amounts of ease beyond the minimum requirement,
depending on the specified style and intended use. In sportswear or maternity wear,
the garments are worn for a specific purpose and 'ease' must be added to allow
wearers to do certain actions such as a football uniform requires more wearing ease for
running and kicking the ball in the match.
(iv) Wearer Preferences
The amount of ease added to a pattern will affect both the fitness and silhouette of the
finished garment.
(B) Design Ease
Design ease is extra style fullness added to wearing ease. It is added straightly for the
sake of appearance, giving a garment its “style” to attract customers. The amount of
design ease in a garment depends on current fashion trends and the desired style of
the garment. Oversized or undersized garments are made by adopting design ease.
(C) Amount of Ease
The amount of ease added to a pattern will affect both the fit and silhouette of the
finished garment. The basic ease allowances are suggested in the following table and
are intended for pattern construction.
Type of Garment Chest/Bust Ease Allowance
Shirt /Blouse 10~14 cm
Jacket 16~24 cm
Coat 20~28 cm
Figure 5.4 Example of chest/bust ease allowance for different types of garment
5.1.2 Garment Fitting
Garment Fitting is how well the garment conforms to the wearer’s body. It is influenced
by fashion trends, personal preferences, the usage and the function of the garment.

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Five elements are used to evaluate the fitness of the garment. They are grain, set,
balance, line and ease.
(A) Grain
Garments must be cut on grain. The lengthwise grain of the fabric must run parallel to
the length of the body and the crosswise grain must run perpendicular to the body.
Otherwise, garments will not hang straight. The seamlines may twist.
(B) Set
The garment with good set will be worn smoothly on the wearer’s body without any set
wrinkles. Set wrinkles are always found on the oversize or undersize garments.
(C) Balance
The good garment must look symmetrically balance at the front or back view. The
centre lines of the garment and the body must be aligned. Unbalanced garments worn
unevenly on wearers will show poor postures.
(D) Line
The structural lines of the good garments must follow the natural lines of wearers.
Out-of-line garments will show poor postures and wearers will not feel comfortable.
(E) Ease
Ease refers to the amount of roominess in a garment. Garments require adequate ease
to provide sufficient room for body movement and show the designed style. Lack of
ease will effect the movement of wearers.

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Figure 5.5 Wrinkles and folds indicate fit problems
A good finished garment is sewn by many good fabric pieces. Fabric pieces are
interrelated closely and must be produced from a carefully-made pattern. The pattern
pieces must fit together and each pattern piece must be carefully checked so that the
bodice front must fit to the bodice back, the collar must fit the neckline, the sleeve must
fit the armhole, etc.
When the garment sample is completed, it should be checked carefully on each
detailed points such as seams, darts, roll of the collar and general proportions. It should
then be tested the ease distribution on a live human model for movement comfortability.
Tense: horizontal wrinkles = too tight Loose: vertical folds=too loose
Skirts too tight
through hips
Jacket too tight
through shoulders
Sleeve too loose Jacket too loose
through torso
Loose: horizontal
folds = too long
Tense: vertical
wrinkles = too short
Diagonal wrinkles point to body bulges
Bodice too long at
waist
Pants too short in
crotch
Bodice too tight
across bust
Pants too tight
across abdomen

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When judging garment fit is judged, the garment should have a smooth look, without
pulls or wrinkles, no sagging or baggy areas. After the garment sample has passed all
these tests, the pattern can be identified as a good pattern.

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5.2 Pattern Construction
The clothing pattern are used as a guide for cutting the fabric, which when sewn
together forms a wearable garment.
Figure 5.6 The role of clothing pattern in garment making
5.2.1 Measurement and Sizing
(A) Body Measurement
Body measurements are important for pattern construction. The accuracy will directly
affect the fitness, function and comfortable of the garment. There are two methods to
obtain body measurement:
Direct body measurement
Three- dimensional scanner
(i) Direct Measurement
This is a kind of traditional manual measuring method. This method is measured the
dimension of human bodies by using a measuring tape. In taking measurements, they
should be taken in an order, in particular, the girth measurements should be taken from
the upper one and then downward to the lower positions, and no allowance should be
included. It requires a high degree of skill, rich experience and is time-consuming.
Design Sketch Clothing Pattern
Clothing Product
by Tailor-making or
Mass Production

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Figure 5.7 Body measurement positions on the female figure

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Figure 5.8 Body measurement positions on the male figure
Figure 5.9 Body measurement positions on the child figure

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(ii) Three-dimensional Scanner
The latest measuring techniques use high accuracy electronic equipments such as
three-dimensional scanners and computers to store and analyse data. The body must
dress the tight-fitted clothing and stand inside the scanning chamber. The laser beams
will scan on the body and send the data to a computer for analysis and form a
three-dimensional image.
A dressing-room size scanner Yellow lines illustrate measurement points
of 3D body scan
Figure 5.10 Measurement taken by a three-dimensional body scanner and style
selection for made-to-measure

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Advantages Disadvantages
(1) Direct
Measurement
- Low capital cost and low
tool maintenance cost.
- The measurement can be
taken in anywhere and
anytime.
- The data will be varied
from different tailors.
- Less measurement points
than three-dimensional
scanners.
- Long measurement time.
(2)Three-dimensional
Scanner
- Short measurement time
- High accuracy
- Experienced measurers
are not necessary.
- High capital cost and
maintenance cost.
- Wearers need to dress the
tight-fitted clothing for body
measurement.
- The measurement must be
taken in the scanning
chamber.
Figure 5.11 Comparison between direct measurement and three-dimensional
scanners
(B) Size Chart
Garment size represents a set of measurements which will suit and fit a category of
people when wearing the clothes. Size codes, usually in the form of numbers or
alphabets are used in the size chart to indicate garment size. Some of the size codes
used in different places are as follows:

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Ladies Men Children
European United
Kingdom
United
States
European United
Kingdom
United
States
European United
Kingdom
United
States
34 6 4 46 36 36 125cm 43” 4
36 8 6 48 38 38 135cm 48” 6
38 10 8 50 40 40 150cm 55” 8
40 12 10 52 42 42 155cm 58” 10
42 14 12 54 44 44 160cm 60” 12
44 16 14 56 46 46
46 18 16 58 48 48
Different types of garment require different sets of measurements. There are numerous
types of size chart being used in the fashion industry. The following are the size chart
examples of Misses, Men and Children:
Size chart for Misses’ from 1.65m to 1.68m tall; and Miss Petite from 1.57 m to
1.63m tall.
XS
(extra small)
S
(small)
M
(medium)
L
(large)
Size Code
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
(Unit: cm)
Bust 75 78 80 83 87 92 97 102
Waist 56 58 61 64 67 71 76 81
Hip 80 83 85 88 92 97 102 107
Back Waist Length 39 39.5 40 40.5 41.5 42 42.5 43
Petite Back Waist
Length
35.5 36 37.5 38 39 39.5 40.5 40.5

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Men’s size chart - for about 1.78 m tall.
XS
(extra small)
S
(small)
M
(medium)
L
(large)
XL
(extra large)
Size Code
30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
(Unit: cm)
Chest 76 81 87 92 97 102 107 112 117 122
Waist 61 66 71 76 81 87 92 99 107 112
Hip (Seat) 79 84 89 94 99 104 109 114 119 124
Neck Size 33 34.5 35.5 37 38 39.5 40.5 42 43 44.5
Shirt Sleeve 79 79 81 81 84 84 87 87 89 89
Children’s size chart
XS
(extra small)
S
(small)
M
(medium)
L
(large)
Size Code
2 3 4 5 6 6X
(Unit: cm)
Bust 53 56 58 61 64 65
Waist 51 52 53 55 56 57
Hip - - 61 64 66 67
Back Waist Length 22 23 24 25.5 27 27.5
Approximate Height 89 97 104 112 119 122
(Source: © 2008 The McCALL Pattern Company)
5.2.2 Methods of Pattern Construction
Pattern is a guide for cutting the fabric which can be sewn together to form a garment.
There are three common methods in pattern construction:
(A) Two-dimensional Pattern Construction
Two-dimensional pattern construction is the process of drafting individual pattern
pieces directly onto a flat paper.
(i) Basic Block
Basic blocks have no style lines and they are a guide to making the master pattern for
different designs. From one basic block, many styles can be obtained whilst still

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retaining the size. Block patterns are made without seam allowances and with wearing
ease. Seam allowances should be added when being cut out in fabric.
Clothing manufactures develop their own set of basic block which fits their perceived
customers. Basic blocks vary from company to company. Pattern makers use these
basic block patterns to develop the pattern of different designs. They may introduce
style lines, tucks, gathers and pleats on the pattern.
Figure 5.12 Ladies’ bodice block, skirt block and sleeve block
*CF = Center front
*CB = Center back

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Figure 5.13 Men’s shirt, sleeve and trousers block

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Figure 5.14 Children’s shirt, sleeve and trouser block (Size: Height 104 cm)

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(ii) Adjustment of Basic Blocks
Making adjustments on basic blocks is commonly used in garment making in particular
for tight-fit garment.
Adjusting Skirt Length Adjusting Waistline Width
Lengthen Shorten Increase Decrease
Figure5.15 Pattern adjustment of a front basic skirt

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(iii) Direct Drafting
Direct drafting is a two-dimensional pattern design method. This method is simple and
efficient. It is useful in both tailor-making and industrial mass-production.
Figure 5.16 Silhouette and drafting pattern of half circle skirt
(iv) Adaptation of Basic Block
Adaptation is also a two-dimensional pattern-making method. This method uses the
basic blocks as the foundation blocks. The basic blocks are modified to form the
required style blocks by inputting the design ease and positioning the features of the
design sketch. Seam allowance is added on the style blocks for cutting out of fabric.
Figure 5.17 Flared skirt - Basic skirt pattern with the closed darts and their
fullness distributed on the hemline to become the flared skirt

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Figure 5.18 Princess style bodice – Basic bodice pattern with closed underarm dart
and transfer the dart to centre shoulder to become the princess style bodice
Figure 5.19 Puff sleeve – Short sleeve pattern with the cap and hem edge slashed,
spread and lengthened becomes the puffed sleeve
Figure 5.20 Pleated trousers – basic trouser block pattern with slash and open out the
crease line and waist dart to become the pleated trousers

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(B) Three-dimensional Mock Up
3-Dimensional mock up is also a kind of pattern construction technique, but it is
different to 2-dimensional pattern construction. Draping Method is classified as this
kind of pattern construction.
Draping is a technique to mount muslin/calico onto a dummy and form a 3-dimensional
(3D) mock up. The designers/drapers use their hands to manipulate, mark and adjust
the 3D mock up until the designer satisfies on the shape and fitness. Finally, the
confirmed 3D mock up will be translated into 2-dimenaional pattern pieces for
production.
Use muslin to drape front bodice Finished pattern Finished garment
Figure 5.21 The draping process from 2-D muslin to finished garment
Draping is widely used in high class fashion because this method can provide a clear
view of the product to designers in the pattern construction process but this method is
more time consuming than other two-dimensional methods. Designers may drape the
3-D mock up several times until the designers themselves satisfy on the shape and
fitness. Within this progress, designers may need to use a lot of fabric. To reduce costs,
designers will use muslin for making the pattern because this kind of fabric is not
expensive.
(C) Computer-aided Pattern Making
Many companies now use computers to make patterns. Computers are useful for
making patterns that are repetitive. Changes can be made easily if necessary.
CAD Pattern Design Systems (PDS) speed up the process of pattern-making and they
improve accuracy. An experienced production pattern maker who is efficient in the use
of the PDS system drafts the block on the computer efficiently. Some pattern makers

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draft on hard paper and then use the scanner to convert the pattern into a
computerised format. Then they make the changes on the pattern on-screen.
Figure 5.22 Gerber’s AccuMark Pattern Development System
5.2.3 Individual and Commercial Pattern Construction
Process
(A) Individual Pattern
For individual patterns, detailed body measurement of the wearer should be obtained.
The pattern will be drafted according to this measurement and the design of the
garment. Within the garment making process, the wearers will put on the toile, check
the fitness and rectify the patterns to ensure the final products are really fitted to them.
(B) Commercial Pattern
The commercial patterns are sold according to their standard body sizes. Garment
illustrations and related information such as size chart, fabric quantity, notions etc. are
printed on the outside of the envelopes. Simple sewing instructions are included in the
package.
Pattern design development system
Pattern development and
modification

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PATTERNS 000
MISSES SIZE 12
BUST 87 cm
Pattern envelope front Pattern envelope back
Figure 5.23 Commercial pattern envelope
(C) Comparison between Individual Pattern and Commercial Pattern
(i) The Advantages of Individual Pattern:
• Fit individual figure
• Can modify the design at the beginning stage
• Can revise the design anytime within the whole working process
(ii) The Advantages of Commercial Pattern:
• Can see the photographed version of the real thing from the catalog and
imagine the final visual effect right from the start
• Less time consuming as no need to draft the pattern
• No skill is needed for translate the design sketches into patterns.

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5.3 Garment Construction
5.3.1 Construction of Garment Parts
(A) Seams
Seaming is a mean of joining two or more parts of a garment together to form a
finished edge. The type of seam selected should suit the fabric, type of garment and
position of the seam in the garment. The following are four types of seams which are
commonly used on garments.
(i) Plain Seam (Open Seam)
Plain seam is the most commonly used of all seams to sew two garment pieces
together. It is used on side seams, shoulder seams and style lines. It can be applied in
most fabrics, except knits. The seam allowances of plain seams may be pressed to one
side or they may be pressed open.
*RS = right side of fabric *WS = wrong side of fabric
(ii) Top-stitching Seams
Top stitching seams are topstitched from the right side. Topstitching is the good way to
emphasise a construction detail, hold seam allowances flat or decorate the plain fabric.
Step-1
Stitch a plain seam
Step-2
Seam allowances
pressed to one side
Step-3
Seam allowances
pressed open
Figure 5.24 Construction of a plain seam

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or
Figure 5.25 Construction of topstitching seams
(iii) French Seam
French seam is stitched twice, once from the right side and once from the wrong side.
The raw edges of fabric are enclosed so that fraying does not occur. This seam gives a
finished seam look from the outside of the garment as well as from the inside. It is the
classic seam for sheers and looks good if the finished width is 6 mm or less.
Stitch from right side Stitch from wrong side
Figure 5.26 Construction of a French seam
(iv) Flat-felled Seam
Flat-felled seam is a very strong and durable form of construction for sportswear,
reversible or unlined garments. It provides a clean finish to both sides of the garment.
So it is often used for sports clothing, children’s wear. It is also frequently used for
setting sleeves on men’s shirts.

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Sew a plain seam Fold edge and stitch
Figure 5.27 Construction of a flat-felled seam
(v) Comparison of Seams
Type Use Properties Finished
Width (cm)
Diagram
Plain seam Straight to
curve
Major structural seams
such as side, waist and
sleeve seams
0.5 to 2
Top-stitching
seam
Straight to
slight curve
More durable, hold seam
allowances flat and
decorate the plain fabric
1 to 2
French seam Straight to
slight curve
Adds elegance; a neat,
narrow seam which
encloses the raw edges for
sheer or lightweight fabrics
0.3 to 1
Flat-felled
seam
Armscye of
shirts
A very strong and a quality
seam used for all types of
sportswear, reversible or
unlined garments
0.8 to 1.3
Figure 5.28 Comparison of seams
(B) Seam Finishes
Seam finishes are a form of technique to keep the seam edge from fraying. The
following are the methods of seam neatening:

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(i) Clean-edge Finish / Hemmed Finish
This method is suitably used on many
types of thin or light-weight fabric and
particularly in vertical seams. This method
forms a single fold hem along the edges of
the seam allowances.
(ii) Overlocking (Overedging)
This method is suitably used on many
types of fabric. When you serge, the
sewing machine knife trims the edge of the
fabric, stitches and encases the trimmed
edge of the fabric with looping threads in
one operation.
(iii) Pinking (Pinked finish)
This method is suitable for firmly woven fabrics. It can be done by machine or
hand pinking shears and either method leaves the edge serrated. However,
pinking does not prevent raveling entirely. For more protection, stitch 6 mm
from each edge before pinking.
Pinked Stitched-and-pinked

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(iv) Binding (Bound finish)
(v) Comparison of Seam Finishes
Type Fabric Diagram
Clean-edge finish • Fine to medium fabric such as
cotton, linen, viscose
Overlocking • Most fabrics (method used
extensively in the industry)
Pinking • -Heavy non-fraying fabric
• -Fabrics that only fray slightly
Binding • -Fraying fabric
• -Unlined garments
Figure 5.29 Comparison of seam finishes
(C) Edge Finishes for Hems
Edge finishes for hem is to prevent raw edges from fraying or tearing of lower edge of a
garment. It may be used to finish the edge of garment section such as pocket, sleeve
or skirt hem.
This method is suitable for medium-weight to heavyweight fabrics. It used on
unlined garments and it gives a very neat and well-finished appearance.
Binding with tape Binding with bias tape

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(i) Edge Finishes for Hems by Hand
Hemming Stitch
Slipstitch
Catchstitch
Blindstitch
(ii) Edge Finishes by Machines
Direct Overlocked
(For hems of skirts, trousers,
facing, etc)

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Neatened by Blind Stitching
Machine
Machine Finished (Wide Hem)
Machine Finished Using Special
Presser Foot and Folder (Narrow
Hem)
Bias Binding
(D) Facings
A facing is the fabric used to finish a raw edge such as a neckline, armhole, front and
back openings. It is a duplicate layer of fabric stitched to the raw edge of a garment for
the purpose of clean finishing the seam. After a facing is attached to the garment’s
edge, it should turn to the inside of the garment and should not be visible from the
outside except for right side facing.

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There are three general types of facings:
(i) Shaped Facing
A separate facing is cut in the same shape and grain on the area it will cover. It is
stitched and then turned to the inside of the garment. It is used on bodice necklines,
bodice armholes and waistlines of skirts or pants.
The following are the steps to make the armhole shaped facing:
Step-1: Seam facings
Step-2: Attach the armhole facing
Step-3: Trim and clip seam. Press
seam towards facing
Step-4: Under stitch facing

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Step-5: Slipstitch at seams
(ii) Extended Facing (Self-facing)
This facing is cut out as an extension of the garment part and folded to the inside. It is
used along a front or back opening.
• Extended shaped facing
The following are the steps to make an extended shaped facing:
Step-1: Extended facing
Step-2: Seam facing at neckline

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Step-3: Fold facing to wrong side
and hem
-
• Extended straight facing
The extended straight facing is frequently used on shirtfronts for men and women.
The following are the examples of extended straight facings:
Extended overlap facing
Step-1: Apply interlining to extended
straight facing
Step-2: Fold and press the extended
facing folds to the face of the shirt

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Step-3: Topstitch to form a band on the
shirt front
Extended underlap facing
Extended facing folds to the inside and
finished the front edge, the underlap of a
men’s shirt
(iii) Bias Facing
The bias facing is a narrow light-weight strip fabric cut on the bias. After ironing and
sewing on the garment, the strip can be shaped to fit the curved edge. It can be used
with collars, bands, cuffs or other trims. The bias facing is often used instead of a
shaped facing on garments.
The following are the steps to make a bias facing:
Step-1: Cut out a bias strip and fold it in
half lengthwise
Step-2: Using a stream iron to shape the
strip that matches the edges being
faced

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Step-3: With right sides together, placing
bias strip to neck edge and stitch
Step-4: Trim garment seam allowance
even with bias tape
Step-6: Clip seam allowance, if necessary
Step-7: Turn bias tape to inside. Baste
tape in place OR stitch close to
folded edge
OR
(E) Collar
A collar is a piece of fabric attached to the neckline. It comes in a variety of styles,
shapes and sizes. Collars are generally classified in three types: flat, standing or rolled.
The two-piece shirt collar is developed from the roll collar and standing collar.
The following are the examples of collars:
Flat collar Standing collar Rolled collar Two-piece shirt
collar

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The following are the procedures of making collars:
(i) Constructing the Standing Collar
Step-1: Fuse interlining to wrong side of
one of the collar band
Step-2: Turn in seam allowance and
stitch the folded edge
Step-3: Put the two collar bands with
right sides together, run stitch
collar
Step-4: Trim and clip seam
Step-5: Turn and press.
(ii) Constructing the Flat Collars, Rolled Collars and Two-piece Shirt Collars
This method is used for flat collars and rolled collars:
Step-1: Put the collar pieces with right
sides together. Fuse interlining
to wrong side of one of the collar
pieces
Step-2: Run stitch and trim seam
allowance

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Step-3 Turn collar to right side
Step-4: Leave collar plain or topstitch
around edge of collar
This method is used for two-piece shirt collars:
Step-1: Put the collar pieces with right
sides together. Fuse interlining
to wrong side of one of the collar
pieces
Step-2: Run stitch and trim seam
allowance
Step-3 Turn collar to right side
Step-4: Leave collar plain or topstitch
around edge of collar
Step-5: Fuse interlining to wrong side of
one of the collar band
Step-6: Turn in seam allowance and
stitch the folded edge
Step-7: Faces sides up, stack the collar
on the band with no interlining.
Then place the interlined band
on top, wrong side up. Stitch the
collar band to the collar
Step-8: Trim and clip seam.

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Step-9: Turn and press. Turn in seam
allowance and stitch the folded
edge
(iii) Attaching Collars to Garment
This method is used for shirt collar and standing collar:
Step-1: With right sides together, match
the stand to the garment along
the neck seamline.
Step-2: Stitch the under collar band to
neckline; secure the stitching at
both ends.
Step-3: Turn in seam allowance and
machine stitch close to edge

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This method is used for flat collar and rolled collar (collar with neckline facing):
Step-1: Sew the shoulder seams of the
garment and the facing pieces
together
Step-2: Machine baste collar to neck
edge
Step-3: Pin facing to neckline, with right
sides together. Match all
markings and stitch neckline
seam. Trim and clip seam
allowance
Step-4: Turn the facing to the inside and
press
Step-5: Understitch facing to neck seam
allowances
(F) Waistline
(i) Waistline Finishes
Waistband and waistline finishes hold garments in proper position on the body. The
waistline edge of a garment can be finished with a waistband, facing, elastic or
drawstring casing as follows:

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Waistband Facing Drawstring Casing or Elastic
(ii) Waistband
A waistband is a strip of fabric attached to the waistline of skirts, pants or shorts. It can
be cut straight or curved. Waistbands are always interlined to prevent stretching, rolling
and wrinkling.
The following is an example of attaching a waistband:
Step-1: Attach interlining to wrong side of
waistband
Step-2: Pin right side of waistband to wrong
side of garment, matching notches and
stitch
Step-3: Stitch ends of waistband with right sides
together
Step-4: Trim, clip corners and turn waistband
right side out
Step-5: Fold waistband over seamline to right
side of garment
Step-6: Topstitch along bottom edge of
waistband close to fold

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(iii) Waistline Facing
The waistline facing piece is stitched to the raw edge of waistline. It allows the finished
edge of a garment to rest at the natural waistline. It provides a clean, smooth finish that
does not extend above the waistline edge.
The following is an example of attaching a waistline facing:
Step-1: Attach interlining to the facing pieces
Step-2: Join the side seams of the front and
back waist facing
Step-3: Finish the lower edge of facing with
overlock stitching or a hem
Step-4: Sew the waistline of the facing to the
right side of the waist seam
Step-5: Under stitch facing to seam allowance
Step-6: Turn the facing to the inside of the
garment and slipstitch at the side seam
and to zipper tape
(iv) Drawstring Casing or Elastic Casing
The drawstring or elastic is inserted in sewn casing area. The drawstring or elastic will
allow the garment to be passed through the hip and fit the waist comfortably.

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• Drawstring casing
The following is an example of preparing a drawstring casing:
Step-1: Prepare a drawstring of which the
length is twice of the waistline for
running into the casing
Step-2: Make two eyelets which should be
placed 2.5 cm from the centre front, in
the middle of the waistband casing
Step-3: Overlock or press the upper edge of the
waist area
Step-4: Fold and stitch the waistline casing
Step-5: Make a double row top stitching in the
middle of the waistband casing area
Step-6: Insert a drawstring through the eyelets
into the double row of topstitching.
Evenly space the waistline fullness

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• Elastic casing
The following are the procedures of preparing an elastic casing:
Step-1: Lay elastic into a casing and fix both
ends of the elastic with the safety
pins. Take care not to twist the
elastic
WS
Step-2: Connect ends of elastic by stitching
a square on the overlapped area
and crisscrossing it for strength
Step-3: Close the opening by edge-stitching
(G) Sleeves
A sleeve is the part of the garment that covers the arm. The sleeve usually joins the
garment in a seam that encircles the arm over the shoulder. Sleeves can be long or
short, narrow or full, gathered or pleated. Sleeves can be finished at the bottom edge
with a hem, facing, casing or cuff.

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The following are the examples of sleeves:
a) Set-in b) Raglan c) Kimono
(i) Set-in Sleeve
Set-in sleeves fit the body more closely than others. The head of a set-in-sleeve is
always cut larger than its armhole to allow room for movement and this extra fullness
should be distributed round the upper part of the armhole. Sleeves should be correctly
positioned in the armhole by matching notches ensuring that the fullness is
appropriately distributed.
There are two methods for sewing a set-in sleeve:
• Shirt sleeve method (flat construction method)
Shirt sleeve method permits the sleeve to be sewn into the armhole before the garment
side and sleeve seams are stitched. There is very little curve in the sleeve head and
also very little ease stitching required in the sleeve head when attaching the sleeve to
the garment.
Sleeve head is less
rounded because of
shallower curve
The sketch of the shirt sleeve and its pattern

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The following is an example of attaching a sleeve by shirt sleeve method:
• Set-in sleeve method
Set-in sleeve method is firstly stitching the underarm seam of the sleeve and the side
seam of the garment respectively. Then the sleeve is attached to the armhole.
Step-1: With right side together, pin and
match sleeve to armhole
Step-2: Stitch seam to armhole
Step-3: Stitch underarm garment and sleeve
seam
WS
Standard set-in sleeve One-piece sleeve pattern
Example of set-in sleeves and pattern

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The following is an example of attaching a sleeve by set-in sleeve method:
To prepare the garment for the sleeve, sew the underarm seam on the sleeve and the
side seam of the garment.
Step-1: Machine bastes two rows of ease
stitching within the seam allowance
Step-2: Stitch underarm seam of sleeve and
press open
Step-3: Insert sleeve into armhole with right
sides together; pin at all matched
marking
Step-4: To draw up sleeve fullness, pull the
thread from ease stitching line; distribute
eased fullness evenly along the head
Step-5: Stitch sleeve to armhole

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(ii) (ii) Raglan Sleeve
A raglan sleeve is attached to the garment by a seam that runs diagonally down from
the neckline to the underarm. A raglan sleeve is designed for comfort and ease.
For some designs, a dart at the shoulder is used for fitting purpose.
The following is an example of making raglan sleeves:
Step-1: Make the dart at the shoulder
Step-2: Stitch seams of sleeve to
garment, with right sides
together, match notches and
underarm seams
Step-3: Stitch underarm seam of sleeve
and side seam

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(iii) Kimono Sleeve
Kimono sleeve is cut in one piece with the front and back of the garment
The following are the procedures of making kimono sleeves:
Step-1: Stitch shoulder seam, right sides
together and press open
Step-2: Stitch underarm seam with right
sides facing and match
Step-3: Clip seam allowances along
curve. Press seam open
Step-4: Sew a piece of tape over the
curved side seam to give extra
strength
(H) Pockets
Pockets are small bags sewn either on the outside of a garment or into a garment
seam or opening. Pockets can be functional, decorative or a combination of the two.
There are many different types of pockets. The following are being used commonly:
Patch pockets In-seam pockets Front hip pockets

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(i) Patch Pockets
Patch pockets are sewn on the surface of garment. They can have rounded or square
corners at the base. Patch pockets can be styled into skirts, pants, blouses, shirts,
jackets or coats.
The following are the procedures of making different forms of patch pockets:
Step-1: Turn under top edge of
pocket hem 6 mm, and
press
Step-2: Turn the upper edge along
fold line; press and stitch
For rounded pockets,
bastes around curved
edges

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Step-3: Turn in remaining seam
allowances. For rounded
pockets, pull thread to
ease in fullness on curves.
Notch curves (if
necessary) and press
Square
Pointed
Round
Step-4: Topstitch around edge of
pocket in place. Reinforce
corners by backstitching
or by stitching a small
triangle or square
(ii) In-seam Pockets
In seam pockets are sewn into the seam of a garment, usually the side seam. They
cannot be seen when the garment is worn. They can be cut as part of the garment front
and back or it can be cut from a separate pattern piece and stitched to the seam.

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All-in-one in-seam
pocket
In-seam pocket with
extension
In-seam pocket without
extension
The following are the procedures of making in-seam pockets with extension:
Step-1: Stitch one pocket section to each
front and back extension
Step-2: Press seam towards pocket
Step-3: Pin right sides together and marking
matched
Step-4: Stitch along seam and around
pocket, reinforce corners of pocket
with small stitches
ws

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Step-5: Clip seam allowance of back section
of garment at the corners and press
open the garment seam allowances
above and below the pocket
Step-6: Finish and reinforce raw edges of
pocket with an overlock stitch
ws
(iii) Front-hip Pockets
Front hip pockets are angled or curved pocket designs on the front of pants and skirts.
They are attached to the waist and side seam of the garment.
The following are the procedures of making front-hip pockets:
Step-1: Cut a pocket piece and a facing
piece.
Step-2: Pin and stitch pocket facing to
the garment, right sides
together, along opening edge
of pocket
Step-3: Trim the seam allowance and
notch curves
Step-4: Understitch or topstitch seam to
keep it from rolling to the right
side of garment

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Step-5: Pin pocket to facing, right sides
together, along the pocket
curved edge
Step-6: Pin the pocket in place by
matching the waistline and side
seam of the garment. Machine
bastes along these edges
Step-7: Stitch pocket facing and the
under pocket around the
curved edges of the pocket
(I) Fullness Arrangement
(i) Darts
Darts are pointed tuck sewn on a garment and usually made on the wrong side. They
are used to control fullness and give shape to fitted garment. Darts can be manipulated
to different positions and often arranged to become part of the style line.
The following are the procedures of sewing darts on garments:
Step-1: Transfer the dart marking from the
pattern to the wrong side of the fabric

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Step-2: Fold dart with right sides of fabric
together, match stitching line
Step-3: Stitch from wide end of dart to the
sharp point, taking last few stitches
parallel to fold line
Step-4: Tie thread ends in a knot
Step-5: Press the dart excess towards the
centre or down
The following are the methods of pressing dart:
a) In most fabrics, darts are pressed to
one side. Horizontal darts are
pressed with the fold downward.
Vertical darts are pressed with the
fold towards centre front or centre
back
b) In sheer fabrics, darts are pressed
equally on either side of the stitching
line

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c) Darts in bulky fabrics are cut along
the fold line towards the point. Stop
cutting where the width of the dart
fold narrows
(ii) Tucks
Tucks are narrow folds of fabric machined parallel with each other. They are most often
decorative in purpose. The width of the tucks varies depending upon the design. Most
tucks are stitched on the straight grain and uniform in width. Accuracy is essential for
making tucks. Tucks are normally made in a garment piece before seaming them to
any other parts.
Blind tucks Spaced tucks Pin tucks
(iii) Pleats
Pleats are folds in fabric that provide controlled fullness. They can be used in one
single pleat or an entire series of pleats in a garment. Pleats are either pressed or
unpressed.
• Pressed pleats have the crease line firmly pressed in position of the entire
length of the pleat
• Unpressed pleats are those that do not have the pleat crease line pressed in
place. They must be made deep enough to hold their form
The most common types of pleats are knife pleat, box pleat and inverted pleat.

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Knife Box Inverted
(iv) Easing and Gathering
Easing and gathering are methods used to control fullness along a seamline. The
difference between easing and gathering can be distinguished in the amount of
material that each style draws up.
• Easing fabrics to be shaped over a curved area of the body and seams to appear
smooth and not pucker or pleat. Ease stitching is most commonly used on sleeve
hill, cuffs and waistbands.
Step-1: Ease stitch on the larger
garment section; match
the notches to the other
garment section

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Step-2: Pull bobbin thread to
ease fullness
Step-3: Match the notches and
stitch with right sides
together. Ease stitch
within seam allowance
along the seamline
• Gathers are soft folds of fabric formed by pulling up basting stitches to make the
fabric fit into smaller space. Fabric is usually gathered to one-half or one-third of
the original width; the effect may be soft and drapery or crisp, depending on the
fabric. Gathering most often occurs in a garment at waistline, cuffs and yokes or
as ruffles.
Step-1: Bastes two parallel rows
of stitching in seam
allowance
Step-2: Pin the stitched edges,
right sides together,
matching notches,
seams, and markings
Step-3: Gently pull on the bobbin
threads
Step-4: With gathered side up,
stitch with standard
stitching along seamline

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(v) Shirring
Shirring is formed by several rows of gathering. It is a decorative way of controlling
fullness. Shirring is used to control additional fullness on ruffles, at waistlines, and on
sleeves. Lightweight fabrics are the most appropriate for shirring. There are several
different techniques that can be used to create shirring.
The following are the two methods to form shirring:
Using a shirring foot
Stitch as many rows of gathering as desired
and secure each row end with a knot or
reverse stitches
Shirring with elastic thread
Elasticised shirring is made by using elastic
thread in the bobbin and regular thread in
the needle. Ends are secured by knotting or
reverse stitches

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5.3.2 Trimmings and Fastenings
(A) Trimming
Trimming is used to finish and adorn garments. The variety of decorations and
functional trims such as interlining, shoulder pads, embroidery, laces, ribbons and
fastenings.
(i) Interlining
Interlinings are functional trimmings. They are applied between the outside layer of the
garment and the facing. They provide shape, support, stabilisation, reinforcement and
improve performance for garments. Interlinings are generally made by woven, knitted
or non-woven fabrics. They are fused or sewn to specific areas on the inside of
garment components such as collars, facings, cuffs, buttonhole, pocket openings and
waistbands.
Facing
Collar Cuff
Shading reflects interfacing
Figure 5.30 Areas to be supported by interlining
(ii) Lining
Linings are sewn into the garment to hide in inner construction and give a neat finish.
They may be applied to coats, jackets, dresses, skirts and pants, in their entirety or just
partially. As the lining surface is smooth, it allows garment to slide on and off easily.

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Linings may also contribute to support the shape of garments, provide opacity to sheer
fabrics or provide additional warmth. In general, linings are perceived as adding quality
to a garment. The choice of lining fabrics depends upon the fashion fabric and the end
use and price of garments.
Figure 5.31 Lining in a jacket
(iii) Shoulder Pads
Shoulder pads provide support and shape of the shoulder silhouette. Shoulder pads
are important shaping device in tailored jackets and coats with raglan sleeves, set-in
sleeves and kimono sleeves. They are also used in blouses and dresses. The shape of
shoulder pads are influenced by fashion trend. Shoulder pads in unlined garments
should be covered with a fabric that does not show through the garment.
Figure 5.32 Samples of different shapes of shoulder pads
(iv) Embroidery
Embroidery is decorative stitching used to form designs or patterns. Embroidery is
used by various yarns to decorate a garment. It can be hand sewn or produced by
Lining

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machine.
Eyelet embroidery fabric Embroidery lace fabric
Figure 5.33 Samples of embroidery fabric
(v) Appliqué
Appliqués are small, individual piece of fabric patches that are often used to create a
decoration to garments. Many appliqués are embroidered.
Figure 5.34 Samples of appliqué
(vi) Lace, Ribbon and Braid
Lace, braid and ribbon are narrow fabric trims. They may be applied directly to the
surface and the edge of garments or inset between two fabric panels for decoration.
• Lace trims
Lace trims are narrow lace fabrics. Lace can be used to decorate collars, cuffs, edges,
pillows and curtains. Lace is most frequently used in lingerie and bridal wear.

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Figure 5.35 Samples of lace
• Ribbons
Ribbons are narrow woven fabrics with finished edges. They can be used as a trim to
make ties and bows.
Metallic ribbon Printed satin ribbon
Figure 5.36 Samples of ribbon
• Braids
Braids are decorative trims with firm finished edges and heavier than ribbons. Uniform
and costume manufacturers use braids the most.
Figure 5.37 Samples of braid

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• Tapes
Tapes are narrow strip materials used for reinforcing seams. They can be of functional
or decorative purpose. Tape may be knits, braids, woven bias strips or strips cut from
matching shell fabric.
Figure 5.38 Cotton tapes on the shoulder seam and neck seam of a knit shirt
(B) Fastenings
Fastenings are a subdivision of trimmings. The function of fastenings is to hold
garment parts together and allow the garment to be put on and taken off. Fastenings
can also be used in decorative purpose. They include zippers, buttons and buttonholes,
snaps, hooks and eyes, hook and bars, velcro, buckles and eyelets, etc.
(i) Zippers
Zippers make a complete closure by means of interlocking teeth or coils. The three
main types of zippers are (i) conventional, (ii) separating and (iii) invisible.
Twill tape

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Conventional zippers (Close-ended zippers) are opended at one end. .
Figure 5.39 Conventional zipper
• Separating zippers (Open-ended zippers) are opened at both ends. This type of
zipper is usually used on jackets.
Figure 5.40 Separating zipper
• Invisible zippers are opened at one end and the coils are self-concealed in the
seam. The invisible zippers look like a smooth, continuous seam line on the
garment.
Figure 5.41 Invisible zipper
(ii) Buttons and Buttonholes
• Buttons
Buttons are three-dimensional forms used in conjunction with buttonholes for fastening
of garments. Buttons can be used alone as decoration. Two basic types of button are
sew-through button and shank button.

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Sew-through buttons have two or four holes for attachment to garments with threads.
Two-holes Four-holes
Figure 5.42 Sew-through button
Shank button has a stem extension under the surface of the button for attaching the
button to garments. Shank buttons allow the buttonhole to fit smoothly between the
button and the under fabric.
Figure 5.43 Shank button
• Buttonholes
Buttonholes are finished opening sized to accommodate a button without straining the
garment fabric. Buttonholes are made on the overlap of the garment. Garments may
have vertical or horizontal buttonhole. Buttonholes should always be completed first;
then the buttons are sewn in place.
Type of buttonholes:
- Worked buttonholes are made by hand, home machine attachment or commercial
buttonhole machines.
- Bound buttonholes are made of separate strips of fabric.
- Button loops are made of bias tubing, thread or cording. They are set into the
seam at the opening edge of the garment.

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Worked buttonhole Bound buttonhole Button loop
Figure 5.44 Type of buttonholes
The size of buttonhole opening depends on the diameter, thickness and shape of the
button. The length of the buttonhole must be large enough to allow the button to pass
through it without straining the fabric.
(iii) Snaps
Snaps are paired of opposing circular plate, moulded with mating balls and sockets.
They can be a variety of sizes and are used to fasten a garment area where a smooth,
flat closure is desired.
Type of snaps:
• Sew-on snap
It is necessary to attach the sew-on snap fasteners by means of hand stitching.
Ball and socket of sew-on snap Attach sew-on snap
Figure 5.45 Sew-on snap
• No-sew snap
They are pressed onto garments by special button-pressing machines. One set of
no-sew snap consists of a cap, a socket, a stud and a post. The face surface of snap

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may be decorative in size, shape or colour.
Cap Socket Stud Post
Figure 5.46 A set of no-sew snap
(iv) Hooks and Bars
A set of shaped metal plates includes one of the plates that is curved to form a broad
hook, the other is a raised bar receptacle. They are commonly attached to waistbands
for fastening.
Hook & bar (Sew-on) Hook & bar (Prong)
Figure 5.47 Hook & bar fastening
(v) Hooks and Eyes
A set of wire fasteners includes one of fasteners shaped into an engaging hook and the
other is a receptacles eye formed into a round eye or straight eye. Small hooks and
eyes are used often at necklines.

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Hook Round eye Straight eye Attaching hook &
eye at neckline
Figure 5.48 Hooks & eyes and their application
(vi) F. Elastics
Elastics are thread, cord and braided of woven ribbon or fabric which have resilience
and flexibility. The stretchable core substance is covered with cotton, silk, synthetic or
yarn blends. Elastics may be applied directly to garments by a lockstitch, zigzag or
overedge machines or may be enclosed in casings.
Elastic thread Elastic cord Elastic band
Figure 5.49 Different types of elastic
(vii) Hook-and-loop Tape /Velcro R tape
Hook-and-loop tapes are woven nylon hook and loop tape fasteners that consist of one
tape with minute flexible hooks and the other with many small soft loops.
When opposing tapes are pressed together, hooks engage loops to form a strong
closure that opens when tapes are peeled apart. Hook-and-loop tape is good fastener
for providing adjustability and attach-and-detachability. They are commonly used on
garment openings which need to be opened and closed quickly and easily. They are
often used on jackets, sportswear, and children’s clothes.

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Figure 5.50 Hook-and-loop tape
(viii) H. Buckles
Buckles are devices in a variety of size, shape, design and material, consisting of an
open rim having a single or centre bar, with or without a prong.
They are used as functional fastener and as decorative details. Buckles with centre
bars usually have prongs that engage with eyelets to adjust belts to various
circumferences. They are often used on the free ends of belts and straps.
Conventional buckles An interlocking buckle
Figure 5.51 Different types of buckle

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5.4 Industrial Technologies
5.4.1 Industrial Sewing Machine
Industrial sewing machines are used as production facilities in garment factories. They
are required to achieve speed, durability and reliability. Industrial sewing machines are
often designed with a single function, unlike home sewing machines. Industrial sewing
machines are much heavier than home sewing machines. These machines can make a
great variety of plain or patterned stitches.
Nowadays, many industrial sewing machines are equipped with electronic devices that
are capable of automatically performing many different processes only by pressing a
button. Those machines are called sewing robots instead of sewing machines. The
following are the basic and important sewing machines that can be found in nearly
every sewing room:
(A) Lockstitch Machine
Lockstitches appear identical on both sides; they are reversible. It is one of the most
versatile items of equipment in the sewing room. It is widely used to sew seams in
woven-fabric garments and to construct garment details.
Lockstitch machine Seam appearance

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(B) Overlock Sewing Machine
The main function of overlock (overedge or sergers) machines is to trim and cover
rough edges of fabrics in order to present a clean and neat appearance where seam
edges are visible. Overlock machines are also used for the assembly of some types of
knitted and woven garments.
Overlock sewing machine Seam appearance
(C) Blind Stitch Machine
This machine is used for fastening hems or facings. It performs this operation without
the stitch impression showing on the right side of the garment.
Blind stitch machine Seam appearance

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(D) Buttonhole Machine
A buttonhole is a straight or shaped slit cut through the garment and then sewn round
its edge to prevent fraying and stretching. The cut shape of the buttonhole and the
number of stitch density can be adjusted to fit the garment type and quality.
Buttonhole machine Seam appearance
Eyelet buttonhole machine Seam appearance

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(E) Button Sewing Machine
Buttons with two holes, four holes or shanks can all be sewn on by the same machine
through simple adjustments to the button clamp and the spacing mechanism. The
sewing action consists of a series of parallel stitches of which the length is equal to the
spacing between the centres of the holes.
Button sewing machine Button is fixed by the clamp and sewn
onto the garment
5.4.2 Laser Technology
Laser technology is applied to textiles processing that involves laser cutting
and engraving. Laser is a powerful light beam projected onto minute area to
cut or carve fabric by vaporization. The fine, V-shaped laser beam is only 0.1
mm wide. The beam cuts without pressure on the fabric, which is an advantage
for some types of fabric, and the fabric remains immobile during the cutting
operation.
Suede Silk Cutting Garment Details
Figure 5.52 Samples of laser cutting

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Fleece Upholstery Denim
Figure 5.53 Samples of laser engraving
(Source: http://www.cct-uk.com)
Figure 5.54 Samples of laser button
(Source: Practical International Trading Co.)
(A) Cutting
Laser cutting offers a high degree of precision, consistency, control and flexibility
needed in the textile industry. With some heat emission, laser-cut edges are
sharp and clean. The heat produced tends to seal fabric edges, which can
prevent the ravels but if the fabric is cut in multiple plies, the edges may fuse
together. Therefore, lasers are used for single-ply or few-plies cutting.
Laser-cut garment parts are easier to assemble because they are consistent
in size with smooth, sharp edges that align.

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Figure 5.55 Laser cutting machine with computer processing control
Laser cutters operate without any mechanical parts except for the conveyor
and plotting system, which operates at a high cutting speed that is
approximated to 1 metre per second. The operator calls up the appropriate
cutting order, which is communicated to the laser cutter. Fabric is advanced
through the roller assembly unit and onto the cutting table surface, which thus
eliminates the traditional fabric-spreading process.
(B) Laser Engraving
Lasers have been recognised for versatility in cutting small runs. Single-ply laser
cutters also make it possible to engrave fabrics in different shading intensity. Lasers
can be used to cut through a single ply of a bonded fabric which would be used for
shadow lettering.
Laser cutting is used for samples and low-volume cuts and along with more
conventional blade cutters for other needs. Laser cutters can also allow firms to
produce on a make-to-measure or just-in-time basis. The continuous, rapid cutting of
lasers helps smooth out the flow of production and reduce in-process inventory.
However, the use of laser systems is still limited because of the high cost of investment
in equipments.

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(C) Advancement in Laser Technology
(i) Material Processing:
• Possible to apply to different types of fabric and other materials
• Easy to control
• High accuracy
• High cutting and engraving speed
(ii) Process Management:
• Easy operation via PC and software
• Minimise set-up time
• Excellent cutting edge finishing
5.4.3 Automatic Data Collection System
(A) Introduction of Automatic Data Collection System
Automatic data collection (Bar Code System or Radio-frequency identification, RFID)
are processes that occur in and around us every day. It provides most readily the
information needed in the production process and real time monitoring of workflow; in
retail to expedite one’s check-out procedure; or within the package delivery industry to
track one’s package throughout its transport cycle.
In retail applications, bar code labels or hangtags adhered to clothing product contain
codes that are sensed by readers during checkout and interpreted by computers.
Specific computers recognise the data of the code reference and are able to link the
items to their sales price and description contained in the stores’ mainframe databases.
Not only is this product information reflected on sales receipt, it is also automatically
linked to the store’s inventory tracking system which deducts the quantity of the item
purchased from the stock level of inventory. This entire process occurs in a matter of
seconds with only minimal data entry required by the checkout personnel.

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(B) Bar Code System
Bar codes are a fast, easy and accurate data entry method used in the process known
as automatic data collection. Bar coding enables products to be tracked efficiently and
accurately at speeds not possible to be achieved by using manual data entry systems.
The primary benefit of this process is that it is truly automatic, occurring directly as any
transaction progresses. This process is commonly referred to as real-time data capture
and exchange within the industry. Improved accuracy is yet another benefit.
Bar coding is a type of code being used to encode or put information into a universally
recognised code language in the form of a bar code symbology. Encoded data consist
of a part number, serial number, supplier number, quantity, transaction code or other
type of data. A number of bar code standards have been developed and refined over
the years into accepted languages called symbologies. Numerous bar code trade
associations such as (ANSI) American National Standards Institute, (HIBC) Health
Industry Bar Code Council and (AIAG) Automotive Industry Action Group have been
established to regulate the use of bar code symbologies in accordance with accepted
industry standards and specifications.
Bar code symbologies come in two basic varieties. They can be either linear or two
dimensional in their configuration. A linear barcode symbology consists of a single row
of dark lines and white spaces of varying but specified width and height, as indicated by
the example below.
Figure 5.56 Traditional linear bar code
Similarly, a two-Dimensional symbology can be configured into a stacked or matrix
format. Two-dimensional bar codes are special rectangular codes which ‘stack’
information in a specific manner that allows more information to be stored in a smaller
amount of space.

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PDF 417 Maxicode Data Matrix
Figure 5.57 Examples of two-dimensional bar code
(C) Radio-frequency Identification (RFID)
An RFID system comprises a tag, an interrogator (the reader) and a host system. The
host computer manages the information flow, sending to and receiving from the reader
and tag. The data flow between the reader and tag occurs over the air interface, or
radio frequency (RF) link. The reader contains a radio frequency module, a signal
processing and microcontroller unit, a coupling element and the interface to a host
system. There are many different kinds of readers in the market such as desktop and
hand-held style readers. The host system controls the data flow between the readers
and tags. It can be as simple as a personal computer connected to the reader by a
communication cable.
An RFID label is an emerging label technology consisting of a label that carries
information in a chip instead of in printed form. The finished label consists of a unique
layer — the inlay — inserted into a traditional label construction. The inlay contains an
antenna and microchip that stores data. The RFID label communicates via radio
frequency (RF) rather than optical scanning (no line-of-sight required).
(D) Advancement of Automatic Data Collection System
More and more retailers and manufacturers are equipped to take full advantage of bar
codes or RDIF offer. Even some small companies use handheld computers equipped
with readers. The use of these systems becomes a trend because of their many
possibilities for improving business efficiency. These different aspects of efficiency
improvement include:
(i) Increase in accuracy by reducing the likelihood of human errors from manual
entry or miscommunication from misread or mislabeled items.

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(ii) The hardware, handheld or desktop readers is easy-to-use and user-friendly.
(iii) Standardised codes ensure that decoded code information is captured and
relayed in a fashion that is universally understood and accepted.
(iv) Automatic Data Collection System promotes timely feedback at the moment that
data is captured in real-time. This enables decisions to be made from current
information.
(v) Automatic Data Collection System improves productivity in that many manual
activities and tasks become automated.
(vi) The improved efficiencies such as improved workflows, reduction in error rates
and resultant good customer services that Automatic Data Collection System
promotes enable companies to save costs.

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