A comparative study between body parts idioms belonging to two different languages: English and French

1. ComparativeLinguisticEssay:Talking in body parts The essay is based on a comparison between idioms belonging to English and French Author: Stinga Mihaela

2. ARGUMENT This project-based essay has as main purpose to give a guideline , not only for the various number of translators or interpreters or other specialists associated to this field of study, but also for the ones interested in a different approach on languages and on the possibilities of learning them. The idea is to make a parallel between the various use of idioms in different foreign languages, and, taken as examples, there are: idiomatic expressions from English to French , of course, relating to the human’s anatomy. As the structure of this work will reveal, in specific chapters also, the base of comparison relies on the English language, used as support, language that will be compared, at the level of idiomatic realization, with the other Romance language. The study will continue with a presentation of the structure per chapters, explaining, on short, the content.

3. CHAPTER PRESENTATION Idiom- definitions and understanding s of the concept Idiom and Slang- similar aspects and differences Analyses: classifications and criteria followed Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French Conclusion s Bibliography

4. The idiom: definitions and understandings of the concept An idiom is, according to the Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, a phrase which means something different from the meanings of the separate words from which it is formed. This is the first understanding that the dictionary displays and, as example, I will use one of the idioms that made the object of this essay and that is one of the most common: “the pickpocket dissapearedin a blink of an eye”, meaning actually something that happens instantaneously, without much time of noticing it. In the French language, the notion of idiom, the way it is conveyed here, bears the name of “expression courrante” (like in the more popular expression: “jeter un coup d’oeil”, meaning giving a quick look to something or somebody) while in Italian the notion appears to be a combination between the two: “espressioneidiomatica”(in this case,“dareunamano” is an usual idiom, that can be also found in English and in French: “give or lend a hand “ in English, “donner un coup de main” in French) The second understanding refers to the way of expression typical of a person or a group in their use of language: like “the idiom of the young” or the one relating to the football speakers, for instance. (like “the football player found in off -side”)

5. It appears, though, that the second understanding of the term “idiom” doesn’t find the same echo in the other two languages used for comparison. The idiom of the young people, like in the example given above, constitutes, in French, a true slang. But this will make the subject of the next chapter, and, as the main electronic source of this study reveals (www.wikipedia.com ) the understanding of the term in this other language does not cover the professional vocabulary from a particular field of study, like in English acceptation of the concept. In one of his studies, Eric Partridge, makes an interesting observation related to the difference between proverbs and other idiomatic phrases, noting that the last category does not express the popular wisdom, not having a profound moral significance, but there are only simple phrases “usa-e-getta”, and it could be added that they depend almost entirely on the context they are used in. The idiom: definitions and understandings of the concept

6. Idiom and Slang: differences and similar aspects While the idiom includes a variety of expressions that people use in everyday life, the slang becomes a language in itself, used among specific groups of people only and, because it includes sometimes non polite words and meanings, it is to be avoided in serious speech or writing. The Longman dictionary offers as example: “ slag off”, a British slang meaning “criticize”. The term that conveys the same understanding of the concept is “argot” in French. Trying to understand the concept of slang, there can be chosen as example the variety of Italian “gerghi”, now some extinct, mostly due to the fact that they ceased to be used as codes, being decoded or simply through the disappearance of the group who created them. Still, the French “Verlain” and the British “Cockney “ continue to exist. Verlain is actually based on French, spoken “à l’envers”, the meanings are completely changed by switching the syllables of a word, spelling them on the contrary of what the normal pronunciation imposes ( for example: “mec” (kid) became “keum”,“bizzare”(strange) became “zarbi” or “laissetomber”- “laissebeton”). But this kind of “argot” applies transformations only to the individual words and oftenly only to a specific subset of words with semantic content (like above : nouns and idiomatic phrases). At the level of the syntax, there can be noticed the disappearance of “ne” used for denial, also the “e” mute and other syllables that are oppressed.

7. Analyses: classifications and criteria followed Criteria and classification of idioms belonging to the English language- the main idea of this criteria of classification was to outline a possible statistic of the degree in which parts of body are used in forming idiomatic expressions. The first criteria followed refers firstly to the position that these have as parts of the body, and after to the number of idioms they helped forming ( the ones used to create a more complex number of idioms are main or central, the others are secondary): Classification: According to the position of the body parts: External - main /central parts of body: face,head, eyes, mouth (lips), hair, feet (legs), back, hands - secondary body parts: nose, neck, fingers, shoulders, arms, heels, toes, nails Internal - main /central parts of body: heart, brain, tooth/teeth, stomach - secondary body parts: spine, bones, blood The criteria second to which this last kind of classification was made, it is arbitrary, being done due to the importance people attributed to specific organs or body parts. That is why people paid a lot of attention to parts and organs, such as: head, eyes, hands and feet, their number in the language, with very small differences, maintains itself quite in equal proportions from one part to another.

8. Analyses: classifications and criteria followed Quoting as sources, the Longman dictionary of English Language and Culture, and an electronic one, the following conclusions are made available: As main external body part, the hand holds the first position as number of idioms created with the help of it (there are forty-nine idiomatic phrases), the next to follow there are: the head (with forty-five idioms) , the eye (with thirty-nine), the foot ( thirty-five) , the mouth (lips including) and the back have each either twenty-five (the mouth) or twenty-one idiomatic phrases and the hair –taken often as body part, due mostly to its presence in these expressions ( only eleven idioms). Concerning the secondary branch belonging to this category , the use is almost extremely reduced, their frequence ranges from five dictionary entries, concerning the use of the word “toe”(and its plural) and it increases to fifteen in the use of the word “finger”(and its plural), so that people make rare use of the words “arms” and “toes” , but they seem to pay more attention to the following secondary body parts, each of them registering in between ten and eleven entries: nose, neck (ten), shoulders and heels (eleven). In the case of the main internal body parts, both words “ heart” and “brain” are the ones dominating this category (the first one registers a number of twenty-eight entries, as the center of feelings, while the second one has only sixteen, but giving a second look on the use of the word “head”, it can be noticed that the use of “brain” in idiomatic phrases is mainly additional as the center of thinking). In the second case of this class, the body part less used is the “spine”, followed by the “throat”(five idioms) and reaching a number of sixteen idiomatic expressions using the word “bone”. As body parts with medium usage “the tongue” and “the blood” have ten (the first) and eleven idioms.

9. Analyses: classifications and criteria followed Criteria and classification of idioms belonging to the English language The second criteria of classification focuses on the grammatical functions that each key-word of the idiom has got : there are VERBAL (having incorporated a verb, or describing an action) , NOMINAL (lacking the verb, having as centre of understanding a noun, such as “ eagle eyes”) , but also ADVERBIAL or ADJECTIVE in nature, idioms. I will focus mainly on the verbal category, as most representative in this case, there are types of verbs used in forming an idiomatic phrase, whether they are modal verbs, or they are describing an action or they are static, rendering a feeling, emotion or intention. The modal verbs or auxiliaries impose the meaning of wish, of possibility, of certainty/uncertainty, permission and predictability upon the entire verbal phrase and they are as follows: CAN/COULD, MAY/MIGHT, SHALL/SHOULD, WILL/WOULD, MUST, OUGHT TO, USED TO, NEED, HAD BETTER and DARE. Some examples of idiomatic phrases using body parts, though very few, there are: one who could not believe his/her eyes, or somebody who cannot make head or tail. The action verbs used, describing movements, are used, some of the times as personifications, when it is well known that normally the specific organs or body parts cannot perform such an action, e.g : “catch somebody’s eye”( somebody that you find attractive), “more than meets the eye” (something that is (more)difficult, complicated or interesting than it appears) or “drum it into somebody’s head” (teaching something to somebody through constant repetition) and the examples may go on.

10. Analyses: classifications and criteria followed Criteria and classification of idioms belonging to the English language Some other verbs describe actions that can have an apparent, obvious meaning, but actually being used to complete the metaphorical sense of the idiom: “to cut the ground from under another one’s feet”(weakening someone’s position or spoiling their plans), “ to drag your feet”(delaying a decision or participating without any real enthusiasm), “to pull the rug under someone’s feet” (removing all help or support) etc. The static verbs are mostly related to the intentionality or even possession: “keep an eye out for” (to try to notice or remember),”only have eyes for” (to be interested only in somebody or something), “to keep a level head” (remain calm and sensible no matter how difficult or distressful the situation may be) etc. Like usually, there are also expressions of extreme feelings, such as “somebody who foams at the mouth” (be extremely angry), “to have one’s heart in one’s mouth” (be very frightened) The last criteria of classification proposed regards : Metaphoric idioms ,such as: “bone of contention” (a matter or subject about which there is a lot of disagreement) or “a bag of bones” (somebody very skinny). The metaphorical meaning that an idiom has , it is but usual if we keep in mind their origin and purpose (the codification of the day-by-day language) Idioms based on exaggeration or excess , such as in the next examples: “work their fingers to the bone” (very hard-working person) or “skin someone alive” (to be very harsh with somebody) and the list might go on.

11. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French In making this parallels, firstly between English and French at the idiomatic level, I have tried to underline the fact that specific idioms were being translated from a language to another in a similar way, using more or less similar words, while some others found equivalence in different linguistic phrases. Based on the differences that could be noticed in the linguistic realizations from a language to another, the conclusions would try to generalize them.

12. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 1. Hand To give/lend a hand to (to give/lend help to somebody) Wash one’s hands of (to refuse responsibility) To ask for somebody’s hand (to propose somebody) Force someone’s hand (to make somebody act according to one’s own wishes or before being ready) Off somebody’s hands (not responsible anymore In good, safe hands (under someone’s good protection, responsibility) 1. La main Tendre la main, prêter main forte, donner un coup de main S’en laver les mains Demander la main de quelqu’un Forcer la main Lever la main surquelqu’un Être en bonnes mains

13. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 1. Hand A show of hands (method of voting by raising hands) To have the upper/above hand (person/organization who has the control over something) An iron fist in a velvet glove (behind an appearance of gentleness, someone is inflexible and determined) To win hands down (to win easily) To have your hands tied up or Tie/bind someone hand and foot (unable to do something that somebody wants) A dab hand or an old hand at (very skilled ) 1. La main Ά mains levée, voter à main levée Avoir la haute main surquelqu’un/quelque chose Avoirune main de ferdans un gant de velours Emporter, gagner haut la main Lier les mains à quelqu’un Un homme à toutes mains ou à doigts de fée

14. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 1. Hand To bite the hand that feeds you ( to repay the good that somebody did with something bad) Get one’s hands dirty (involved in unpleasant things) La main Mordre la main qui nourrit ( translation from English) Se salir les mains

15. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using different body parts 1. Hand Hand in hand (something that goes together) Hands on deck (everyone must help when there is a lot of work to do) Not do a hand’s turn (to do no work) To know somebody as the back of your hand (to know somebody very well) Marcher épaulecontreépaule Mettrel’épaule á la roue Ne pas remuer les doigts (in French also, to do no effort) Connaître, savoir sur le bout des doigts

16. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 2. Head To have a swollenwelled head (to become proud or conceited because of recent success) To have the head screwed on (to be a sensible, intelligent, realistic person) Turn someone’s head (in English: to make someone too proud or conceited) To loose one’s head (to suddenly loose self-control) By a short head (by a small amount) 2. La tête Avoir la têteenflée Avoirtoutesatête, avoir la têtesur les épaules Faire tourner la tête à quelqu’un (in French: also make somebody go crazy) Perdre la tête (in French also to loose control falling for somebody) D’un poil – matching a French expression using a different body part

17. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 2. Head To bang/bash/beat/hit /knock one’s head against a brick wall (waste one’s effort by doing something impossible) To be a head case (be crazy) To keep a cool/clear/level head (remain calm and sensible no matter how difficult the situation may be) To go to someone’s head (to make somebody drunk) I cannot make head or tail (not understand it at all) To loose one’s head/off one’s head (mad, crazy) 2. La tête Donner de la têtecontre un murou se taper la têtesur les murs Êtremaladedans la tête Garder la têtefroide Monter à la tête (in French, also troubling one’s judgement) Sans queue nitête Avoir les yeux qui sortent de la tête (different body part)

18. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 3. Foot/Feet To have two left feet (very clumsy, awkward in movements) Have/with a foot in the grave (very old and close to death) To cut the ground from under another one’s feet (weakening somebody’s position) Feet first (somebody who died) Fleet of foot (walking/running very fast) To get/start on the wrong/right foot (to begin something in a good or bad way) 3. Le pied/s Avoirdeuxpiedsdans la mêmebottine Avoir un pied dans la tombe Couperl’herbesous le pied oucouper bras et jambes Les piedsdevant/en avant or Être six piedssousterre (in French also, dead and burried) Lever le pied or Faire haut le pied, or prendre les jambes au cou Re(partir) du bon/mauvais pied

19. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 3. Foot/Feet Tie/bind someone hand and foot (unable to do something that somebody wants) Be rushed off one’s feet (to be so busy and in a hurry, with no time to stop and rest) To land on your feet (to make a quick recovery after a difficulty) 3. Le/s pied/s Pieds et poingsliés Re(partir) un pied chaussé et l’autre nu Retombersursespieds

20. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using a different body part 3. Foot/Feet To have itchy feet (describing one’s impossibility of staying still) To have one foot in both camps (connected with two groups of paople with different ideas) To pull the rug from under someone’s feet (removing all help necessary) Quelqu’un qui a les vers au cul Mettre le doigt entre l’arbre et l’écorce Enlever, ôter, retirer à quelqu’un les morceaux / le pain de la bouche

21. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 4. Eye Eagle eyes (somebody who sees or notices things more easily than others) Keep one’s eye on (watching carefully) Turn a blind eye to something (to ignore something intentionally) Eyes in the back of one’s head (to notice everything happening around, watching everything) The apple of someone’s eyes (somebody very important for someone else) 4.L’oeil/les yeux L’oeild’aigle, de faucon, de lynx Jeter un oeilsur Fermer les yeux Avoirl’oeil à tout C’est la pupille de mesyeux

22. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 4. Eye In the twinkling /blink of an eye (nearby, instantaneously) Under, before one’s very eyes (in front of one, surprisingly in one’s presence) Only have eyes for (to be interested only in somebody, something) One who could not believe his/her eyes (unbelievably big/strong) Raise eyebrows (showing surprise) 4.L’oeil/les yeux En un clind’oeil Je l’ai vu, de mesyeux vu N’avoird’yeuxque pour Ne pas en croiresesyeux Ouvrir les yeuxcomme les bronds de flanc/ des soucoupes

23. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 5. Hair Get in someone’s hair (infml., to annoy somebody , especially by being continuously present) By a hair breadth (just managed to escape from a danger) Not to have a hair out of place (somebody with perfect appearance) To split hairs (to pay much attention to differences that are very small or not so important) Make someone’s hair stand on end (to make someone very afraid) 5. Les cheveux/les poils Tombersur le poil de quelqu’un À un cheveuprès de Il est au poil Couper, fendre les cheveux en quatre Faire, dresser les cheveuxsur la tête

24. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 6. Ear Go in (at) one ear and out (at) the other (information, orders, etc have no effect because something is not listened to) To fall on deaf ears (requests, demands are ignored or paid no attention) Play it by ear (without having an accurate, exact knowledge) To bend someone’s ear (to talk to somebody about something that is worrying you) Up to one’s ears in (deep in or very busy with) All ears (listening eagerly) Prick up one’s ears (listen carefully) A flea in one’s ear (receiving a short severe scolding) 6. L’oreille Celaluirentre par uneoreille et lui sort par l’autre Faire la sourdeoreille Jouer de la musique par oreille Tendrel’oreille Jusqu’auxoreilles Être tout yeux, tout oreilles Prêterl’oreille Se faire taper sur les doigts

25. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 7. Nose Poke/stick one’s nose in (interfere in someone else’s business) Lead someone by the nose (having complete control over somebody) Turn one’s nose up (at)- (consider something not to good enough to pay attention) Cut off one’s nose to spite one’s face (to take action because you are angry, but that results in damage to yourself) To follow one’s nose (to have a good intuition) 7. Le nez Fourrer, mettre son nezdans les affaires de quelqu’un Menerquelqu’un par le bout du nez Tordre le nezouPlisser le nezsurquelque chose Retombersous le nez à quelqu’un Avoir le nezcreuxouavoir le coup d’oeil

26. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases 8. Arm/s To cost an arm and a leg (to be very expensive) 9. Tooth/teeth Tooth and nail (with great violence and determination) By the skin of your teeth (barely managed to do it and almost failed) 8. Le/s bras Çacoûte un bras 9. Les dents Ά belles dents Par la peau des dents Matching french expressions using the same body part

27. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 10. Mouth Make one’s mouth water (desire to eat something very much) Sealed lips (to keep a secret) By word of mouth (by speaking only) Take the words out of someone’s mouth (say something that somebody else wanted to say, without giving them the chance of opening the mouth) Out of the mouths (of babes/used when a child said something very wise) 10. La bouche Mettrel’eau à la boucheou faire venirl’eau à la bouche Bouchecousue De bouche à l’oreille Enlever à quelqu’un les mots de la bouche La vérité sort de la bouche des enfants

28. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using a different body part 10. Mouth Somebody who is all mouth (praising oneself, but actually not doing anything) To have a big mouth (unable to keep secrets) To keep one’s mouth shut (keep silence) Avoir la langue bieneffilée Avoir la langue trop longue Ravalersa langue outenirsa langue

29. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 11. Finger/s Be /feel all fingers and thumbs (be clumsy) To put one’s finger on (to find the exact cause of trouble) Point the finger at (blame somebody publicly) 12. Neck Be up to one’s neck in something (in and deeply concerned with) 11. Les doigts Avoir les doigtsdans le nezouAvoir les mains pleines des pouces Mettre le doigtsurquelque’ chose Montrerquelqu’un du doigt 12. Le cou Êtreenfoncé/mouilléjusqu’aucouor matching an idiom using a different body part: ne plus savoir oúdonner de la tête

30. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 13. Back/ Ass Kick somebody’s ass (very informal, to punish somebody physically) To stab somebody in the back (to betray) To turn your back to somebody or To give somebody a cold shoulder (to reject somebody) To have the back to the wall (be in a very difficult situation) Be on somebody’s ass (American, very informal, to annoy somebody with critics) Cold as a welldigger’s ass (in January)-very cold 13. Le dos/ Le cul/ Les fesses Frotter le dos ou Batter le cul à quelqu’un L’avoirdans le cul/ Frapper, poignarderdans le dos Tourner le dos à quelqu’un Être le dos au mur (in French also, be in adesperate situation) Avoirquelqu’un aux fesses Se geler les fesses

31. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 14. Knees Bring someone to their knees (to force somebody to admit defeat) To bend the knee to (someone)- to admit that somebody has control over something 14. Les genoux Mettrequelqu’un à genoux Être à genouxdevantquelqu’un

32. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using a different body part 15. Brain/s – Internal Body Part To beat one’s brains out (to spend a lot of time thinking or worrying about something) Bird-brained (silly) Scatterbrained (careless, unthinking) To have something on the brain (to have a fix idea) Somebody who is the brain behind something (thought to have planned everything) Se faire des cheveuxblancs or Se casser or se creuser la tête Tête – croche Têtebrûlée En avoir le coeur net Cerveaud’uneentreprise (the same body part)

33. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 16. Stomach- Internal Body Part To have butterflies in one’s stomach (be nervous, frightened) A cast iron stomach (somebody who can eat all sorts of foods) 17. Tongue- Internal Body Part Bite one’s tongue (to make a great effort to stop yourself saying what you really feel) On the tip of one’s tongue (not quite able to be remembered) 16. L’estomac Avoir des papillonsdansl’estomac Avoir un estomacd’autruche 17. La langue Se mordre la langue Je l’aisur le bout de la langue

34. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 18. Blood- Internal Body Part To make your blood boil (violent emotion) To make somebody’s blood run cold (it shocks or scares a lot) To spill somebody’s blood (to kill somebody) To run in somebody’s blood (it makes reference to the family line) Have someone’s blood on your hands (be responsible of someone’s death) In cold blood (cruelly and on purpose) 18. Le sang Avoir le sang qui bouillonne Figer/glacer le sang Noyerquelqu’undans le sang Avoirquelque’ chose dans le sang Rougirses mains de sang Ά sang-froid

35. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 19. Skin and Bones To skin someone alive (to punish somebody very severely) All skin and bones (very thin) 20. Throat – Internal Body Part To ram something down someone’s throat (force someone to accept something against their will) 19. Peau et os Avoir la peau de quelqu’un N’avoirque la peau et les os 20. La gorge Avoir le couteausous la gorge ouL’avoir de travers de la gorge

36. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 21. Heart- Internal Body Part A heart of stone (pitiless) A heart of gold (a very good nature) To loose your heart to (fall in love) After one’s own heart (of exactly the type one likes) To wear your heart on your sleeve (to show one’s true feelings openly) To learn/know something by heart (by memory) From the bottom of one’s heart (sincerely) 21. Le coeur Avoir un cour de pierre, de marbre/ être sans-coeur Avoir un coeurd’or Donner son amour ouAvoir un coeur qui bat à tout rompre De bon coeur Ouvrir son coeurouParler à coeurouvert Par coeur De tout son coeur

37. Sets of idioms: comparison between English and French English idiomatic phrases Matching french expressions using the same body part 21. Heart- internal Body Part To have one’s heart in the right place (to have good intentions) Sick at heart (sad, hopeless) Heart bled (be very sorry) To have the heart to do something (unfeeling, brave enough to do it) At the heart of (the central, most important part of something) 21. Le coeur Avoir le coeur à bonne place Avoir le coeurserré, avoir le coeurgros En avoirgros, lourdsur le coeur Avoir du coeur au ventre Au coeur de

38. Conclusions Some of the idioms using body parts (and not only) entered the language from the slang side, as an attempt of decoding them. (such as “Get in someone’s hair”, meaning “annoy somebody by being continually present” and such examples are many). In English, the main body parts dominating the idiomatic phrases are the ones responsible for the act of thinking (head and brain) or representing the action in itself (hand). In French, the things are somehow similar, so the number of “expressions courrantes” are relevant in the uses of the foot and of the hand, but they become obvious in expressing feelings, using also, as body parts: the head (and the brain) and the heart. Most of the idioms have metaphorical sense, at the base laying an overreaction or even an exaggeration, such as “make somebody’s blood boil”/”avoir le sang qui bouillonne” (very angry) or even “to give an arm for something”(wanting something very much) or from French: “mettresatête à couper”(to sustain something in a radical way). Some other idioms came from literary sources and in this case some authors translated them from a language to another or simply borrowing them and yet applying a completely different meaning. The name that I gave to this last category is: idioms comporting semantic differences. I will expose some of these in the table that follows.

39. Conclusions

40. Bibliography Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, Ed. Pearson Longman, 1998 Electronic source: www.wikipedia.com Electronic source: http://legrenierdebibiane.com/participez/Expressions/corps.htmlComparative Linguistic Essay.pptx