3. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
3 / 138
4. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
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5. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
5 / 138
6. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
6 / 138
7. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
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8. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
8 / 138
9. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
children’s (early) utterance
9 / 138
10. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
children’s (early) utterance
speech errors
10 / 138
11. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
children’s (early) utterance
speech errors
language games 11 / 138
12. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
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13. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
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14. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
14 / 138
15. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
15 / 138
16. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
16 / 138
17. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
⇒ You wouldn’t know about this if you don’t have the
concept of “syllables.”
17 / 138
18. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
⇒ You wouldn’t know about this if you don’t have the
concept of “syllables.”
More crucially, syllable provides domains for
phonotactic constraints.
18 / 138
19. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
⇒ You wouldn’t know about this if you don’t have the
concept of “syllables.”
More crucially, syllable provides domains for
phonotactic constraints.
Are there “syllables” in sign languages? Stay tuned for
next week’s invited talk!
19 / 138
20. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
If we observe infants and toddlers’ babbling, soon we
would notice that their production follows a particular
kind of structure: Consonant-Vowel (CV) structure.
This CV structure forms a fundamental, structural
unit for languages: syllable (σ).
20 / 138
21. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
If we observe infants and toddlers’ babbling, soon we
would notice that their production follows a particular
kind of structure: Consonant-Vowel (CV) structure.
This CV structure forms a fundamental, structural
unit for languages: syllable (σ).
It shouldn’t take long for us to realize that not all
syllables are in CV structure.
21 / 138
22. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
22 / 138
23. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
2 If a language has CVC, it must have CV. (But not the
other way around.)
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24. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
2 If a language has CVC, it must have CV. (But not the
other way around.)
3 If a language has CVCC, it must have CVC. (But not
the other way around.)
24 / 138
25. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
2 If a language has CVC, it must have CV. (But not the
other way around.)
3 If a language has CVCC, it must have CVC. (But not
the other way around.)
⇒ If a language has a more complicated structure, it
must have a simpler structure.
25 / 138
26. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Within a syllable, the core component is nucleus.
That is, each syllable must have a nucleus, either a
vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
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27. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Within a syllable, the core component is nucleus.
That is, each syllable must have a nucleus, either a
vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.
A syllable may have an onset (any consonants
preceding the nucleus). ⇒ Optional
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
27 / 138
28. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Within a syllable, the core component is nucleus.
That is, each syllable must have a nucleus, either a
vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.
A syllable may have an onset (any consonants
preceding the nucleus). ⇒ Optional
A syllable may have a coda (any consonants following
the nucleus). ⇒ Optional
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
28 / 138
29. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
In a lot of cases (i.e., languages), rhyme forms a
constituent, in which nucleus and coda are included
(top left).
29 / 138
30. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
In a lot of cases (i.e., languages), rhyme forms a
constituent, in which nucleus and coda are included
(top left).
Some languages, such as Arabic and Korean, on the
other hand, form a different constituent where onset
and nucleus are subordinated to the node of body (top
right).
30 / 138
31. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Your contributions!
Not to your surprise, you know English syllable
structures are more than just a CVC structure. It gets
more complicated. In fact, it can get up to:
CCCVCCC!
Post your example(s) of CCCVCCC on padlet.
31 / 138
32. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
bopomofo ㄅㄆㄇㄈ
Think again about ㄅㄆㄇㄈ. Are they consonants, or
are they syllables?
32 / 138
33. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
bopomofo ㄅㄆㄇㄈ
Think again about ㄅㄆㄇㄈ. Are they consonants, or
are they syllables?
Consonants are not easily perceived; they need vowels
to project.
33 / 138
34. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
How do we know where syllable boundaries actually
lie? ⇒ Why Atlanta is syllabified as “At.lan.ta”?
34 / 138
35. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
How do we know where syllable boundaries actually
lie? ⇒ Why Atlanta is syllabified as “At.lan.ta”?
Universally, syllable structures are arranged in an
order of rising and falling sonority (i.e., the overall
energy of segments, or how free airflow is during
articulation) around the nucleus vowel.
⇒ So-called “Sonority Profile” (a.k.a. Sonority Principle or
the Sonority Sequencing Generalization).
35 / 138
36. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
Based on sonority , a universal ranking of segment
class has been proposed:
36 / 138
37. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
Based on sonority , a universal ranking of segment
class has been proposed:
(Non-high)Vowels > High Vowels (Glides) >
Liquids > Nasals > Fricatives > Stops
37 / 138
38. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
38 / 138
39. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
39 / 138
40. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
40 / 138
41. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
41 / 138
42. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
⇒ Sonority sequencing principle: Segments’
sonority increases as they move more into a syllable
(i.e., closer to the rhyme).
42 / 138
43. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
⇒ Sonority sequencing principle: Segments’
sonority increases as they move more into a syllable
(i.e., closer to the rhyme).
What about “explicit” /EksplIsIt/? Where do you draw
the syllable boundary?
43 / 138
44. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
⇒ Sonority sequencing principle: Segments’
sonority increases as they move more into a syllable
(i.e., closer to the rhyme).
What about “explicit” /EksplIsIt/? Where do you draw
the syllable boundary?
[s] is very special! English allows [s] to occur at the
most peripheral onset position, regardless of the
sonority profile.
44 / 138
45. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
45 / 138
46. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
46 / 138
47. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
47 / 138
48. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
48 / 138
49. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
Some languages (e.g., English) obey Onset through
“resyllabification.”
49 / 138
50. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
Some languages (e.g., English) obey Onset through
“resyllabification.”
⇒ “in an hour” /in.En.aUô/ → [ĩ.nẼ.nãŨô]
50 / 138
51. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
Some languages (e.g., English) obey Onset through
“resyllabification.”
⇒ “in an hour” /in.En.aUô/ → [ĩ.nẼ.nãŨô]
NOTE: The Onset Principle is only a principle (i.e., a
tendency). It is not obligatorily enforced.
51 / 138
53. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
II. Phonemes and allophones
53 / 138
54. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎
54 / 138
55. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
55 / 138
56. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1]
56 / 138
57. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
57 / 138
58. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒
58 / 138
59. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
59 / 138
60. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
60 / 138
61. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
As a language user, we learn sound rules either
explicitly or implicitly.
Mandarin tone 3: (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
English plural: [s] – [z] – [@z]
... and many more!
61 / 138
62. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
As a language user, we learn sound rules either
explicitly or implicitly.
Mandarin tone 3: (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
English plural: [s] – [z] – [@z]
... and many more!
How do these rules emerge? How are they generalized?
62 / 138
63. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
As a language user, we learn sound rules either
explicitly or implicitly.
Mandarin tone 3: (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
English plural: [s] – [z] – [@z]
... and many more!
How do these rules emerge? How are they generalized?
⇒ Phonology
63 / 138
64. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological relationships
Determine the [ph
] – [b] disctinction
64 / 138
67. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
67 / 138
68. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
Note that these three sounds, when followed by the
vowel [a], form three different word meanings!
68 / 138
69. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
Note that these three sounds, when followed by the
vowel [a], form three different word meanings!
⇒ In other words, these sounds are in contrastive
categories!
69 / 138
70. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
Note that these three sounds, when followed by the
vowel [a], form three different word meanings!
⇒ In other words, these sounds are in contrastive
categories!
⇒⇒ Like we we define morpheme, we term these
sounds that contrast different word meanings when in
the same occurring environments phoneme.
70 / 138
71. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
71 / 138
72. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
72 / 138
73. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
73 / 138
74. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
74 / 138
75. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
Minimal pair: two words (with different meanings)
whose pronunciations differ by exactly one sound.
75 / 138
76. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
Minimal pair: two words (with different meanings)
whose pronunciations differ by exactly one sound.
One way of testing (or determining) if two sounds are
phonemes is to find a minimal pair for them.
76 / 138
77. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
Minimal pair: two words (with different meanings)
whose pronunciations differ by exactly one sound.
One way of testing (or determining) if two sounds are
phonemes is to find a minimal pair for them.
Linguists use slashes // to enclose “phonemes” (e.g.,
/b/, /p/) and use square brackets [ ] to represent
“phonetic sounds” (e.g., [p], [ph
]).
77 / 138
78. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
78 / 138
79. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
79 / 138
80. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
80 / 138
81. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
81 / 138
82. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
These sounds are actually variants of the phoneme /t/.
82 / 138
83. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
These sounds are actually variants of the phoneme /t/.
These variants of a phoneme are called allophones.
83 / 138
84. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
These sounds are actually variants of the phoneme /t/.
These variants of a phoneme are called allophones.
Crucially, the alternation between allophones does not
yield any meaning contrasts.
(If you pronounce the word stop as [sthap], that still means “stop.”)
84 / 138
85. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take a closer look:
top [th
] At the beginning of a stressed syllable.
stop [t] After [s].
city [R] Between two vowels and the first syllable is stressed.
kitten [P] Followed by [@n] and the previous syllable is stressed.
tree [Ù] Before [ô]
pot [tq
] At the end of a syllable.
These allophones occur at different environments!
85 / 138
86. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take a closer look:
top [th
] At the beginning of a stressed syllable.
stop [t] After [s].
city [R] Between two vowels and the first syllable is stressed.
kitten [P] Followed by [@n] and the previous syllable is stressed.
tree [Ù] Before [ô]
pot [tq
] At the end of a syllable.
These allophones occur at different environments!
⇒ Each allophone has its own distributional condition.
When one occurs, the other one doesn’t.
86 / 138
87. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take a closer look:
top [th
] At the beginning of a stressed syllable.
stop [t] After [s].
city [R] Between two vowels and the first syllable is stressed.
kitten [P] Followed by [@n] and the previous syllable is stressed.
tree [Ù] Before [ô]
pot [tq
] At the end of a syllable.
⇒⇒ Allophones are in complementary
distribution.
NOTE: Sounds that are NOT in complementary
distribution are not necessarily phonemes. In English
[h] only occurs in onset, but [N] only occurs in coda.
That doesn’t mean that [h] and [N] are two phonemes.
87 / 138
88. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Phonemes
Contrastive categories
Forms minimal pairs
⇒ Overlapped distribution
⇒ Unpredictable distribution
IPA symbols enclosed by slashes //.
88 / 138
89. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Phonemes
Contrastive categories
Forms minimal pairs
⇒ Overlapped distribution
⇒ Unpredictable distribution
IPA symbols enclosed by slashes //.
Allophones
Non-contrastive categories
In complementary distribution
⇒ Predictable distribution
IPA symbols enclosed by square brackets [ ].
89 / 138
90. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Your contributions
When 柯南 shows up, 工藤新一 doesn’t (can’t) show
up. ⇒ 柯南 and 工藤新一 are in complementary
distribution.
Please come up with one live (non-linguistic) example
or two of “complementary distribution” and post
your answer(s) on padlet.
90 / 138
91. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
91 / 138
92. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
92 / 138
93. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
These variants are termed free variations.
93 / 138
94. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
These variants are termed free variations.
They are allophones of the same phoneme.
94 / 138
95. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
These variants are termed free variations.
They are allophones of the same phoneme.
Overlapping distribution with no difference in
meaning.
95 / 138
96. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s now take a look at the (regular) plural formation in
English. Please write down the plural marker for each word.
cats [ ]
dogs [ ]
buses [ ]
tubs [ ]
watches [ ]
cakes [ ]
sibilngs [ ]
ashes [ ]
pipes [ ]
96 / 138
97. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s now take a look at the (regular) plural formation in
English. Please write down the plural marker for each word.
cats [s]
dogs [z]
buses [@z]
tubs [z]
watches [@z]
cakes [s]
siblings [z]
ashes [@z]
pipes [s]
97 / 138
98. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s now take a look at the (regular) plural formation in
English. Please write down the plural marker for each word.
cats [s]
dogs [z]
buses [@z]
tubs [z]
watches [@z]
cakes [s]
siblings [z]
ashes [@z]
pipes [s]
English plural marker has three allomorphs: [s], [z],
and [@z]
98 / 138
99. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Each allomorph occurs with a class of sounds:
[s] attaches to words ending with [p, t, k]
[z] attaches to words ending with [b, g, N]
[@z] attaches to words ending with [s, S, Ù]
99 / 138
100. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Each allomorph occurs with a class of sounds:
[s] attaches to words ending with [p, t, k]
[z] attaches to words ending with [b, g, N]
[@z] attaches to words ending with [s, S, Ù]
Very quickly, you should notice:
[s] attaches to words ending with [p, t, k, f]
[z] attaches to words ending with [b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l]
[@z] attaches to words ending with [s, S, Ù, z, Ã]
100 / 138
101. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f]
101 / 138
102. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
102 / 138
103. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l]
103 / 138
104. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
104 / 138
105. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã]
105 / 138
106. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] ⇒ all [+sibilant]
106 / 138
107. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] ⇒ all [+sibilant]
These phonetic properties are termed features.
107 / 138
108. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s look closer:
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] are ⇒ all [+sibilant], but some of them
are [+voice] while others are [-voice].
If we claim that all words ending with an [-voice]
sound should be followed by [s], we would wrongly get
bus [*b2ss].
Our generalizations should be modified:
108 / 138
109. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s look closer:
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] are ⇒ all [+sibilant], but some of them
are [+voice] while others are [-voice].
If we claim that all words ending with an [-voice]
sound should be followed by [s], we would wrongly get
bus [*b2ss].
Our generalizations should be modified:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice, -sibilant]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice, -sibilant]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] ⇒ all [+sibilant]
109 / 138
110. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Distinctive features
For consonants, linguists have posited a number of
features.
110 / 138
111. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Distinctive features
Unsurprisingly, (English) vowels can be evaluated by
different distinctive features:
111 / 138
112. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Distinctive features
Unsurprisingly, (English) vowels can be evaluated by
different distinctive features:
Question: /i/, /I/, /u/, and /U/ form a group. What
feature(s) is the defining feature?
⇒ [+high]
112 / 138
114. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Phonological rules often apply to natural classes or are
structure-dependent. Now let’s look at some (common)
phonological rules.
Let’s take a look at the following German examples:
What’s the phonological process here?
114 / 138
115. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s look back at today’s in-class exercise:
1 What are the rules to make plural forms?
2 Apart from the rule for plural forms, what other rules
do you observe?
3 Can you give the “underlying” forms (i.e., the basic
structure before any rules applied) for each word?
4 Following the previous question, can you justify your
answers?
115 / 138
116. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
116 / 138
118. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
1 unbelievable [2mb@liv@bl
"
], unstable [2nsteIbl
"
],
unclear[2Nkliô]
2
Latin Italian gloss
octo otto eight
septem sette seven
damnum danno damage
118 / 138
119. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
1 unbelievable [2mb@liv@bl
"
], unstable [2nsteIbl
"
],
unclear[2Nkliô]
2
Latin Italian gloss
octo otto eight
septem sette seven
damnum danno damage
Can you generalize the rule at work here?
119 / 138
120. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
1 unbelievable [2mb@liv@bl
"
], unstable [2nsteIbl
"
],
unclear[2Nkliô]
2
Latin Italian gloss
octo otto eight
septem sette seven
damnum danno damage
Can you generalize the rule at work here?
⇒ Assimilation: Rules of assimilation cause a sound
(or gesture) to become more like a neighboring sound
(or gesture) with respect to some phonetic property.
120 / 138
121. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
121 / 138
122. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
122 / 138
123. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
2 Mandarin: 老虎 (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
123 / 138
124. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
2 Mandarin: 老虎 (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
Unlike assimilation, this kind of phonological rule
makes two close or adjacent sounds to become less
similar with respect to some property.
124 / 138
125. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
2 Mandarin: 老虎 (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
Unlike assimilation, this kind of phonological rule
makes two close or adjacent sounds to become less
similar with respect to some property.
⇒ This is termed dissimilation.
125 / 138
126. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
126 / 138
127. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
127 / 138
128. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
2 Insertion can also occur in perception! [ebzo] to
[ebuzo] continuum by Japanese and French speakers
(Dupoux et al. 1999).
128 / 138
129. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
2 Insertion can also occur in perception! [ebzo] to
[ebuzo] continuum by Japanese and French speakers
(Dupoux et al. 1999).
Deletion: A sound that was present at the phonemic
level gets eliminated in the phonetic output.
129 / 138
130. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
2 Insertion can also occur in perception! [ebzo] to
[ebuzo] continuum by Japanese and French speakers
(Dupoux et al. 1999).
Deletion: A sound that was present at the phonemic
level gets eliminated in the phonetic output.
1 mystery /mIst@ôi/ → [mIstôi]
130 / 138
131. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
131 / 138
132. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
132 / 138
133. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
133 / 138
134. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
134 / 138
135. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
1 ask him [æsk#hIm] vs. [æks#hIm] (*axe him!)
135 / 138
136. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
1 ask him [æsk#hIm] vs. [æks#hIm] (*axe him!)
2 In Leti, VC#CC → CV#CC. For example,
136 / 138
137. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
1 ask him [æsk#hIm] vs. [æks#hIm] (*axe him!)
2 In Leti, VC#CC → CV#CC. For example,
“index finger” /ukar + ppalu/ → [ukrappalu].
137 / 138
138. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
演講語言
調查: Medium language of the invited talks
138 / 138
