1. Labor Productivity in Thailand Rice Farming:
A Typical Farm Approach
Somporn Isvilanonda and
Piyatat Pananurak
Knowledge Network Institute of Thailand
South East Asian agri benchmark Rice Network Workshop
at the Liberty Central Hotel - Hồ Chí Minh/Vietnam
December 9-12, 2013

2. OUTLINE
2. Trends in Rice Labor Force and Aging Farmers
1. Development in Rice Cropping Intensity and
Productivity Improvement
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity
5. Conclusion and Suggestions
2
3. Driving Force Toward Farm Mechanization
Adoption and Progress in Machinery Using

3. 3
 From 1967 to 2012, rice production increased nearly 4 times.
The contribution to this improvement was a result of a widen MVs
adoption and rice cropping intensification, mostly in irrigated areas.
Planted area(million ha) Production(million ton) Ave.Yield
Year wet
season
dry
season
total wet
season
dry
season
Total (kg/ha)
1967 7.43 0.04 7.47 13.73 .06 13.79 1.85
1987 9.27 0.58 9.85 16.27 2.77 19.04 1.93
2012 10.40 2.88 13.28 25.87 12.22 38.09 2.87
Source: Calculated from OAE (Office of Agricultural Economics) data
 In 2012, total rice production was 38 million ton. About 40% was
produced from irrigated area.
1. Development in Rice Cropping Intensity and
Productivity
 Average rice yield in Thailand is relatively low or 2.87 t/ha/annum
3

4. 2. Trends in Rice Labor Force and Aging Farmers(1)
In Thailand, the share of rice labor force alone has significantly
declined from 47.5% to 27.1% during the past three decades.
Year Total Labor force Ag. Labor force Rice labor force
(million p.) (million p.) (%) (million p.) (% )
1973-1977 22.80 15.28 67.0 10.83 47.5
2003-2007 36.29 15.29 42.1 9.83 27.1
Source: Calculated from OAE (Office of Agricultural Economics) data
 An essential driving force was from an increasing importance of
industrial and service sectors. A continuous high growth rate in non-
farm sector for more than the past few decades has essentially
created farm labor out-migration to cities and urban areas.
2.1 Declining Trend in Rice Labor Force
4

5. Year Country Central region Northeast region
Age of Household Head (years)
1988 49.7 55.3 44.2
2009 62.5 62.2 62.8
Size of HH
1988 5.0 4.9 5.1
2009 4.3 3.8 4.8
Source: Ananchanok S. (2012)
2.2 Aging Farmers and Shrinking Farm HH Size
In the past two decades, farm household has the age of HH head
increasing significantly from 50 to 63 years.
But, the HH size significantly declined from 5.0 to 4.3 person.
2. Trend in Rice Labor Force and Aging farmers(2)
5

6. 6
 Need shorten time for preparation of planted areas and
harvesting for increasing rice crop intensification.
3. Driving Force Toward Farm Mechanization
Adoption and Progress in Machinery Using(1)
 Improvements in farm profit in irrigated areas.
Rising farm wage rate. Rural farm wage rate rose 4 times(in
nominal value) in the past few decades.
Period Wage Rate
(baht/day) (US$/day)
1990-94 1/ 67 2.16
1995-99 1/ 76 2.45
2000-04 2/ 128 4.13
2008-12 3/ 250 8.13
Note: 1/ from center for applied economic research, Kasetsart University; 2/ Labor force survey; 3/ KNIT farm interview
Need to reduce labor use in rice cropping activities
3.1 Factors Contributing to Mechanization Adoption

7.  Power tillers were firstly adopted to replace for draft animal
labor in around late 1970s in preparation of paddy field, including
water pump.
 Uses of power tiller and combine harvester by smallholders
are commonly found in rice production regions.
 Threshing machine and combined harvesters were later
adopted around early 1990 as a result of hired labor shortage
during harvesting season.
7
 Expansion of medium term farm credit by BAAC played
significant role in accelerating the machine using.

8. 3.3 Access to Machinery in Farming Operation
Nearly 71% of the HH owned power tiller since the price is not
expensive . A price of 8-10 HW of power tiller is around 2,000 US$.
Year Power tiller 4-whele tractor Water pump
with engine
Combined
harvester
1,000 machine
1991 1/ 854.28 65.01 na na
1995 1/ 1,515.69 148.84 na 2.50
1998 2/ 1,967.08 142.84 1,267.67 6.08
2003 2/ 2,091.45 204.54 1,008.12 24.85
2008 2/ 2,644.98 287.23 1,430.98 41.14
Note: 1/ TRF (1998) “Opportunity and Option of Machinery Industry Under Free Trade Policy” 2/Office of Industrial Economic (2011) “Agricultural
Machinery, inistry of Industry
For combined harvester and tractor, contractors provided
services for plowing and harvesting at a relatively cheaper cost than
using the labor. A harvesting service cost is about 111 US$ per ha.
8
3. Driving Force Toward Farm Mechanization
Adoption and Progress in Machinery Using(2)

9. Source: TDRI (2013)
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity(1)
4.1 A General Approach
 Labor productivity is measured by using production divided
by rice labor force.
Year
Average Production
(million ton)
Average Rice
labor force
(head)
Average Labor
productivity
(ton/head)
1986-90 16.58 11,05 1.51
1991-95 17.44 10.92 1.61
1996-00 18.81 8.86 2.13
2001-05 22.66 9.89 2.30
2006-10 23.61 9.84 2.40
 Labor productivity in rice farming seemed to increase over the
past few decades..
For first rice crop, labor productivity rose from 1.51 ton per
head during 1986-90 to 2.40 ton per head during 2006-10.
9

10. Year
Average Production
(million ton)
Average Rice
labor force
(head)
Average Labor
productivity
(ton/head)
1986-90 2,530,450 519,395 4.84
1991-95 2,540,351 548,065 4.64
1996-00 4,623,841 839,660 5.51
2001-05 6,065,086 1,097,844 5.53
2006-10 7,924,769 1,231,176 6.45
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity (2)
For second rice crop, labor productivity increased from 4.84 ton
per head during 1986-90 to 6.45 ton per head during 2006-10.
Source: TDRI (2013)
4.1 A general Approach (continued)
Labor productivity in second rice crop was larger than that
in first rice crop.
10

11.  Typical Farm Characteristics of Second Rice crop in Irrigated Area
Items/activities Irrigated Area Typical Farm
Farm size (ha) 4.32
soil Loamy soil
Yield(ton/ha) 5.6
Varieties RD 47 and Pathum Thani 1
Production system Pre-germinated direct seeding
Water resource Gravitation system
Land preparation 1st plowing with owned small tractor
second plowing with owned power tiller
Seed Buy seed
Fertilizer input Using compounded fertilizer
30 days after broadcasting:46-0-0 and 16-20-0
65 days after broadcasting:16-20-0
Harvesting Hiring combined harvester
BAAC membership Yes Source: From survey
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity (3)
4.2 Typical Farm Approach (continued)
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12. activities Irrigated second rice production crop year 2012/13 Month Dry S.
Tillage Hired Labor with Machine beg 05
Plowing Family Labors with Tractor two wheels beg 05
Seeding RD 47 and Pathum Thani 1, 174 kg/ha mid 05
Herbicide#1 Hired Labor mid 05
Herbicide#2 Family Labor end 05
Irrigation Family Labors with Water Pump 05-06
Insecticide + Fungicide#1 Hired Labor mid 06
Fertilizer#1
Hired Labor / 46-0-0 and 16-20-0 /
N = 29.4 kg/ha, P = 19kg/ha (avg. for #1 and #2)
mid 06
Fertilizer#2 Hired Labor / 16-20-0 beg 07
Insecticide + Fungicide#2 Family Labor mid 07
Insecticide + Fungicide +
Hormone#3
Family Labor mid 08
Weeding Hired Labor mid 08
Harvesting +Transportation
Hired Labor with Machine end 08
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity (4)
4.2 Typical Farm Approach (continued)
 Production system of second rice crop in irrigated Area
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13.  Labor use of typical farm of second rice crop in irrigated area
Item Family Labor of 4.32 ha farm Hired Labor Total Labor
No. Day Hr/day Total (Hr) No. Day Hr/day Total (Hr) (Hr)
Tillage 1 1 8 8 - - - - 8
Plowing 2 2 8 32 - - - - 32
Seeding 2 1 3 6 5 1 3 15 21
Herbicide#1 - - - - 5 1 2 10 10
Herbicide#2 4 1 2 8 - - - - 8
Irrigation 1 12 1 12 - - - - 12
Insecticide#1 - - - - 5 1 2 10 10
Fertilizer#1 - - - - 4 1 3 12 12
Fertilizer#2 - - - - 4 1 3 12 12
Insecticide#2 4 1 2 8 - - - - 8
Insecticide#3 4 1 2 8 - - - - 8
Weeding 1 1 1 1 8 1 8 64 65
Harvesting &
Transport
2 1 10 20 2 1 10 20 40
Total (Hr) - - - 103 143 246
Total Labor(MD) 12.88 17.87 30.75
Source: From survey in September 2013
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity (4)
4.2 Typical Farm Approach (Continued)
13

14.  Machinery use of typical farm of second rice crop in irrigated area
Item Machine Use of 4.32 ha farm
No. Day Hr/day Total (Hr)
Tillage 2 1 8 16
Plowing - - - -
Seeding - - - -
Herbicide#1 - - - -
Herbicide#2 - - - -
Irrigation 1 10 4 40
Insecticide#1 - - - -
Fertilizer#1 - - - -
Fertilizer#2 - - - -
Insecticide#2 - - - -
Insecticide#3 - - - -
Weeding - - - -
Harvesting & Transport 1 1 10 10
Source: From survey in September 2013
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity (5)
4.2 Typical Farm Approach (Continued)
14

15. Item unit 2st rice
acreage ha 4.32
yield t/ha 5.79
Labor Use MD/ha 7.12
Harvester Use Hr/ha 2.32
Labor and harvester Productivity Measurement
Labor productivity Ton/labor day 0.78
Harvester Productivity Ton/hr 2.50
Source: calculated from field survey
 Farm and labor productivity of second rice crop
It is found a disparity between using a broader concept and a farm
record concept to measuring labor productivity in rice farming.
A development of measuring technique for measuring labor
productivity is necessary.
4. Concepts in Measuring Rice Labor Productivity (6)
4.2 Typical Farm Approach (Continued)
15

16. 5. Conclusion and Suggestions (1)
 Labor productivity in rice farming seemed to improve due to
a substitution of machinery to labor in farming activities.
16
 Small farm holds could access to relatively high cost of
machinery use through contractor services at a reasonable rate.
 It is indicated that ,by using a typical farm approach, a labor
day in rice farming could produce 0.78 ton of rice.
 For using combined harvester, its machine hour could
produce 2.5 ton of rice.
A large disparity was also found between using a general
concept and a typical farm concept in measuring labor
productivity.

17. 5. Conclusion and Suggestions (2)
17
For improving labor productivity, it is suggested that:
3. Land consolidation might be considered as an another
option for providing advantage of mechanization using.
1. Enhancing farm management skill for farmers, particularly
younger family members, are necessary.
2. Labor saving technology investment and development as
well as yield improvement technology are important,
particularly for seedling, weeding and harvesting activities.

18. Thank you
Q&A