PAD3711 Module one essay due Friday May 15PLACE ALL ANSWERS IN T.docx

PAD3711 Module one essay due Friday May 15
PLACE ALL ANSWERS IN THIS ASSIGNMENT ON ONE
WORD DOCUMENT ONLY, IDENTIFYING EACH
ACCORDINGLY.
This is the book Title: Garson, G. D. (2007). Modern public
information technology systems: issues and challenges.
Hershey, PA: IGI Pub. ISBN: 978-159904051-6
(chapter 1 attached to post)
After reading Chapter One prepare a 200 word response to the
conclusion which states “A Public Administration graduate
needs hands-on skills in computer applications, both mastery of
generic applications and familiarity with dedicated applications.
‘The’ said graduate also needs to be conversant with the issues
involved in successfully managing information technology and
computer applications.” Place the essay questions along with
your answers and the case study in the submission box as a
Word Doc Attachment
(APA format all documents are submitted into turnitin)
PAD3711
Module one essay
due Friday Ma
y 15
WORD DOCUMENT ONLY,
IDENTIFYING EACH ACCORDINGLY.
This is the book
Title: Garson, G. D. (2007). Modern public information
technology
systems: issues and challenges. Hershey, PA: IGI Pub. ISBN:

978
-
159904051
-
6
conclusion which
states “A Public Administration
graduate needs hands
-
on skills in computer
applications, both mastery of generic applications and
familiarity with dedicated
applications. ‘The’ said graduate also needs to be conversant
with the issues
involved in successfully managing information technol
ogy and computer
applications.” Place the essay questions along with your
answers and the case
study in the submission box as a Word Doc Attachment
(APA format all documents are submitted into
turnitin
)
PAD3711 Module one essay due Friday May 15
WORD DOCUMENT ONLY,
IDENTIFYING EACH ACCORDINGLY.
This is the book Title: Garson, G. D. (2007). Modern public
information technology
systems: issues and challenges. Hershey, PA: IGI Pub. ISBN:

978-159904051-6
conclusion which
states “A Public Administration graduate needs hands-on skills
in computer
applications, both mastery of generic applications and
familiarity with dedicated
applications. ‘The’ said graduate also needs to be conversant
with the issues
involved in successfully managing information technology and
computer
applications.” Place the essay questions along with your
answers and the case
study in the submission box as a Word Doc Attachment
(APA format all documents are submitted into turnitin)
Lip Service? 1
Copyright © 2007, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print
or electronic forms without written permission of
IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter I
Lip Service?
How PA Journals and Textbooks
View Information Technology
Alana Northrop, California State University, Fullertan, USA
Abstract

This chapter first points out the continued need for a reader on
information technology by
reviewing the early importance given to computing education by
MPA programs and prac-
titioners. Next, the chapter surveys current textbooks’ and
general public-administration
journals’ treatment of the topic. Three highly respected public-
administration journals and
three textbooks are reviewed. The journals are found to
typically give little attention to the
topic of computing, whether as a main focus or as merely a
mention in articles. The textbooks
also barely mention computing. In addition, there was no
consistent rubric or chapter topic
under which computing is discussed. The continued and vital
need for a reader on informa-
tion technology and computer applications in public
administration is apparent. Finally, the
chapter concludes by briefly discussing a range of issues that
public administrators should
be conversant with if they are to successfully utilize computer
applications in the delivery
of public-sector services.
2 Northrop
Introduction
In 1985, a special computing education committee

recommended to the National Association
of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) that
a sixth skill, computing, be
added to the original five skills that must be taught in an MPA
program. This recommendation
applied to the accreditation of schools starting in 1988. Now
over 20 years have passed since
the original recommendation. Let us turn to evaluate the
progress that has been made.
Computing Education in MPA Programs
There have been two published studies that surveyed MPA
programs and assessed the level
of computing education. Cleary (1990) mailed out
questionnaires to 215 public affairs and
public administration (PA) master’s programs affiliated with the
National Association of
Schools of Public Affairs and Administration in 1989. Of the
80% returned, about one out of
four reported that they had a course dealing with information
systems and computer skills.
The respondents were quick to note that the information systems
and computer-skills areas
needed more attention in the future. Yet, 1989 was a long time
ago, especially when it comes
to the massive changes in the computer field.
Brudney, Hy, and Waugh (1993) did a little more recent survey
of MPA programs. Close to
90% of the programs said they use computers in their
instruction. Over half of the institu-
tions offer a course in computers, yet only 30% had made
computing a requirement. The
study also suggested that computing skills need to be taught
beyond the typically taught
statistical applications.

Without an absolutely current survey of programs, one can only
surmise, though pretty safely,
that computer use in MPA courses has greatly expanded. Word
processing, spreadsheets,
graphics, e-mail, the Internet, geographic information system
(GIS), and online classes are
now part and parcel of MPA programs and assumed student
skills.
What PA Practitioners Advise
in Computing Education
Four studies surveyed public managers. Lan and Cayer (1994)
surveyed administrators in
one state. The recommendations were that MPA programs need
course work in computer
literacy, specifically knowledge of applications and hands-on
skills. The respondents said
they use information technology (unfortunately this includes
phone and fax) an average of
56% of their day. The respondents also said that they were
involved with the management
of the information system, so management issues as well as
computer skills are important
for PA students.
Lip Service? 3
Crewson and Fisher (1997) surveyed 371 city administrators in
the United States. In terms

of importance for public administrators in the future, 37% of the
sample rated computer
skills as most important, with 57% giving such skills moderate
importance. Similar ratings
were given by the sample to knowing about computers.
An earlier study (Poister & Streib, 1989) of 451 municipal
managers indicates the extensive
diffusion of management information systems in the 1980s.
Other indications of computer
use can be obliquely inferred from usage of such management
tools as revenue forecasting
and performance monitoring.
A 1988 study of 46 technologically advanced cities was
intended to predict the common state
of computerization in U.S. cities in the late 1990s (Kraemer &
Northrop, 1989). That study
indicated that no city department or staff role was spared from
the diffusion of computers.
In fact, 84% of managers respondents and 85% of staff
respondents indicated that their work
involved major interaction with computers.
More recent studies (Moon, 2002; Norris & Moon, 2005)
indicate the absolute spread of IT
to city and county governance through Web sites and their
evolving nature.
In essence, the word from public managers is that the use of
computers has become essential
to daily municipal business.
Computing Education in
Public Administration Journals and Textbooks
We know there is a need for computing education in MPA
programs, as practitioners in
both the 1985 recommendation and 1989 update pointed out
(Kraemer & Northrop, 1989;

NASPAA Ad Hoc Committee on Computers in Public
Management Education, 1986). Yes,
schools say they have integrated computing into their
curriculum (Brudney et al., 1993), but
how has the field of public administration pushed computing
education in print?
One way to answer that question is to review research and
textbooks in public administra-
tion. This third approach to looking at computing education is
based on the theory of trian-
gulation. Triangulation means using different data sources
trained on the same problem, in
this case, computing education. Triangulation not only involves
using data from different
sources but also from different perspectives. In this section, the
sources are general public-
administration journals and textbooks. The different perspective
is the belief that one can
learn about computing education not just from what university
program directors say they
teach, but also from looking at the published sources of
information commonly available
to public-administration academics and professionals.
Professional Public Administration Articles
The journals were selected based on Forester and Watson’s
(1994) survey of all editors and
editorial board members of 36 journals who mention public
administration in general or
4 Northrop

public administration topics, such as personnel and finance, in
their mission statements. The
study used a 10-point scale: 10 representing the best journal in
the field according to the
respondents, and a 0 indicating that no respondent rated the
journal in the top 10. The top 5
general public-administration journals, whether you include or
exclude the board members
of those journals in the rankings, can be seen in Table 1.
In deciding which journals to evaluate, the quality of the
journal was considered as well
as the requirement that the journal be recognized as one that
dealt with the field of public
administration in general. The latter requirement was based on
the recommendation of the
1985 NASPAA committee that the computing topic be
integrated into all courses vs. segre-
gated into one or a part of one course. Thus, the computing
topic should be relevant to all
academics and practitioners interested in public administration,
not just those in a particular
specialized area. The quality issue obviously speaks to the
dissemination of information
as well as the importance of computing as demonstrated by its
acceptability as a topic in
esteemed publishing outlets.
Clearly, Public Administration Review (PAR) and
Administration & Society (A&S) stand out
as the top general public administration journals and, in fact, as
the top public-administra-
tion journals, period (Forester & Watson, 1994). We also felt
that The American Review of
Public Administration (ARPA) should be selected. Although it

is closer in ratings to other
lower ranked journals than it is to the two leaders, it stands out
in its ratings’ gap from the
lower journals more than it is similar to them in ratings
differences.
Table 2 shows how often computing appeared as a topic in the
three selected journals over the
last 10 years. There is no trend but instead a turning point.
Articles that mention computing
or have computing as the main focus are rare, with a notable
increase in 2002 but slipping
downward by 2004. It should be noted that PAR, the main
journal outlet for IT issues, had
a special issue on 9/11 and terrorism in 2002 that often
mentioned IT issues. It should also
be noted that articles that mention computing might involve as
little as a one-sentence men-
tion in the whole article.
In sum, while the academic field and the world of government
practice increasingly rec-
ognize the importance of computing, the research world in terms
of top-quality journals
really does not.
Note: There is a very clear drop-off in ratings for journals rated
lower.
All Respondents Minus Board Members
Public Administration Review 8.34 8.19
Administration & Society 5.36 5.17
The American Review of Public Administration 3.85 3.40
Journal of Public Administration Theory 3.20 2.78

Public Administration Quarterly 2.88 2.45
Table 1.
Lip Service? 5
Table 2. Appearance of computing topic in public
administration journals
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02

20
03
20
04
20
05
A
dm
in
is
tr
at
io
n
&
S
oc
ie
ty
N
um
be
r o

f a
rt
ic
le
s
th
at
m
en
tio
n
co
m
pu
tin
g
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

2
2
N
um
be
r o
f a
rt
ic
le
s
in
w
hi
ch
m
ai
n
fo
cu
s
is
c
om

pu
tin
g
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
0
2
1
A
m
er
ic
an
R
ev
ie
w
o
f P

ub
lic
A
dm
in
is
tr
at
io
n
N
um
be
r o
f a
rt
ic
le
s
th
at
m
en
tio

n
co
m
pu
tin
g
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
4
3
1
N
um
be
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f a
rt
ic
le

s
in
w
hi
ch
m
ai
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fo
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is
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0
0
1
0
0
3
2

2
1
2
P
ub
lic
A
dm
in
is
tr
at
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n
R
ev
ie
w
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um
be
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f a

rt
ic
le
s
th
at
m
en
tio
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co
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pu
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g
2
4
2
0
0
1
10
10
2

5
N
um
be
r o
f a
rt
ic
le
s
in
w
hi
ch
m
ai
n
fo
cu
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is
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pu

tin
g
2
0
1
0
1
2
4
3
3
1
To
ta
ls
N
um
be
r o
f a
rt
ic
le

s
th
at
m
en
tio
n
co
m
pu
tin
g
2
5
2
1
1
1
10
14
7
8
N
um

be
r o
f a
rt
ic
le
s
in
w
hi
ch
m
ai
n
fo
cu
s
is
c
om
pu
tin
g
2

1
3
1
2
6
8
5
6
4
N
um
be
r o
f a
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s
th
at
m
en
tio
n

co
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or
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w
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fo
cu
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pu
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4
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5
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18
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6 Northrop
Public Administration Textbooks
Professional public-administration journal articles are a
common outlet for academics and
professionals to keep up on the latest research and trends in the
field. Articles can be as-
signed in class or incorporated into lectures. Another common
outlet on what is essential to
the public administration field is textbooks. While one can
avoid keeping up by not reading
all journal articles, it is hard not to read the book assigned in
class on both the professor’s
and student’s sides. So if one were seeking to learn about the
essential topics in the field of
public administration, what would you learn by reading the

textbooks?
In this instance, we looked at how often computers or
information systems were mentioned
in current public-administration textbooks. Three texts were
chosen based on their most
current printing date of 2005. Table 2 indicates the remarkable
lack of attention that these
textbooks give to computing. Similar to the three general
public-administration journals
studied earlier, computing is just not a textbook topic of major
importance.
An additional concern, besides the amount of attention given to
computing in these texts,
is how it is treated. As Table 3 indicates, computing does not
have its own chapter except
loosely in Starling’s textbook. Computing as a topic also
appears to not have any consistent
rubric under which it is treated. Such inconsistent treatment
suggests that computing has
not been integrated into all areas of public administration and,
in fact, has not even found
a home in one area.
Need for a Book on Computing for Public Administrators
Without a doubt computing has permeated the practice of public
administration at all levels
of government in the United States. NASPAA has recognized
this by requiring all accredited
MPA programs to include in their programs information
management, including computer
literacy and applications. Yet in spite of the importance the
work world and NASPAA has
put on computing education, the two tables in this chapter show
that textbooks and general

Note: *Percentages (in parentheses) are calculated using number
of textbook pages as bases (i.e., excluding appendixes,
references, and indexes).
Table 3. Appearance of computing topic in public
administration textbooks
Textbook name and author
Number of pages mentioning
computers or information
systems and percentage*
Public Administration Concepts
and Cases by Stillman (2005)
0 Chapter in which pages appear
Managing the Public Sector by
Starling (2005)
10
(2)
Chapter 12,
“Information Management”
Public Administration the New
Century by Greene (2005)
2
(.5)
Chapter 1,
“Understanding Public Administration”

Lip Service? 7
public-administration journals barely treat computing as a topic
worthy of mention. Con-
sequently, there is the strong sense that we all say computing is
important, but it is more
lip service than actual service. If it is truly accepted as
important, computing should be a
common research topic in our leading journals, a common topic
in our textbooks, and thus
a topic on which we are working hard to build a common body
of knowledge. This is not
true today, 21 years since we as a profession formally
recognized computing’s importance.
How can there be a common theme or treatment to computing
education if the textbooks
and respected journals offer minuscule help or encouragement?
A major way to begin
correcting this dismal state is the present publication of an
edited book on information
technology and computer applications. This author also refers
the reader to the articles that
mention computers, listed at the end of this chapter. Articles
going back to 1985 from the
three journals are listed there.
Management Issues
A master’s in public administration signifies the recipient has
the skills to manage people
and tasks in an environment of both internal and external

political demands and responsibili-
ties. What are some key issues about which an MPA graduate
should be conversant when
it comes to managing in a computerized environment? First and
foremost is the fact that
the computerization of a task does not necessarily lead to
payoffs and more than likely will
underachieve compared to expectations. It is important to
understand what factors affect
payoffs and then address how to deal with them. The following
section briefly points out
factors that have been shown to influence the usefulness of
computer applications.
Quality of Data
An absolute condition for achieving payoffs from
computerization is that the data must be
accurate. A system to control input errors and to change data
must be instituted. In contrast,
the length of time to get information from a computerized task
does not need to be made as
short as possible. Data that can be quickly retrieved are very
nice, but data that many users
think take too long to be retrieved will still be used if they are
considered useful.
Training
Managers must devote more resources and ongoing thought to
training. Based on an infor-
mal survey of over 450 public employees, this was one of the
top two lessons that was a
constant theme from department to department, application to
application, and employee
to employee (Northrop, 2002).

One obviously needs a training program to teach users how to
use new applications. Another
related consideration is having a way to train new hires in
ongoing applications. In addi-
tion, an initial training program should not be considered the
end of training. Follow-up
8 Northrop
training programs or help sessions need to be routinized;
training should be considered an
ongoing process.
Then there is the issue of who should do the training. There is
no clear answer whether in-
house trainers or external trainers are best or whether
professional trainers or just experienced
employees are best (Northrop, Kraemer, Dunkle, & King, 1994).
Professional trainers bring
experience in conveying application knowledge, but sometimes
an employee who uses the
program is better at answering questions about how to use the
program within the context
of the work product.
Resources
Computerized applications may be able to provide all sorts of
new and valuable informa-
tion to decision makers. However, the information is only useful
if the organization has

the resources to take full advantage of the new information. To
illustrate, a computerized
manpower application system can outline where and how many
police officers one needs
to deploy at a certain time of day across the city. If the police
department has that many
officers available, all is well and good. If not, whether due to
limits on force size or just
scheduling variations, the computerized manpower information
will not help much in the
fight against crime.
What One Automates
When one is automating a task or upgrading a task system, the
success of the present system
to do the work needs to be considered. Often an organization
just automates the way they
presently do a task. If, for example, the present way one tracks
the names of people who
should be paying child support only finds and receives payment
from 20% of the list, then
the automated system will likely not do better. Therefore, an
evaluation of the extent to
which policy goals are currently being met should be required
before a task is automated
or upgraded.
Who to Involve in Adoption Decisions
Oddly enough, some organizations never consult the very
employees who will use the new
computer application to see what they need and to get their
input on the weaknesses of the
old application. Employees from all levels who will use the
application should be asked for

their input, from line personnel to managers.
Purchasing a Customized System
Experience at the federal, state, and local level point out that
purchasing an information
system is rife with risks. Millions have been spent on systems
that were delivered years
after being promised or that never worked. Choosing a company
and writing a contract
should be done with much care. Consider purchasing a
customized system as similar to
Lip Service? 9
choosing and working with a contractor to remodel one’s house.
Payments should not be
made until each stage is approved. A final payment should be
held back until the developer
fixes the little problems in the system. Expect to pay more if the
organization changes its
specifications of the system but builds into the contract a cost.
A bonus can be offered if the
system is finished before the agreed-upon date, and penalties
can be assessed if the system
is delivered after the expected date. Above all, ask for
references and check them. Send
a representative to other organizations that have contracted with
the system-development
company. Do not just call. Remember that line staff may have a

different perspective than
a manager; all input is relevant.
Management Support
This is the second most frequent lesson passed on by over 450
public employees (Northrop,
2002). Management must be supportive of the computer
application. Staff personnel have
been known to just not use the application because management
has given the signal indi-
rectly that they do not see the usefulness of the application. One
way that management can
effectively show support is to actively use the application or the
generated reports. If staff
members have a question about the application, management
should be able to answer the
question even if this only means referring the staff to someone
else who can help. Manage-
ment must show they care about staff knowing and effectively
using the application. It is
up to management to sell the usefulness of the application to
employees.
Security
Security has been considered a major management concern since
the early computerization
security of data. If data are accessible and changeable by
inappropriate personnel, major legal
issues involving rights compromise the usefulness of the
computerized database. Depending
on the department or agency, security issues vary. For example,
police field reports once
entered should not be able to be changed at will by any patrol
officer. Incident reports must

be protected from being expunged or altered to protect the
integrity of the court case from
bribes or favoritism. Personnel files need to be more widely
accessible to change to update
job titles, benefits, and addresses. However, the extent of access
to personnel information
must also be limited. The security needed for some national
computer databases, such as
that for social security, is monumental.
Conclusion
A PA graduate needs hands-on skills in computer applications.
Said graduate also needs to
be conversant with the issues involved in successfully managing
information technology
and computer applications.
Professional journals do offer useful articles on information
technology, even if they are
typically few in number. However, general PA textbooks are not
a source for building one’s
10 Northrop
knowledge in this important area. Thus, edited books, like the
present one, are critical to
provide a common grounding in computer education for PA
graduates.
References

Brudney, J., Hy, R. J., & Waugh, W. L. (1993). Building
microcomputing skills in public adminis-
tration graduate education: An assessment of MPA programs.
Administration & Society, 25,
183-203.
Cleary, R. (1990). What do MPA programs look like? Do they
do what is needed? Public Administra-
tion Review, 50, 663-673.
Crewson, P. E., & Fisher, B. S. (1997). Growing older and
wiser: The changing skill requirement of
city administrators. Public Administration Review, 53, 380-386.
Forester, J. P., & Watson, S. S. (1994). An assessment of public
administration journals: The perspective
of editors on editorial board members. Public Administration
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Kraemer, K. L., & Northrop, A. (1989). Curriculum
recommendations for public management educa-
tion in computing: An update. Public Administration Review,
49, 447-453.
Lan, Z., & Cayer, J. (1994). The challenges of teaching
information technology use and management in a
time of information revolution. The American Review of Public
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Moon, M. J. (2002). The evolution of e-government among
municipalities: Rhetoric or reality? Public
Administration Review, 64, 515-528.
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Administration (NASPAA) Ad Hoc Committee

on Computers in Public Management Education. (1986).
Curriculum recommendations for public
management education in computing. Public Administration
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Norris, D. G., & Moon, M. J. (2005). Advancing e-government
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Public Administration Review, 65, 64-75.
Northrop, A. (2002). Lessons for managing information
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Northrop, A., Kraemer, K. L., Dunkle, D. E., & King, J. L.
(1994). Management policy for greater
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formal training. Social Science
Computer Review, 12, 383-404.
Poister, T., & Streib, G. (1989). Management tools in municipal
government: Trends over the past
decade. Public Administration Review, 49, 240-248.
Further Reading
Journal Articles That Mention Computers
Allcorn, S. (1997). Parallel virtual organizations.
Administration & Society, 29(4), 412-439.
Bajjaly, S. T. (1998). Strategic information systems planning in
the public sector. The American Review
of Public Administration, 28, 75-86.

Lip Service? 11
Barth, T. J., & Arnold, E. (1999). Artificial intelligence and
administrative discretion. The American
Review of Public Administration, 29, 332-352.
Bolton, M. J., & Stolcis, G. B. (2003). Ties that do not bind:
Musings on the specious relevance of
academic research. Public Administration Review, 63, 626-630.
Botner, S. B. (1985). The use of budgeting management tool by
state government. Public Administra-
Bovens, M., & Zouridis, S. (2002). From street-level to system-
level bureaucracies: How information
and communication technology is transforming administrative
discretion and. Public Admin-
istration Review, 62, 174-184.
Bozeman, B., & Pandey, S. K. (2004). Public management
decision making: Effects of decision
content. Public Administration Review, 64, 553-565.
Brainard, L. A., & Siplon, P. D. (2002). Cyberspace challenges
to mainstream nonprofit health orga-
nizations. Administration & Society, 34, 141-175.
Bretschneider, S. (1990). Management information systems in
public and private organizations: An
empirical test. Public Administration Review, 50, 536-545.

Brown, M. M., & Brudney, J. L. (1998a). A “smarter, better,
faster, and cheaper” government: Contract-
ing and geographic information systems. Public Administration
Review, 58, 335-346.
Brown, M. M., & Brudney, J. L. (1998b). Public sector
information technology initiatives. Adminis-
tration & Society, 30, 421-443.
Brown, M. M., & Brudney, J. L. (2003). Learning organizations
in public sector? A study of police
agencies employing information and technology to advance
knowledge. Public Administration
Review, 63, 30-43.
Brudney, J. L., Hy, R. J., & Waugh, W. L., Jr. (1993). Building
microcomputing skills in public ad-
ministration graduate education: An assessment of MPA
programs. Administration & Society,
25, 183-203.
Brudney, J. L., & Selden, S. C. (1995). The adoption of
innovation by smaller local governments: The
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