Learning in the Preschool YearsTraditional education typically d.docx

Learning in the Preschool Years
Traditional education typically divides content into specific
segments, or subjects, such as reading, language, and
mathematics. In fact, when children enter preschool, they may
encounter this single-subject approach to learning for the first
time, as teachers talk about getting ready for science, music,
and art. For the most part, however, experiences in these
subjects are not constrained by strict time schedules. Instead, in
a preschool classroom with a developmentally appropriate
program, in-depth explorations are valued in an environment
that has been carefully prepared. For example, it is better to
have children explore just a few topics "repeatedly in many
different ways" rather than just touching on a wide variety. In
this way, "they are able to organize what they know into deeper
and more powerful theories or ideas" (Tomlinson & Hyson,
2009, p. 141).
Learning in the Primary Grades
By the time children enter kindergarten or primary grade
classrooms, adult-defined academic subjects may take on an
even greater role, as periods of time are devoted to reading or
literacy, language arts, writing, math, science, social studies,
music, art, and physical education (kindergartens may refer to
movement). While each of these subjects is important in its own
right, young children—even in the primary grades—do not think
about their learning in such structured ways. Rather, left to their
own devices, they engage in learning experiences that "follow
data trails that crisscross disciplines naturally and take the
problem solver along paths that meander into unexpected,
unanticipated, thought-provoking, and often uncharted domains
of learning" (Audet, 2005, p. 138). In fact, curriculum
integration is an approach to learning based on a child's natural
impulses; it disregards subject boundaries in favor of a more
holistic view of learning, allowing children to follow their
natural lines of inquiry.

Curriculum Creation as a Balancing Act
Recognizing that curriculum integration may be one ideal but
that traditional subjects must also be adhered to, Sue
Bredekamp (1997) suggests, "The best strategy . . . is to begin
with the discipline frameworks and identify the connections, the
ways that curriculum can be integrated and made more
meaningful for learners" (p. xvi). Furthermore, curriculum
designers must always keep in mind the importance and
integrity of the individual subjects.
As they create curricula at each developmental level, curriculum
planners should keep the following points in mind:
Infants and toddlers are provided their own natural curriculum
by their physical environment, family, and society. The role of
the curriculum planner is to make the environment and
experiences welcoming and positive.
Preschoolers continue to learn much from all aspects of their
environments. They are also ready for expanding their learning
in ways that will lead them to more formal learning later on.
Curriculum planners can identify children's current and
potential interests and build from there, crossing disciplines
informally. Time for in-depth study is important.
Children in the primary grades, like the younger preschoolers,
learn most naturally and meaningfully when formal subjects are
not separated; however, it is often important and even necessary
to focus for a time on a single subject.
Integrating curricula for preschool and the primary grades is
one way to make learning most meaningful and enjoyable to
children.
The integrity and importance of individual subjects should not
be lost or treated superficially in the process of creating an
integrated curriculum.
From all of these points, we may conclude that curriculum
creation is a balancing act, one that requires thoughtful

planning whatever the age of the child. However, one more
consideration is worth mentioning here. The following case
study presents a scenario in which a teacher carefully considers
much of what has just been discussed when making plans but
neglected to inform the children. At the end of the case study,
you will be asked to consider whether this was a problem or not.
3.2 Curriculum Integration and Single-Subject Teaching: Some
Important History
The roots of these two approaches to curriculum development
can be found in the works of the 17th-century Englishman John
Locke (1632–1704) and the 18th-century Swiss man Jean-
Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Both were highly influential in
education, with Locke intent on providing interesting ways to
learn single subjects and Rousseau focused on a "natural"
education that allowed room for play and incidental learning.
Pestalozzi's Approach to Subject Integration
The Swiss educational reformer Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827),
inspired by the humaneness of Rousseau's philosophy, created a
curriculum that provided an informal integration across
subjects. In addition, however, there were focused lessons for
skills learning or memorization of essential facts and, at these
times, the curriculum reverted to single subjects. In the history
of Western education, no one before Pestalozzi had taken this
balanced approach. His combination of philosophy and practical
application found its home in a series of schools he founded
over his lifetime. One important component of Pestalozzi
education was to begin with concrete experiences and to move
toward the abstract as children were ready, a concept well
understood in modern education. To this end, he created what he
called "object lessons," known today as manipulatives, that
were used to teach the early stages of form, language, and
numbers. With such revolutionary approaches to teaching and
learning, Pestalozzi's schools' fame and influence spread
internationally, with educators coming to observe and study
with him.

Froebel and the First Kindergarten
Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852), a one-time student of
Pestalozzi, applied much of what he learned from his mentor to
the creation of the German kindergarten, but with a difference.
To Froebel, Pestalozzi's schools lacked an all-important
"spiritual mechanism." As the son and nephew of Lutheran
pastors, Froebel always regarded education and life in terms of
their relation to God. "Pestalozzi takes man existing only in his
appearance on earth," he said, "but I take man in his eternal
being, in his eternal existence" (Shapiro, 1983, p. 20). Further
aspects of Froebel's philosophy included the concepts of
harmony, unity, and reconciling opposites, and the activities he
developed for children often reflected these concepts
(Brosterman, 1997). An example of this focus on harmony and
reconciling opposites was circle games, in which the children
would break briefly into individual activity, followed by a
return to the circle as a demonstration of group unity.
Kindergarten teachers were trained to point out the symbolism
of such acts, and the children were believed capable of
understanding such abstract concepts.
Like Rousseau and Pestalozzi before him, Froebel loved nature
and wished to instill a similar love in young children. Inventing
a school for 3- to 5-year-olds, he decided to call it a
kindergarten, the German word for children's garden. There
was, indeed, gardening as a part of the curriculum, complete
with a focus on the harmonious design of the plots and the unity
required as everyone worked together. Although Froebel's ideas
about circle games and gardening have lived on through a
century and a half, it is the materials he designed that gained
the most fame. Called gifts and occupations, these materials
were greatly influenced by Froebel's earlier studies in geometry
and in the crystals found in nature. As children interacted with
the materials, their teachers provided lessons in harmony and
unity as appropriate. This rather structured approach to early
childhood curriculum was a force to be dealt with when the next

important educator appeared on the historical scene in the
United States.
Dewey's Lab School
John Dewey (1859–1952) arrived at the University of Chicago
at a time when university laboratory schools were in
development. The primary purpose of lab schools—which were
created primarily on college campuses—was to train teachers
while providing high-quality, research-based, and cutting-edge
education to children. A major focus of Dewey's years at the
university was the creation of such a school, which included a
two-year kindergarten. For the youngest children as well as
those who were older, Dewey envisioned a curriculum that
reflected real life, including excursions into the neighborhood
and projects that were inspired by children's interests. Because
kindergartens at the time were devoted to the philosophy and
methodology of Froebel, and Dewey had something quite
different in mind, he had to proceed carefully in order to bring
early childhood educators over to his way of thinking. One
approach was to use Froebelian terminology and "rebrand" it.
For example, Dewey (1902) took Froebel's spiritual concept of
unity and used the term when unifying his own ideas such as
learning and doing or school and society. A second approach
was to use Froebel materials but in a much freer fashion.
Froebel blocks, for example, came with specific instructions for
their use, but in the Dewey kindergarten, they were played with
freely and creatively. There were no teacher-led lessons about
the spiritual foundations of the activities in which children were
engaged. So that he would have well-trained teachers for his lab
kindergarten, Dewey needed to convince the area's kindergarten
teachers that his views of learning and curricula were more
advanced than those of Froebel. To a great extent, he succeeded
(Brosterman, 1997).
Basic to the Dewey School's approach to teaching and learning
was the idea that a function of education is to prepare children
for living in a democracy by creating a democratic society

within the school. In Dewey's words, "I believe that . . . the
school is primarily a social institution. Education, therefore, is
a process of living and not a preparation for future living"
(1964, p. 429). Another basic idea included a curriculum
dedicated to learning by engaging in projects. Projects were an
important part of learning from kindergarten and through the
elementary grades. These projects should be based on children's
real-life interests and their "own instincts and powers furnish
the material and give the starting-point for all education"
(Dewey, 1964, p. 428). Such projects, which grew from
children's own interests, inevitably crossed curricular lines,
incorporating within them whatever subjects were pertinent to
the research to be done. It is the Dewey projects that have given
rise to today's approaches to curriculum integration.
The historic line from then until now, however, was not a
straight one. Although Dewey's ideas gained wide acceptance
for a while, those adopting them often focused on catch phrases
such as learning by doing (in other words, engaging in hands-on
activities) without ensuring that children were actually engaged
in deep acquisition of knowledge. Concerns about Dewey's so-
called progressive education were already emerging when, in
the 1950s, the Soviet Union beat all other countries in achieving
space flight. Suddenly, American money for education was
focused on developing single-subject materials and curricula for
children of every age. According to Laurel Tanner, "The nature
of the learner was recast in the form of a budding scholar-
specialist, while the relevance of the curriculum to the life of
the learner and the life of a free society was shunted aside"
(1989, p. 9). Further, she said, "The result is either curriculum
congestion or the removal of important studies in favor of the
subject matter that fits the latest educational crisis or fashion"
(p. 10). It was the mid-1980s before Dewey's ideas could be
rediscovered and the integrated curriculum re-explored, at least
in the United States. In the interim, other developments had
more influence, as we shall see.

The Montessori Approach
On the other side of the Atlantic, but contemporaneous with
Dewey, the Italian educator Maria Montessori (introduced in
Chapter 2) also saw the wisdom and opportunity in paying
respect to and then moving on from Froebel's model of
kindergarten. After being trained as a physician, Montessori
was assigned to work within an institution for insane adults.
Because there seemed to be no place else to put them, the
institution also included children with learning disabilities.
There, the children were largely ignored and left to entertain
themselves without materials for play or education. Concerned
about the inhumane treatment of the children, Montessori began
to seek ways to inspire and educate them. With no background
in educating children, she turned to the writings of Rousseau,
Pestalozzi, and Froebel, as well as special educators. At one
point, she advocated creating Froebel kindergartens throughout
Italy (Kramer, 1988). In the long run, however, Montessori went
her own way, moving from her successful work with the
children in the adult asylum to the creation of her own schools.
Montessori's curricular materials sometimes resemble those of
Froebel with their origins in geometry, and others are similar to
those promoted by progressive special educators of the time.
The hands-on nature of virtually every experience in the
classroom can be traced back to Pestalozzi. Methods of
curriculum delivery call to mind Froebel's preference for a
structured introduction with some creativity permitted only
later. Rousseau's influence can be observed in the freedom
children experience to create their own society as they make
their own choices and learn to work and play together. In this
respect, some of Montessori's ideas resemble those of Dewey
that were in development at the same time.
Curriculum knowledge in an early childhood Montessori
classroom was, and continues to be, focused on language,

mathematics, education of all the senses, and activities that can
be used in everyday practical life. Additional experiences are
provided in other subject areas as well, but materials of the
prepared environment come from the first four areas. For more
on Montessori education, refer back to Chapter 2.
Reggio Emilia and Curriculum Integration in the 1990s
During World War II, the Italian government shut down the
Montessori schools, and by war's end, something new seemed to
be called for. The municipal preschools of Reggio Emilia began
to draw inspiration from Dewey's ideas for research projects for
young children, but their programs were discovered by
Americans only in the 1980s. At the time, British infant schools
were also engaged in Dewey-inspired projects, and Americans
were learning much from them, too (Katz, 1999). Once the
Reggio Emilia model became widely known in this country,
many early childhood programs developed a similar approach
that integrated curricula through research projects.
The 1990s were a time when curriculum integration was
introduced into the advanced grades, all the way through
university. Perhaps most enthusiastic were those involved in
middle school teaching, with one book arguing, "If learners and
teachers in the middle grades are to realize their fullest
potential, we must remove lots of 'walls'—the mental barriers
that derive from . . . the submission to vague pressures to
'cover' one curriculum or another; . . . incongruities between
child-development theory and prevalent instructional practices"
(Stevenson & Carr, 1993, p. 2). Enthusiasm, but also occasional
skepticism, at all levels led to conferences with titles such as
"What's All This about Curriculum Integration?" (1995). From
such conferences, opinion writing, and research came some
definitions of what integration might mean for curriculum
planners. Table 3.1 presents a collection of these definitions, as
well as examples of their application to early childhood
education. You may find them useful as you do your own

curriculum designs;
Table 3.1: Models of Single-Subject and Integrated Curriculum
Method
Description
Early Childhood Examples
Fragmented or Dispersed
Focus is on a single subject.
Children listen to a musical recording. Children
recite the alphabet.
Nested
Skills are inserted into a single academic subject.
To promote social skills, children are divided
into groups to solve math problems.
Themed
A collection of learningexperiences relate to a singletheme. Thi
s may or may notinclude integration of more thanone academic s
ubject.
A preschool class engages in a week of activities
focused on fall leaves.
Webbed
A single theme or topic is integrated across two or more
subjects.
A teacher expands a science study of a nearby
creek to include experiences in art and music.
Immersed
The class (or a single child)focuses on a topic of inquiry thatoft
en integrates more than asingle subject.
Two or three children choose to delve more
deeply into a topic the rest of the class has
completed. The teacher helps them findresources, but they resea
rch primarily on theirown.
Today's early childhood programs make use of all the models
represented in Table 3.1, although of course you will not see
them all in one place. Upcoming sections will explain more
about when, where, and why different approaches might be

observed.
The Common Core Standards Initiative
The most recent development in curriculum models is provided
by the Common Core Standards Initiative (CCSI), although the
standards apply only to English Language Arts and Mathematics
for kindergarten and primary grades. Since 2009, the CCSI has
been a nationwide attempt at coordinating curriculum
expectations across all states and all grades from kindergarten
through grade 12. At the time of this writing, 45 states and three
territories had agreed to restructure curricula according to these
standards. The sponsoring agencies and authors have been the
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
the Council of Chief State School Officers (2010).
To provide an idea of what the language arts expectations are
for kindergarten, here are a few (of many) examples of what
children should be able to do:
Informational text: With prompting and support, ask and answer
questions about key details in a text.
Literature: Recognize common types of texts (e.g., storybooks
and poems).
Writing: Use a combination of drawing, dictating, and writing
to compose opinion pieces in which they tell a reader the topic
or the name of the book they are writing about and state an
opinion or preference about the topic or book (e.g., "My
favorite book is . . .").
The following are examples of mathematics expectations for
kindergartners:
Measurement & data: Describe measurable attributes of objects,
such as length or weight.
Geometry: Describe objects in the environment using the names
of shapes.
Counting & cardinality: Count to 100 by ones and by tens.

Operations & algebraic thinking: Represent addition and
subtraction with objects, fingers, mental images, drawings,
sounds (e.g., claps), acting out situations, verbal explanations,
expressions, or equations.
Although these standards are meant to be national, each state
has the freedom to institute them in its own way. In addition,
there are no requirements as to how curriculum will be taught,
although special consideration must be paid to English language
learners and children with disabilities. It is quite possible to use
any of the teaching methodologies and curriculum-planning
approaches discussed in this textbook and still meet the
standards. For example, look back at the Project Learning case
study in Chapter 2 in which children learned about the real
world of a pizza restaurant. In the restaurant, the children
measured the length and width of the dining room (see
Measurement & data); identified the shape of the room as a
rectangle (see Geometry); and, with their teacher's help, created
lists of questions to ask the owners, then either wrote down the
answers or drew pictures (see Informational text and Writing.)
States that are involved in the CCSI have created websites with
parent and teacher information. There you can find further
details about the programs in your own state. For the national
overview, go to www.corestandards.org. Whether influenced by
the CCSI, NAEYC Standards, a center's or school's philosophy,
or any combination of these, curriculum development can take
any number of approaches. In addition, sources for the creation
of any one model might be the classroom teacher, a school
district, ideas from online sources, or a published curriculum.
We will now consider some of these approaches and provide
examples of what they might look like.
3.3 Approaches to Curriculum Development
Perhaps you have observed most or all of the approaches to
early education that follow. Here, we focus on how their
curricula are created. Teaching methodologies in any one of
these curriculum designs might include those we have looked at

previously in Chapter 1: direction instruction, group or
individual work, and play.
Learning through Single Subjects (Sometimes Connected)
Despite the enthusiasm for integrating curricula in recent years,
there are inherent dangers in doing so. First, it is often possible
to move ahead with planning while neglecting to ensure that
state and local standards have been met. Second, teachers may
want to incorporate subjects for which they have little or no
training; this is especially true regarding subjects such as
music, movement, and art. Third, enthusiasm for integration
often leads to loss of the depth of knowledge that develops
when attention is paid to individual subjects. Systematic
planning of a single subject ensures specific knowledge and
skills will not be lost.
There are two basic ways in which single subjects retain their
own identity while being connected to others. First, a single
subject might be inserted when specific knowledge or skills are
needed within a larger integrated curriculum. For example, a
group of 3-year-olds might be sorting various materials
collected from across the classroom into like colors. At some
point, the teacher notices that several children do not know the
names of all the colors. After the objects are sorted, she gathers
the children together and, through questions, answers, and
direct instruction, teaches the colors' names.
Second, focus on a single subject might be emphasized initially,
with integration taking place later. This is often the philosophy
of national curriculum organizations that are devoted to
determining what makes effective teaching and learning in their
area of expertise. These organizations typically combine a
preference for focus on their own subject along with an
understanding that young children are most drawn to
experiences that cross disciplines. For example, the positions of
science education organizations "are based on the idea that

active, hands-on, conceptual learning that leads to
understanding, along with the acquisition of basic skills,
provides meaningful and relevant [science] learning
experiences" (Lind, 1997, p. 76). As another example, the
Music Educators National Conference has determined that the
music curriculum should first be a "well-planned sequence of
learning experiences leading to clearly defined skills and
knowledge." As one music educator explains, "[I]nfants
experience high and low sounds through vocal play and
listening to others sing, while 6-year-olds can describe high and
low melodic directions and components without being involved
in the musical skills and vice versa" (Kenney, 1997, pp. 108,
110). Consider including music in the broader curriculum "as a
discrete way of thinking and experiencing provides the learner
with one more way to construct knowledge. It gives the brain
more data from which it will integrate internally" (p. 130).
Across the rest of the curriculum can be found viewpoints like
those of the science and music organizations and of the
educational experts associated with them. When preparing
activities of high interest for young children, curriculum
planners should keep in mind the importance and integrity of
the individual subjects incorporated in them.
Learning through Units, Themes, Projects, and Emergent
Curriculum
The first three methods of teaching and learning—units, themes,
and projects—have much in common with one another and many
of the same advantages. (We will discuss the emergent
curriculum separately.) Because the subject matter is chosen
based largely on student needs and interests, children are
provided with knowledge and skills they can use in the real
world. All three methods can be designed to build on children's
current knowledge. If units, themes, or projects are incorporated
into the standard curriculum, they give it more relevance. There
can be flexibility of teaching and learning based on children's
evolving interests and the need to shorten or extend the time.

Because of the variety of experiences provided by units, themes,
and projects, the needs of individual children can be met. For
example, some may wish to study on their own in more depth,
while others prefer to move on to other activities, and still
others who may need help with skills can stop and focus for a
time (Seefeldt, Castle, & Falconer, 2010). There are some
differences to consider between these methods of curriculum
design, and although they may seem slight, they can lead to
quite different experiences and outcomes.
Units
In a school curriculum, a unit is a study that typically
incorporates two or more subjects over a predetermined period
while focusing on a central topic. A unit is designed by the
teacher. Of the four curriculum designs, units offer the most
formal structure, both for teachers and for children. Although
they can be flexible enough to add or subtract experiences based
on children's interests and needs, units are fully planned in
advance by the teacher. An advantage of units is that, with
careful advance planning, teachers can be sure that they have
incorporated content that meets school or district guidelines and
activities that might be needed for skills attainment, while still
providing learning that makes connections between subjects as
well as to the real world. The following case study provides an
example of the way one kindergarten teacher created a formal
structure but also provided experiences based on children's
interests and needs.
Units can be highly practical for a group of teachers whose
classes contain children at similar levels. Each teacher can be
responsible for developing a unit, creating and sharing all the
plans with the other teachers, and collecting the pertinent
materials for everyone. Furthermore, the combination of
preplanning, structure, and cross-curricular possibilities makes
units especially attractive for kindergarten and the primary
grades, where there are often mandated goals for the
curriculum. That same structured approach may make units less

useful for younger children whose interests, needs, and
requirements are less predictable.
Themes
In a center or school curriculum, themes are groups of activities
that cross subject boundaries to achieve a focus on an
overarching or umbrella topic. Typically, themes delve into a
topic of interest with activities that continue throughout the
day. Examples might include food groups, types of
transportation, or insects. Themes are often found in preschools
as a way to provide interest and make a particular topic highly
visible. Usually, theme learning includes much attention to the
physical environment, with décor demonstrating the learning
being undertaken; when outsiders walk into a themed classroom,
they can generally observe theme learning going on without
needing to be told about it. In a classroom where the theme is
insects, for example, posters of honeybees and praying mantises
may adorn the walls, and cages may contain chrysalises that are
being observed by the students. A food group theme might have
cooking centers, tables with fruits and vegetables to touch and
identify, and picture books about the topic.
Like units, themes are preplanned by teachers, and the entire
class is expected to participate or at least feel surrounded by the
theme at hand. One popular preschool theme is colors, often
with one color as the focus each week. Perhaps during the green
week, green paint of different shades is provided at the painting
easel. Green plants of various sorts could be studied. Music
might include movement activities to mimic green plants
moving in the wind. Frogs, toads, and snakes could be studied
through storybooks or, if available, by observation.
One caution related to thematic learning is that although adults
might believe a theme to be obvious, children may not always
make the expected connections. Just because many things that
happen in a classroom pertain to green does not necessarily
mean that they have much to do with each other in other ways.

Instead, some children might thoroughly enjoy, and learn much
from, activities with plants, animals, and music and never
particularly notice or care that there is a lot of green around.
John Dewey had concerns about this happening, stating,
"Experiences may be so disconnected from one another that,
while each is agreeable or even exciting in itself, they are not
linked cumulatively to one another. Energy is then dissipated
and a person becomes scatter-brained" (1938, p. 26).
Projects
Perhaps the most child-centered of the first three models of
curriculum design, project learning emerges from children's
stated interests, or interests the teacher observes but that may
be unconscious or undeveloped in the children. An advantage of
projects is that they provide opportunities for in-depth study; in
fact, there is little danger that a project will lead to basic,
surface learning. Another advantage of projects is the very
natural way that they make differentiation possible.
Differentiated instruction is the way in which teachers adjust
curricula and learning experiences based on individual needs
and interests. Project learning allows for individual and group
work, team planning and collaboration, and in-depth study
according to children's interests. The most well-known models
of project learning come from the Reggio Emilia schools of
Italy and the Project Approach of Katz and Chard (see Chapter
2).
demonstrate real-world concepts?
Sometimes, projects grow naturally from units and themes.
During the social studies shelter unit described earlier, children
became fascinated on their walk with their own shelters.
Perhaps if they had walked further, they would have noticed a
new apartment building going up. From this might follow a
project in which they could study construction techniques,
safety requirements, and time frames required for completion.
From the study of the green theme, children might wish to focus
more learning on the animals. Perhaps they would just study

frogs. Perhaps it would be more generally reptiles. Such an
outgrowth from units and themes is often an interest shared by
only a few children. In a flexible classroom, such learning is
possible and supported.
A special interest for a project may well emerge from ideas
totally unrelated to a class theme or unit. The following case
study explains how this happened in one kindergarten.
For child-centered educators, projects are often thought of as
the ideal way for children to learn, but they are also sometimes
considered idealistic or impractical. One reason is that required
standards might be ignored or are believed not to fit. Indeed,
Tony's teacher chose not to consider any particular standards
for this project. It occurred close to the end of the school year,
and she was able to take a relaxed approach to curriculum
development. However, as we have seen in Peggy's pizza study
from Chapter 2, attention to standards can certainly be
accomplished through project learning. A second reason that
project learning may seem idealistic or impractical is that
curriculum planning requires content knowledge, creativity, and
at least some experience on the part of the teacher. Projects may
not be ideal for the beginning educator until some level of
comfort is reached concerning curriculum planning.
Emergent Curriculum
Although units, themes, and projects all contain child-centered
elements, they also have an adult-designed structure. Attention
is often paid to meeting whatever standards are in place. In
contrast, an almost entirely learner-centered approach is
emergent curriculum. In this case, the curriculum comes from
children's interests, either stated by them or observed by their
teachers. It is typically seen in classrooms of children who are
young enough that standards are not part of the educational
concern, or in private or home schools dedicated to child-
centered learning. Emergent curriculum tends to contain more
play than do the other approaches just discussed and may

incorporate more outdoor activities as well.
Here is how a play-based curriculum emerged in one class of 2-
year-olds: The children were just beginning to learn to sing, and
their teachers used a big book of classic children's songs with
colorful pictures as their main instructional aid. One of their
favorite songs was "I'm a Little Teapot."
As the children sang, they used their arms and hands as handle
and spout, while enjoying tipping over and pouring out. It
became clear, however, that they did not know what tea was and
had never seen a real teapot. So one of the teachers brought one
in and used it to illustrate the song. The next day, the children
wanted to know where the teapot was. In addition, during their
playtime they began pretending to serve tea to the teachers. The
teachers then brought more teapots and cups from home. A little
food coloring added to a bit of water in each pot created "tea."
The children were taught proper and efficient ways to pour from
pot to cup and from cup back to pot, as well as helpful
techniques for cleaning up the inevitable spills.
Interest in learning to pour, pretending to drink, and serving
each other lasted about one week. The children continued to
love singing the song, however, and would make knowledgeable
comments about what they were doing and what they observed
in the illustrations. Play-based learning that emerges from
children's interests is deemed by many to be the most authentic
way for young children to learn (Leong & Bodrova, 2012).
3.4 Thinking Ahead
The purpose of this chapter has been to provide the basis for
curriculum construction, which will be presented on a practical
level in Chapter 4. There are many things to think about before,
during, and after designing learning experiences for young
children. Chapter 4 will discuss many of these. To help you get
started, here is an excerpt from a checklist that Head Start
(2001) provides. It is based on positions from NAEYC:

Does the curriculum
promote interactive learning and encourage the child's
construction of knowledge?
build and elaborate on children's current knowledge and
abilities?
facilitate concept learning and skills development in an
integrated and natural way?
permit flexibility for children and teachers?
encourage active learning and frequently allow children to make
meaningful choices?
foster children's exploration and inquiry?
promote the development of higher-order abilities, such as
thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making?
promote feelings of safety, security, and belonging?
Is the curriculum
meaningful for these children?
relevant to the children's lives?
Note the ways in which these questions apply to the discussions
in this chapter. There will be other such ideas to think about in
Chapter 4.
Krogh, S. (2013). A Bridge to the Classroom and Early Care:
ECE Capstone [Electronic version]. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/
Lesson Plan

Content Area or Developmental Focus:
Age/Grade of Children:
Length of Lesson:
Goal
Objective
Standards Included
Materials
Introduction
Lesson Development
Differentiation

Assessment
(Practice/ Checking for
Understanding)
Closing
GOALS
What is a lesson goal?
A lesson goal guides the direction of the lesson. "Goals come
from an outside source [such as] a text, program goals, or state
standards" (Kostelnik et al., 2014, p. 85). The goal is a broad,
general statement that tells you what you want your students to
do when the lesson is complete. Think of the goal of the lesson
as a target that you are trying to reach. The goal of the lesson
should provide the framework for you to create a more detailed
and measurable learning objective.
Why are lesson goals important?
Lesson goals are important for several reasons. First, lesson
goals help provide structure for planning a lesson. Lesson goals
also help students know where the lesson is going and what they
will be learning. Finally, lesson goals help you communicate
with parents about what you are teaching.
How do you create a lesson goal?
To create a lesson goal, ask yourself "What do I want my

students to know at the end of the lesson?" The answer to this
question will become your lesson goal. Often lesson goals will
be derived from the concepts, topics, and skills that your
students need to master.
Example of lesson goal:
Goal To teach the beginning, middle, and end of a story
OBJECTIVES
What are objectives?
The objective in a lesson plan states the purpose of the lesson—
what a student will be able to do once he or she has completed
the lesson. A well-written objective will provide a clear picture
of the outcome(s) or performance you expect as a result of the
lesson. An objective should be specific, clear, and most
importantly, observable and measurable. "Objectives are the
specific learning behaviors children might logically display in
relation to a goal" (Kostelnik et al., 2014, p. 84). Objectives
focus on student behaviors, not what the teacher is doing during
the lesson. An objective should answer the question, "What do
you want your students to be able to do as a result of the
lesson?"
Why are objectives important?
Objectives provide an organized pathway to meet higher goals.
They are "tailored to meet the needs of the children involved"
(Kostelnik et al., 2014, p. 84). In addition, objectives ensure
that learning is focused so that both students and teachers know
what is expected of them. Finally, they provide criteria for
evaluating student achievement.
How do you create effective objectives?
In order to create an effective objective, you need to make sure
that it focuses on student performance, is observable, and
contains criteria for measuring success. A good way to ensure
you create effective objectives is to use the ABCD formula

(Writing Objectives, 2010) below.
Effective Learning Objective = Audience + Behavior +
Conditions + Degree
Audience: Who are you writing the learning objective for?
Behavior: What should your students be able to do? Typically
you want to use a Bloom’s verb for your behavior. You can find
some examples of Bloom’s verbs here.
Conditions: How will students achieve the behavior?
Degree: How well must it be done? What is considered mastery?
Example of an objective:
Objective The students will be able to recall the beginning,
middle, and end of a story using a story map with no more than
one detail in the wrong location.
STANDARDS
What are standards?
Standards are clear written descriptions that explain what
teachers are supposed to teach, both developmentally and
academically, to children at each age. Educators use these
standards as a guide when creating developmental and
educational learning objectives. The standards define what
children need to know or be able to do, but not how teachers go
about teaching.
Why are standards important?
Standards are important because they guide what you are
supposed to teach and what your students are supposed to learn.
In other words, they help you to get your students from point A
to point B. Standards help students to develop their skills and
increase their knowledge. Finally, standards help to clarify the

developmental and educational goals for parents and teachers.
What are the different types of standards?
There are many different types of standards that are used when
working with young children. Below are some of the most
common types of standards that you will use to guide your
instruction of young children.
Developmental Milestones: Developmental milestones will
guide your instruction depending on the age of the children you
are working with. You will use this set of standards most often
when working with children from birth to age 3, but they can
also be used to guide your instruction for children from ages 3
to 5. To locate these standards, view the Developmental
Checklists: Birth to Five handout.
Early Learning Guidelines: Early Learning Guidelines are
developed by each state. Typically, early learning standards are
broken down into two groups, birth to three and three to five,
but they can also be combined. You can view the State/Territory
Early Learning Guidelines document or the State-by-State
interactive map to locate the standards you will use.
Head Start Early Learning Framework: Sometimes different
organizations or centers will have their own standards they
utilize. Please view The Head Start Child Development and
Early Learning Framework if you will be using these standards.
How do I identify the standard to include in my lesson plan?
The standard you include must directly relate to your lesson
objective. Therefore, you need to find a standard that aligns
with your objective. For example, if your objective is “The
students will be able to recall the beginning, middle, and end of
a story using a story map with no more than one detail in the
wrong location,” you will want to locate a standard that focuses

on the beginning, middle, and end of a story.
How do I write the standard in my lesson plan?
To identify the standard that you are using, you will need to
write a standard statement. Generally, each type of standard
shared above will have a standard section title, domain (which
may include a standard number), and a performance indicator
that needs to be included in order to identify the standard that
you are using. Please see the examples below to assist you with
this.
Examples of standards written in lesson plans:
Developmental Milestones:
Head Start Early Learning Framework:
Standards Included The Head Start Child Development and
Early Learning Framework- Number Concepts & Quantities:
Recognizes numbers and quantities in the everyday
environment.
MATERIALS
What is the materials section of a lesson plan?
The materials section of a lesson plan is a place to list all of the
resources needed to successfully teach the lesson. The materials
listed should include both the resources the teacher needs to
teach as well as the materials the students will use throughout
the lesson. Your materials section should also identify “any
concerns for safety or adaptations for children with special
needs” (Kostelnik et al., 2014, p. 81). Think about the materials
section as a checklist of everything you need to teach the
lesson.
Why is it important to list the materials you will need?
The materials section of a lesson plan is important because it

allows you to be prepared with everything you will need to
teach a lesson. If you do not have all of the materials, then you
will not be prepared to help your students meet the lesson
objective.
How do you create a materials list?
A good way to start creating your materials list is by writing
down the items you will need as you develop the lesson that you
will teach. Each time you complete an additional section of your
lesson plan, read back through it and check to see if there are
any more materials that you need to teach the lesson. If there
are, add them to the materials section of the lesson plan.
Some guiding questions you can use to write your materials list
include:
What items or supplies will I need as the teacher to teach the
lesson?
What items or supplies will my students need to complete the
lesson?
Will I need to use any special equipment (computer, digital
camera, etc.) when teaching the lesson?
Example of a materials list:
Materials Beginning, Middle, and End Story Map (copy for each
child)
Lon Po Po by Ed Young
Chart Paper with the Story Map drawn on it
INTRODUCTION
What is the introduction?
The introduction, or anticipatory set, focuses students' attention
on the lesson and why you are doing the lesson. The
introduction should be directly related to the lesson objective.
In the introduction, you want to build your students’ interest
and excitement about the lesson so that they will be engaged.
The introduction is also used to activate your students’ prior

knowledge and introduce key vocabulary relating to the lesson.
Why is the introduction important?
The introduction is important because it prepares and motivates
students for learning. By including an introduction that is
connected to what will be learned you are able to shift your
students’ attention to the learning that is about to take place. As
a result, students will be more likely to master the learning
objective for the lesson.
How do you create an effective lesson introduction?
The key to creating an effective introduction is to keep the
purpose of the introduction in mind. Remember the purpose of
the introduction is to engage your students in the lesson,
activate prior knowledge, introduce key vocabulary, and prepare
students to master the learning objective.
Some guiding questions you can use as you write your lesson
introduction include:
How can I introduce the lesson so that my students will be
interested and excited?
How I can engage my students before I start teaching my
lesson?
How can I activate my students’ prior knowledge regarding the
topic of my lesson?
How can I introduce the learning objective to my students?
How can I get my students to start thinking about the topic of
the lesson?
What key vocabulary terms will my students need to know in
order to master the learning objective for this lesson?
Example of an introduction:
Introduction “Hi class! This week we are reading many
different versions of Little Red Riding Hood from all over the
world. Who can tell us about some of the Little Red Riding
Stories we have heard this week?" Wait for student responses.

“Today, I am going to share a new version of Little Red Riding
Hood with you. This version is the story that they tell in China.
Does anybody know where China is?” Wait for responses and
show them on a map. “When we are reading the story today, I
want you to listen for what happens at the beginning of the
story, the middle of the story, and the end of the story.”
LESSON DEVELOPMENT
What is the lesson development section?
The lesson development section is the heart of the lesson plan.
Sometimes this section of the lesson plan is referred to as the
procedures. In this section you describe, often with step-by-step
directions, what you will do to teach the main objective of the
lesson. These steps do not list every little thing that the teacher
will do, but it should list the sequence of the activities you will
use to teach the objective of your lesson to mastery. This
section should “incorporate strategies for teaching that are
appropriate for the age of the children, that are flexible enough
to meet individual needs, and that will enable you to document
the learning that takes place” (Kostelnik et al., 2014, p. 81).
Why is the lesson development section important?
The lesson development section provides a structured
framework to help your students master the learning objective.
By having a clear plan in place before starting, you will be able
to more effectively help your students master the learning
objective.
How do you create the lesson development section?
In order to create a clear lesson development section, you need
to consider all of the necessary steps you will need to take when
teaching a lesson. It is important to think about how you will
have the students learn the information (whole group lesson,
modeling, small group lesson, learning centers, etc.) so that you
can think about the best way to present the information. Once
you know how you want to present the information, you will

want to write out step-by-step directions about how you will use
this method to teach your students the lesson objective.
development section include:
How do my students learn best?
What is the first, second, third, fourth, etc. thing that I need to
do to teach my students the objective of the lesson?
Does each step I have listed lead to mastery of the learning
objective?
Lesson Development
Read Lon Po Po to the students. As you are reading, stop at the
beginning, middle, and end of the story and discuss what
happened in each section.
Explain to the students that every story has a beginning, middle,
and an end.
Show students the chart paper that has a picture of the story
map drawn on it.
Start with the “Beginning” section on the Story Map. Explain
what the beginning of a story is. Do a think-pair-share to come
up with ideas for what happened in the beginning of the story.
Record the students' ideas on the chart paper Story Map.
Next, explain what the middle of a story is. Do a think-pair-
share for the “Middle” section on the Story Map. Record the
students’ ideas on the chart paper Story Map.
Explain what the end of a story is. Do a think-pair-share for the
“End” section on the Story Map. Record the students’ ideas on
the chart paper for the Story Map.
DIFFERENTIATION
What is the differentiation section?
In this section of the lesson plan, you will want to explain how
you will differentiate, or modify, your instruction based on the
needs of your students. This does not mean creating a second
lesson plan; it refers to changing or providing alternative

options for how you will present your lesson, the materials you
will use, the way you will arrange your classroom for teaching
the lesson, or how you will assess student learning. Often you
will need to differentiate your instruction for English language
learners, children with special needs, or gifted learners. In other
words, this section provides a place for you to include how you
will meet the varying needs of the students you will be working
with.
Why is the differentiation section important?
As classrooms have become more diverse, it is more common to
have ELL students, students with special needs, high achievers,
underachievers, and average students all in the same class. In
order to meet the needs of all of these students, differentiation
is essential. Providing differentiation in a lesson allows each
student to experience success and maximizes growth.
How do you create the differentiation section?
In order to determine how you may need to differentiate your
lesson, you will need to consider all of the types of learners that
you will be working with. You will want to think about if there
any specific needs that you will have to address or an individual
child who may need more support or to challenge their learning.
Once you have identified these potential areas of need, you will
want to determine how you can differentiate your instruction to
meet these needs.
Some guiding questions you can use as you write the
differentiation section of your lesson plan include:
Will I need to adapt the curricular goals (remediation or
enrichment) in order to ensure all students will be successful?
Will I need to make any adjustments to the classroom
environment in order to ensure all can master the learning
objective?
Will any students need to use different materials in order to

master the learning objective?
Can the students' understanding be increased by changing the
delivery of instruction or teaching style?
Will any students need extra support in order to master the
learning objective?
Will a different activity need to be designed and offered for the
student or small group of peers?
Example of differentiation:
Differentiation ELL Learners: Along with writing the students’
responses on the story map, I will draw a picture.
Gifted Leaners: During guided practice, I will have the students
draw a picture of the beginning, middle, and end of the story
and write what happened underneath their picture.
Remediation: I will have students who typically struggle sit in
the front of the group and choose an example off of the chart to
fill in on their story map.
ASSESSMENT
(Practice/Check for Understanding)
What is the assessment section?
In the assessment section of the lesson plan, you are providing
your students with an opportunity to apply what they have
learned while you, the teacher, assess their learning in a formal
or informal way. In other words, you are allowing an
opportunity for your students to practice the skill or concept
that you just taught in the lesson development section. This
practice can be done through either guided or independent
practice. Guided practice allows students to show their
understanding of the material that you just presented while
working with the teacher. Independent practice, on the other
hand, is done without the teacher. You will assess by checking
for understanding through observing the students performing the
skill, asking questions, or collecting work samples.

Why is the assessment section important?
The purpose of assessment is to inform your instruction.
According to Kostelnik et al. (2014), lesson plans “should have
provisions to assess child learning and a plan for recording
progress towards goals” (p. 81). They “should also include
provisions to assess the effectiveness of the plan as a whole and
to identify areas where improvements could be made” (p. 81).
By including a section in your lesson plan that allows your
students to demonstrate their understanding of the content or
skill you have taught, you will be able to assess their learning
and make informed decisions about the next steps you need to
take. When we take the time to assess, we are more likely to
notice the need for remediation or enrichment early on and can
better plan subsequent lessons or activities.
How do you create an assessment section?
In order to effectively assess student learning, you must start by
thinking about how you want your students to practice the skill
or concept that you have just taught. A good way to do this is to
list the different ways in which your students can practice the
skill or concept. Next, for each way to practice, list a way you
could check for understanding while they are completing the
practice opportunity. Then, choose one of the methods of
practice and checking for understanding to use together in order
to ensure that you are able to assess student learning of the
lesson objective.
Some guiding questions you can use as you write your practice
and check for understanding section include:
What will I have students do to demonstrate that they
understand the concept or skill? (practice)
What activity can I have students do to check whether they have
mastered the learning objective? (practice)
What questions will I ask students to check for understanding?
(check for understanding)

What method of assessment, formal or informal, would provide
me with the information I need in order to check for mastering
of the learning objective? (check for understanding)
Assessment (Practice/Check for Understanding)
Explain to the students that they are going to have the chance to
complete a Story Map to show that they understand what
happened in the beginning, middle, and end of Lon Po Po.
Pass out a copy of the Story Map to each child.
Tell your students that in the beginning box, they need to draw
a picture of what happened in the beginning of Lon Po Po, in
the middle box they need to draw a picture of what happened in
the middle, and in the end box, they need to draw a picture of
what happened at the end. (practice)
While students are working, walk around and record on a
clipboard which students were able to successfully complete
their story map and which students did not. As needed, provide
support to students who are struggling to complete their story
map. (check for understanding)
CLOSING
What is the lesson closing?
The closing of a lesson wraps up the lesson that you have just
taught. In the lesson closing you want to come back to the
lesson objective and to reinforce the most important concepts
from the lesson. Typically, the lesson closing summarizes the
learning that took place. The closure of a lesson should be
meaningful by reviewing the key points of a lesson and allowing
students the chance to show what they know.
Why is the closing important?
The closing of a lesson brings together all of the learning that
has taken place. The closing helps the students to reflect on
what they learned and to make sure they understand the key
ideas they should have taken away from the lesson. Finally, the
closing ensures the effectiveness of the learning that took place
during the lesson.

How do you create an effective closing?
An effective closing should only take between five and ten
minutes. To create an effective closing you want to emphasize
the objective of the lesson and its importance, as well as assess
student mastery of the lesson objective.
closing include:
What did we learn today and why is it important?
How can I reinforce the lesson objective?
How can I check for student understanding of the lesson
objective?
How can I summarize the learning that took place?
Closing Bring the students together as a whole group.
Students share their story maps to show the beginning, middle,
and end of the story. Ask the students who can tell you the three
parts of a story. Summarize what the students share and make
sure to restate what the beginning, middle, and end of a story
are.
SAMPLE DEVELOPMENTAL LESSON PLAN
Content Area or Developmental Focus: Motor Skills
Age/Grade of Children: 3 years
Length of Lesson: 15 minutes
Goal
To teach how to walk across a balance beam
Objective
The child will walk across a balance beam using different move
ments
without falling off more than one time.
Standards Included

Mississippi Early Learning Guidelines-
Physical Development Standards-
GrossMotor Skills-
1. With guidance and support, demonstrate body coordination
(e.g.,balance, strength, moving in space, walking up and down s
tairs).
Materials
Balance beam
Foam mats, cushions, or pillows
Introduction
Hi friends. Yesterday we read the story “The Greatest Gymnast
of All” and learned
about the different activities that gymnasts can do. Ask, “Who r
emembers
something that a gymnast can do?” Wait for student responses a
nd summarize and
share the ideas. Say, “Today we are going to practice walking o
n a balance beam just
like a gymnast does. As we practice we are going to be working
on our balance. It’s
going to be a lot of fun.”
Lesson Development
1.
Place the balance beam on a firm surface so it will not tip over.
2.
Place soft materials such as foam mats, cushions, or pillows bes
ide the beam.
3.
Model how you can walk across the balance beam for the childr
en.
4.
Make sure as you model you point out how you keep your balan
ce.
Differentiation
If children quickly master walking across the beam, they can try
walking in differentways.

Some other options are to walk across the beam backwards; wal
king toe toheel to toe; and
walking like a butterfly or chicken.
Assessment (Practice/Check for Understanding)
1. Have the children line up at the end of the balance beam.
2. Have one child at a time walk across the beam.
3.
Monitor children as they walk across and provide support, such
as holding their
hand, when needed to guide them safely across.
4.
As children walk across the balance beam record anecdotal note
s about how
they are walking (do they frequently fall, do they move across q
uickly without
wobbling, do they move slowly but still maintain their balance,
etc.)
5.
Modify the way the children are walking, using the ideas in the
differentiation
section as needed.
Closing
Bring the children back together as a group. Summarize the lear
ning by talking
about what the children did. Ask the children to describe what t
hey were doing as
they walked across the balance beam. Reinforce that the child h
ad to balance in
order to be able to walk across without falling.
Learning in the Preschool Years

Traditional education typically divides content into specific
segments, or subjects, such as reading, language, and
mathematics. In fact, when children enter preschool, they may
encounter this single-subject approach to learning for the first
time, as teachers talk about getting ready for science, music,
and art. For the most part, however, experiences in these
subjects are not constrained by strict time schedules. Instead, in
a preschool classroom with a developmentally appropriate
program, in-depth explorations are valued in an environment
that has been carefully prepared. For example, it is better to
have children explore just a few topics "repeatedly in many
different ways" rather than just touching on a wide variety. In
this way, "they are able to organize what they know into deeper
and more powerful theories or ideas" (Tomlinson & Hyson,
2009, p. 141).
Learning in the Primary Grades
By the time children enter kindergarten or primary grade
classrooms, adult-defined academic subjects may take on an
even greater role, as periods of time are devoted to reading or
literacy, language arts, writing, math, science, social studies,
music, art, and physical education (kindergartens may refer to
movement). While each of these subjects is important in its own
right, young children—even in the primary grades—do not think
about their learning in such structured ways. Rather, left to their
own devices, they engage in learning experiences that "follow
data trails that crisscross disciplines naturally and take the
problem solver along paths that meander into unexpected,
unanticipated, thought-provoking, and often uncharted domains
of learning" (Audet, 2005, p. 138). In fact, curriculum
integration is an approach to learning based on a child's natural
impulses; it disregards subject boundaries in favor of a more
holistic view of learning, allowing children to follow their
natural lines of inquiry.
Curriculum Creation as a Balancing Act
Recognizing that curriculum integration may be one ideal but

that traditional subjects must also be adhered to, Sue
Bredekamp (1997) suggests, "The best strategy . . . is to begin
with the discipline frameworks and identify the connections, the
ways that curriculum can be integrated and made more
meaningful for learners" (p. xvi). Furthermore, curriculum
designers must always keep in mind the importance and
integrity of the individual subjects.
As they create curricula at each developmental level, curriculum
planners should keep the following points in mind:
Infants and toddlers are provided their own natural curriculum
by their physical environment, family, and society. The role of
the curriculum planner is to make the environment and
experiences welcoming and positive.
Preschoolers continue to learn much from all aspects of their
environments. They are also ready for expanding their learning
in ways that will lead them to more formal learning later on.
Curriculum planners can identify children's current and
potential interests and build from there, crossing disciplines
informally. Time for in-depth study is important.
Children in the primary grades, like the younger preschoolers,
learn most naturally and meaningfully when formal subjects are
not separated; however, it is often important and even necessary
to focus for a time on a single subject.
Integrating curricula for preschool and the primary grades is
one way to make learning most meaningful and enjoyable to
children.
The integrity and importance of individual subjects should not
be lost or treated superficially in the process of creating an
integrated curriculum.
From all of these points, we may conclude that curriculum
creation is a balancing act, one that requires thoughtful
planning whatever the age of the child. However, one more
consideration is worth mentioning here. The following case
study presents a scenario in which a teacher carefully considers

much of what has just been discussed when making plans but
neglected to inform the children. At the end of the case study,
you will be asked to consider whether this was a problem or not.
3.2 Curriculum Integration and Single-Subject Teaching: Some
Important History
The roots of these two approaches to curriculum development
can be found in the works of the 17th-century Englishman John
Locke (1632–1704) and the 18th-century Swiss man Jean-
Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Both were highly influential in
education, with Locke intent on providing interesting ways to
learn single subjects and Rousseau focused on a "natural"
education that allowed room for play and incidental learning.
Pestalozzi's Approach to Subject Integration
The Swiss educational reformer Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827),
inspired by the humaneness of Rousseau's philosophy, created a
curriculum that provided an informal integration across
subjects. In addition, however, there were focused lessons for
skills learning or memorization of essential facts and, at these
times, the curriculum reverted to single subjects. In the history
of Western education, no one before Pestalozzi had taken this
balanced approach. His combination of philosophy and practical
application found its home in a series of schools he founded
over his lifetime. One important component of Pestalozzi
education was to begin with concrete experiences and to move
toward the abstract as children were ready, a concept well
understood in modern education. To this end, he created what he
called "object lessons," known today as manipulatives, that
were used to teach the early stages of form, language, and
numbers. With such revolutionary approaches to teaching and
learning, Pestalozzi's schools' fame and influence spread
internationally, with educators coming to observe and study
with him.
Froebel and the First Kindergarten
Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852), a one-time student of

Pestalozzi, applied much of what he learned from his mentor to
the creation of the German kindergarten, but with a difference.
To Froebel, Pestalozzi's schools lacked an all-important
"spiritual mechanism." As the son and nephew of Lutheran
pastors, Froebel always regarded education and life in terms of
their relation to God. "Pestalozzi takes man existing only in his
appearance on earth," he said, "but I take man in his eternal
being, in his eternal existence" (Shapiro, 1983, p. 20). Further
aspects of Froebel's philosophy included the concepts of
harmony, unity, and reconciling opposites, and the activities he
developed for children often reflected these concepts
(Brosterman, 1997). An example of this focus on harmony and
reconciling opposites was circle games, in which the children
would break briefly into individual activity, followed by a
return to the circle as a demonstration of group unity.
Kindergarten teachers were trained to point out the symbolism
of such acts, and the children were believed capable of
understanding such abstract concepts.
Like Rousseau and Pestalozzi before him, Froebel loved nature
and wished to instill a similar love in young children. Inventing
a school for 3- to 5-year-olds, he decided to call it a
kindergarten, the German word for children's garden. There
was, indeed, gardening as a part of the curriculum, complete
with a focus on the harmonious design of the plots and the unity
required as everyone worked together. Although Froebel's ideas
about circle games and gardening have lived on through a
century and a half, it is the materials he designed that gained
the most fame. Called gifts and occupations, these materials
were greatly influenced by Froebel's earlier studies in geometry
and in the crystals found in nature. As children interacted with
the materials, their teachers provided lessons in harmony and
unity as appropriate. This rather structured approach to early
childhood curriculum was a force to be dealt with when the next
important educator appeared on the historical scene in the
United States.

Dewey's Lab School
John Dewey (1859–1952) arrived at the University of Chicago
at a time when university laboratory schools were in
development. The primary purpose of lab schools—which were
created primarily on college campuses—was to train teachers
while providing high-quality, research-based, and cutting-edge
education to children. A major focus of Dewey's years at the
university was the creation of such a school, which included a
two-year kindergarten. For the youngest children as well as
those who were older, Dewey envisioned a curriculum that
reflected real life, including excursions into the neighborhood
and projects that were inspired by children's interests. Because
kindergartens at the time were devoted to the philosophy and
methodology of Froebel, and Dewey had something quite
different in mind, he had to proceed carefully in order to bring
early childhood educators over to his way of thinking. One
approach was to use Froebelian terminology and "rebrand" it.
For example, Dewey (1902) took Froebel's spiritual concept of
unity and used the term when unifying his own ideas such as
learning and doing or school and society. A second approach
was to use Froebel materials but in a much freer fashion.
Froebel blocks, for example, came with specific instructions for
their use, but in the Dewey kindergarten, they were played with
freely and creatively. There were no teacher-led lessons about
the spiritual foundations of the activities in which children were
engaged. So that he would have well-trained teachers for his lab
kindergarten, Dewey needed to convince the area's kindergarten
teachers that his views of learning and curricula were more
advanced than those of Froebel. To a great extent, he succeeded
(Brosterman, 1997).
Basic to the Dewey School's approach to teaching and learning
was the idea that a function of education is to prepare children
for living in a democracy by creating a democratic society
within the school. In Dewey's words, "I believe that . . . the
school is primarily a social institution. Education, therefore, is
a process of living and not a preparation for future living"

(1964, p. 429). Another basic idea included a curriculum
dedicated to learning by engaging in projects. Projects were an
important part of learning from kindergarten and through the
elementary grades. These projects should be based on children's
real-life interests and their "own instincts and powers furnish
the material and give the starting-point for all education"
(Dewey, 1964, p. 428). Such projects, which grew from
children's own interests, inevitably crossed curricular lines,
incorporating within them whatever subjects were pertinent to
the research to be done. It is the Dewey projects that have given
rise to today's approaches to curriculum integration.
The historic line from then until now, however, was not a
straight one. Although Dewey's ideas gained wide acceptance
for a while, those adopting them often focused on catch phrases
such as learning by doing (in other words, engaging in hands-on
activities) without ensuring that children were actually engaged
in deep acquisition of knowledge. Concerns about Dewey's so-
called progressive education were already emerging when, in
the 1950s, the Soviet Union beat all other countries in achieving
space flight. Suddenly, American money for education was
focused on developing single-subject materials and curricula for
children of every age. According to Laurel Tanner, "The nature
of the learner was recast in the form of a budding scholar-
specialist, while the relevance of the curriculum to the life of
the learner and the life of a free society was shunted aside"
(1989, p. 9). Further, she said, "The result is either curriculum
congestion or the removal of important studies in favor of the
subject matter that fits the latest educational crisis or fashion"
(p. 10). It was the mid-1980s before Dewey's ideas could be
rediscovered and the integrated curriculum re-explored, at least
in the United States. In the interim, other developments had
more influence, as we shall see.
The Montessori Approach
On the other side of the Atlantic, but contemporaneous with

Dewey, the Italian educator Maria Montessori (introduced in
Chapter 2) also saw the wisdom and opportunity in paying
respect to and then moving on from Froebel's model of
kindergarten. After being trained as a physician, Montessori
was assigned to work within an institution for insane adults.
Because there seemed to be no place else to put them, the
institution also included children with learning disabilities.
There, the children were largely ignored and left to entertain
themselves without materials for play or education. Concerned
about the inhumane treatment of the children, Montessori began
to seek ways to inspire and educate them. With no background
in educating children, she turned to the writings of Rousseau,
Pestalozzi, and Froebel, as well as special educators. At one
point, she advocated creating Froebel kindergartens throughout
Italy (Kramer, 1988). In the long run, however, Montessori went
her own way, moving from her successful work with the
children in the adult asylum to the creation of her own schools.
Montessori's curricular materials sometimes resemble those of
Froebel with their origins in geometry, and others are similar to
those promoted by progressive special educators of the time.
The hands-on nature of virtually every experience in the
classroom can be traced back to Pestalozzi. Methods of
curriculum delivery call to mind Froebel's preference for a
structured introduction with some creativity permitted only
later. Rousseau's influence can be observed in the freedom
children experience to create their own society as they make
their own choices and learn to work and play together. In this
respect, some of Montessori's ideas resemble those of Dewey
that were in development at the same time.
Curriculum knowledge in an early childhood Montessori
classroom was, and continues to be, focused on language,
mathematics, education of all the senses, and activities that can
be used in everyday practical life. Additional experiences are
provided in other subject areas as well, but materials of the

prepared environment come from the first four areas. For more
on Montessori education, refer back to Chapter 2.
Reggio Emilia and Curriculum Integration in the 1990s
During World War II, the Italian government shut down the
Montessori schools, and by war's end, something new seemed to
be called for. The municipal preschools of Reggio Emilia began
to draw inspiration from Dewey's ideas for research projects for
young children, but their programs were discovered by
Americans only in the 1980s. At the time, British infant schools
were also engaged in Dewey-inspired projects, and Americans
were learning much from them, too (Katz, 1999). Once the
Reggio Emilia model became widely known in this country,
many early childhood programs developed a similar approach
that integrated curricula through research projects.
The 1990s were a time when curriculum integration was
introduced into the advanced grades, all the way through
university. Perhaps most enthusiastic were those involved in
middle school teaching, with one book arguing, "If learners and
teachers in the middle grades are to realize their fullest
potential, we must remove lots of 'walls'—the mental barriers
that derive from . . . the submission to vague pressures to
'cover' one curriculum or another; . . . incongruities between
child-development theory and prevalent instructional practices"
(Stevenson & Carr, 1993, p. 2). Enthusiasm, but also occasional
skepticism, at all levels led to conferences with titles such as
"What's All This about Curriculum Integration?" (1995). From
such conferences, opinion writing, and research came some
definitions of what integration might mean for curriculum
planners. Table 3.1 presents a collection of these definitions, as
well as examples of their application to early childhood
education. You may find them useful as you do your own
curriculum designs;
Table 3.1: Models of Single-Subject and Integrated Curriculum
Method

Description
Early Childhood Examples
Fragmented or Dispersed
Focus is on a single subject.
Children listen to a musical recording. Children
recite the alphabet.
Nested
Skills are inserted into a single academic subject.
To promote social skills, children are divided
into groups to solve math problems.
Themed
A collection of learningexperiences relate to a singletheme. Thi
s may or may notinclude integration of more thanone academic s
ubject.
A preschool class engages in a week of activities
focused on fall leaves.
Webbed
A single theme or topic is integrated across two or more
subjects.
A teacher expands a science study of a nearby
creek to include experiences in art and music.
Immersed
The class (or a single child)focuses on a topic of inquiry thatoft
en integrates more than asingle subject.
Two or three children choose to delve more
deeply into a topic the rest of the class has
completed. The teacher helps them findresources, but they resea
rch primarily on theirown.
Today's early childhood programs make use of all the models
represented in Table 3.1, although of course you will not see
them all in one place. Upcoming sections will explain more
about when, where, and why different approaches might be
observed.
The Common Core Standards Initiative

The most recent development in curriculum models is provided
by the Common Core Standards Initiative (CCSI), although the
standards apply only to English Language Arts and Mathematics
for kindergarten and primary grades. Since 2009, the CCSI has
been a nationwide attempt at coordinating curriculum
expectations across all states and all grades from kindergarten
through grade 12. At the time of this writing, 45 states and three
territories had agreed to restructure curricula according to these
standards. The sponsoring agencies and authors have been the
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
the Council of Chief State School Officers (2010).
To provide an idea of what the language arts expectations are
for kindergarten, here are a few (of many) examples of what
children should be able to do:
Informational text: With prompting and support, ask and answer
questions about key details in a text.
Literature: Recognize common types of texts (e.g., storybooks
and poems).
Writing: Use a combination of drawing, dictating, and writing
to compose opinion pieces in which they tell a reader the topic
or the name of the book they are writing about and state an
opinion or preference about the topic or book (e.g., "My
favorite book is . . .").
The following are examples of mathematics expectations for
kindergartners:
Measurement & data: Describe measurable attributes of objects,
such as length or weight.
Geometry: Describe objects in the environment using the names
of shapes.
Counting & cardinality: Count to 100 by ones and by tens.
Operations & algebraic thinking: Represent addition and
subtraction with objects, fingers, mental images, drawings,
sounds (e.g., claps), acting out situations, verbal explanations,

expressions, or equations.
Although these standards are meant to be national, each state
has the freedom to institute them in its own way. In addition,
there are no requirements as to how curriculum will be taught,
although special consideration must be paid to English language
learners and children with disabilities. It is quite possible to use
any of the teaching methodologies and curriculum-planning
approaches discussed in this textbook and still meet the
standards. For example, look back at the Project Learning case
study in Chapter 2 in which children learned about the real
world of a pizza restaurant. In the restaurant, the children
measured the length and width of the dining room (see
Measurement & data); identified the shape of the room as a
rectangle (see Geometry); and, with their teacher's help, created
lists of questions to ask the owners, then either wrote down the
answers or drew pictures (see Informational text and Writing.)
States that are involved in the CCSI have created websites with
parent and teacher information. There you can find further
details about the programs in your own state. For the national
overview, go to www.corestandards.org. Whether influenced by
the CCSI, NAEYC Standards, a center's or school's philosophy,
or any combination of these, curriculum development can take
any number of approaches. In addition, sources for the creation
of any one model might be the classroom teacher, a school
district, ideas from online sources, or a published curriculum.
We will now consider some of these approaches and provide
examples of what they might look like.
3.3 Approaches to Curriculum Development
Perhaps you have observed most or all of the approaches to
early education that follow. Here, we focus on how their
curricula are created. Teaching methodologies in any one of
these curriculum designs might include those we have looked at
previously in Chapter 1: direction instruction, group or
individual work, and play.

Learning through Single Subjects (Sometimes Connected)
Despite the enthusiasm for integrating curricula in recent years,
there are inherent dangers in doing so. First, it is often possible
to move ahead with planning while neglecting to ensure that
state and local standards have been met. Second, teachers may
want to incorporate subjects for which they have little or no
training; this is especially true regarding subjects such as
music, movement, and art. Third, enthusiasm for integration
often leads to loss of the depth of knowledge that develops
when attention is paid to individual subjects. Systematic
planning of a single subject ensures specific knowledge and
skills will not be lost.
There are two basic ways in which single subjects retain their
own identity while being connected to others. First, a single
subject might be inserted when specific knowledge or skills are
needed within a larger integrated curriculum. For example, a
group of 3-year-olds might be sorting various materials
collected from across the classroom into like colors. At some
point, the teacher notices that several children do not know the
names of all the colors. After the objects are sorted, she gathers
the children together and, through questions, answers, and
direct instruction, teaches the colors' names.
Second, focus on a single subject might be emphasized initially,
with integration taking place later. This is often the philosophy
of national curriculum organizations that are devoted to
determining what makes effective teaching and learning in their
area of expertise. These organizations typically combine a
preference for focus on their own subject along with an
understanding that young children are most drawn to
experiences that cross disciplines. For example, the positions of
science education organizations "are based on the idea that
active, hands-on, conceptual learning that leads to
understanding, along with the acquisition of basic skills,
provides meaningful and relevant [science] learning

experiences" (Lind, 1997, p. 76). As another example, the
Music Educators National Conference has determined that the
music curriculum should first be a "well-planned sequence of
learning experiences leading to clearly defined skills and
knowledge." As one music educator explains, "[I]nfants
experience high and low sounds through vocal play and
listening to others sing, while 6-year-olds can describe high and
low melodic directions and components without being involved
in the musical skills and vice versa" (Kenney, 1997, pp. 108,
110). Consider including music in the broader curriculum "as a
discrete way of thinking and experiencing provides the learner
with one more way to construct knowledge. It gives the brain
more data from which it will integrate internally" (p. 130).
Across the rest of the curriculum can be found viewpoints like
those of the science and music organizations and of the
educational experts associated with them. When preparing
activities of high interest for young children, curriculum
planners should keep in mind the importance and integrity of
the individual subjects incorporated in them.
Learning through Units, Themes, Projects, and Emergent
Curriculum
The first three methods of teaching and learning—units, themes,
and projects—have much in common with one another and many
of the same advantages. (We will discuss the emergent
curriculum separately.) Because the subject matter is chosen
based largely on student needs and interests, children are
provided with knowledge and skills they can use in the real
world. All three methods can be designed to build on children's
current knowledge. If units, themes, or projects are incorporated
into the standard curriculum, they give it more relevance. There
can be flexibility of teaching and learning based on children's
evolving interests and the need to shorten or extend the time.
Because of the variety of experiences provided by units, themes,
and projects, the needs of individual children can be met. For
example, some may wish to study on their own in more depth,

while others prefer to move on to other activities, and still
others who may need help with skills can stop and focus for a
time (Seefeldt, Castle, & Falconer, 2010). There are some
differences to consider between these methods of curriculum
design, and although they may seem slight, they can lead to
quite different experiences and outcomes.
Units
In a school curriculum, a unit is a study that typically
incorporates two or more subjects over a predetermined period
while focusing on a central topic. A unit is designed by the
teacher. Of the four curriculum designs, units offer the most
formal structure, both for teachers and for children. Although
they can be flexible enough to add or subtract experiences based
on children's interests and needs, units are fully planned in
advance by the teacher. An advantage of units is that, with
careful advance planning, teachers can be sure that they have
incorporated content that meets school or district guidelines and
activities that might be needed for skills attainment, while still
providing learning that makes connections between subjects as
well as to the real world. The following case study provides an
example of the way one kindergarten teacher created a formal
structure but also provided experiences based on children's
interests and needs.
Units can be highly practical for a group of teachers whose
classes contain children at similar levels. Each teacher can be
responsible for developing a unit, creating and sharing all the
plans with the other teachers, and collecting the pertinent
materials for everyone. Furthermore, the combination of
preplanning, structure, and cross-curricular possibilities makes
units especially attractive for kindergarten and the primary
grades, where there are often mandated goals for the
curriculum. That same structured approach may make units less
useful for younger children whose interests, needs, and
requirements are less predictable.

Themes
In a center or school curriculum, themes are groups of activities
that cross subject boundaries to achieve a focus on an
overarching or umbrella topic. Typically, themes delve into a
topic of interest with activities that continue throughout the
day. Examples might include food groups, types of
transportation, or insects. Themes are often found in preschools
as a way to provide interest and make a particular topic highly
visible. Usually, theme learning includes much attention to the
physical environment, with décor demonstrating the learning
being undertaken; when outsiders walk into a themed classroom,
they can generally observe theme learning going on without
needing to be told about it. In a classroom where the theme is
insects, for example, posters of honeybees and praying mantises
may adorn the walls, and cages may contain chrysalises that are
being observed by the students. A food group theme might have
cooking centers, tables with fruits and vegetables to touch and
identify, and picture books about the topic.
Like units, themes are preplanned by teachers, and the entire
class is expected to participate or at least feel surrounded by the
theme at hand. One popular preschool theme is colors, often
with one color as the focus each week. Perhaps during the green
week, green paint of different shades is provided at the painting
easel. Green plants of various sorts could be studied. Music
might include movement activities to mimic green plants
moving in the wind. Frogs, toads, and snakes could be studied
through storybooks or, if available, by observation.
One caution related to thematic learning is that although adults
might believe a theme to be obvious, children may not always
make the expected connections. Just because many things that
happen in a classroom pertain to green does not necessarily
mean that they have much to do with each other in other ways.
Instead, some children might thoroughly enjoy, and learn much
from, activities with plants, animals, and music and never
particularly notice or care that there is a lot of green around.

John Dewey had concerns about this happening, stating,
"Experiences may be so disconnected from one another that,
while each is agreeable or even exciting in itself, they are not
linked cumulatively to one another. Energy is then dissipated
and a person becomes scatter-brained" (1938, p. 26).
Projects
Perhaps the most child-centered of the first three models of
curriculum design, project learning emerges from children's
stated interests, or interests the teacher observes but that may
be unconscious or undeveloped in the children. An advantage of
projects is that they provide opportunities for in-depth study; in
fact, there is little danger that a project will lead to basic,
surface learning. Another advantage of projects is the very
natural way that they make differentiation possible.
Differentiated instruction is the way in which teachers adjust
curricula and learning experiences based on individual needs
and interests. Project learning allows for individual and group
work, team planning and collaboration, and in-depth study
according to children's interests. The most well-known models
of project learning come from the Reggio Emilia schools of
Italy and the Project Approach of Katz and Chard (see Chapter
2).
demonstrate real-world concepts?
Sometimes, projects grow naturally from units and themes.
During the social studies shelter unit described earlier, children
became fascinated on their walk with their own shelters.
Perhaps if they had walked further, they would have noticed a
new apartment building going up. From this might follow a
project in which they could study construction techniques,
safety requirements, and time frames required for completion.
From the study of the green theme, children might wish to focus
more learning on the animals. Perhaps they would just study
frogs. Perhaps it would be more generally reptiles. Such an
outgrowth from units and themes is often an interest shared by
only a few children. In a flexible classroom, such learning is

possible and supported.
A special interest for a project may well emerge from ideas
totally unrelated to a class theme or unit. The following case
study explains how this happened in one kindergarten.
For child-centered educators, projects are often thought of as
the ideal way for children to learn, but they are also sometimes
considered idealistic or impractical. One reason is that required
standards might be ignored or are believed not to fit. Indeed,
Tony's teacher chose not to consider any particular standards
for this project. It occurred close to the end of the school year,
and she was able to take a relaxed approach to curriculum
development. However, as we have seen in Peggy's pizza study
from Chapter 2, attention to standards can certainly be
accomplished through project learning. A second reason that
project learning may seem idealistic or impractical is that
curriculum planning requires content knowledge, creativity, and
at least some experience on the part of the teacher. Projects may
not be ideal for the beginning educator until some level of
comfort is reached concerning curriculum planning.
Emergent Curriculum
Although units, themes, and projects all contain child-centered
elements, they also have an adult-designed structure. Attention
is often paid to meeting whatever standards are in place. In
contrast, an almost entirely learner-centered approach is
emergent curriculum. In this case, the curriculum comes from
children's interests, either stated by them or observed by their
teachers. It is typically seen in classrooms of children who are
young enough that standards are not part of the educational
concern, or in private or home schools dedicated to child-
centered learning. Emergent curriculum tends to contain more
play than do the other approaches just discussed and may
incorporate more outdoor activities as well.
Here is how a play-based curriculum emerged in one class of 2-
year-olds: The children were just beginning to learn to sing, and

their teachers used a big book of classic children's songs with
colorful pictures as their main instructional aid. One of their
favorite songs was "I'm a Little Teapot."
As the children sang, they used their arms and hands as handle
and spout, while enjoying tipping over and pouring out. It
became clear, however, that they did not know what tea was and
had never seen a real teapot. So one of the teachers brought one
in and used it to illustrate the song. The next day, the children
wanted to know where the teapot was. In addition, during their
playtime they began pretending to serve tea to the teachers. The
teachers then brought more teapots and cups from home. A little
food coloring added to a bit of water in each pot created "tea."
The children were taught proper and efficient ways to pour from
pot to cup and from cup back to pot, as well as helpful
techniques for cleaning up the inevitable spills.
Interest in learning to pour, pretending to drink, and serving
each other lasted about one week. The children continued to
love singing the song, however, and would make knowledgeable
comments about what they were doing and what they observed
in the illustrations. Play-based learning that emerges from
children's interests is deemed by many to be the most authentic
way for young children to learn (Leong & Bodrova, 2012).
3.4 Thinking Ahead
The purpose of this chapter has been to provide the basis for
curriculum construction, which will be presented on a practical
level in Chapter 4. There are many things to think about before,
during, and after designing learning experiences for young
children. Chapter 4 will discuss many of these. To help you get
started, here is an excerpt from a checklist that Head Start
(2001) provides. It is based on positions from NAEYC:
Does the curriculum
promote interactive learning and encourage the child's

construction of knowledge?
build and elaborate on children's current knowledge and
abilities?
facilitate concept learning and skills development in an
integrated and natural way?
permit flexibility for children and teachers?
encourage active learning and frequently allow children to make
meaningful choices?
foster children's exploration and inquiry?
promote the development of higher-order abilities, such as
thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making?
promote feelings of safety, security, and belonging?
Is the curriculum
meaningful for these children?
relevant to the children's lives?
Note the ways in which these questions apply to the discussions
in this chapter. There will be other such ideas to think about in
Chapter 4.
Krogh, S. (2013). A Bridge to the Classroom and Early Care:
ECE Capstone [Electronic version]. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/

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