This study examined the development of computer skills in children from kindergarten to third grade using a national dataset. The availability of computers at home and high socioeconomic status predicted stronger computer skills in kindergarten. While gender did not affect initial skills, girls' skills developed faster than boys'. Most importantly, the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms predicted stronger development of skills over time, suggesting it can help close gaps related to socioeconomic status and prior access.
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Estonian children are a demographic that appear in the Top 5, in the EU, as Internet users who both take advantage of new ICT solutions as well as become susceptible to their downsides (various online threats). In this country, coordinated efforts in raising e-safety awareness are relatively recent. Earlier activities were poorly coordinated, lacked continuity and relied mostly on volunteers. During the last few years, the Safer Internet Program in Estonia has added a much-needed coordinating approach.
In early days the main emphases were on the cognitive aspects of learning and traditional instructions of teaching in the classroom using outdated and conventional techniques. But today in this world of constant innovations and discoveries, scientists and gadget-experts are continuously searching for one or the two technological devices a day. Nodoubt technology has made our life much easier and better in many aspects. In developed countries, technology facilitates and helps students and teacher to learn things in more effective ways. But in the country like India, the development in technology is not upto that mark. We still are moving towards the path of progress. Thus, this paper will best describes about the conceptual framework regarding futuristic studies related to future technologies such as M-Learning, E-Learning, , iPod, I-Pad self-efficacy learning, Virtual Learning Environment (VLE ) etc. In this paper investigator highlighted some of the studies related to trends in futurology and innovations that could prove an important aspect of education technology.
Prospective U.S. Mathematics Teachers' Engagement in Handheld Cellular Device...Dr. Mokter Hossain
This paper presents quantitative and qualitative data that examine the prospective U.S. mathematics teachers’ engagement in the use of the Internet, hand-held cellular devices, and Web 2.0 activities and their perception of using these technologies for the teaching and learning of Euclidean geometry and other mathematics courses. The study revealed that prospective mathematics teachers in the U.S. have massive engagement in accessing the Internet and Web 2.0-based activities through cellular and handheld mobile devices as well as in their self-reported skills in using Internet, without any significant differences based on their gender. Prospective mathematics teachers experienced numerous advantages and a few minor problems of the blogging activity as a supportive tool in the Euclidean Geometry course. They found blogs a supportive and useful tool for collaborative teaching and learning purposes. Thus, they suggest that blogs and other Web 2.0 tools should be incorporated in the middle and high school mathematics education curricula.
Slides used during the debriefing of the Mobileland workshop during the 2012 EDUCAUSE conference.
https://sites.google.com/site/mccmobileland/channeling-lewis-carol
A learning upgrade - gender and ICT in education
Presented at the Learning and Teaching with Technology Conference (September 2012) by Gerry White, ACER.
Digital access to knowledge in the preschool classroom: Reports from Australiafilzah zahilah mz
Australian preschool teachers’ use of Web-searching in their classroom practice was examined (N = 131).
Availability of Internet-enabled digital technology and the contribution of teacher demographic characteristics,
comfort with digital technologies and beliefs about their use were assessed. Internet-enabled
technologies were available in 53% (n = 69) of classrooms. Within these classrooms, teacher age and beliefs
predicted Web-searching practice. Although comfortable with digital access of knowledge in their everyday
life, teachers reported less comfort with Web-searching in the context of their classroom practice.
The findings identify the provision of Internet-enabled technologies and professional development as
actions to support effective and confident inclusion of Web-searching in classrooms. Such actions are
necessary to align with national policy documents that define acquisition of digital literacies as a goal and assert digital access to knowledge as an issue of equity.
Ziyanak, sebahattin the effectiveness of survey instruments nfaerj v29 n3 2016William Kritsonis
William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Distinguished Alumnus, Central Washington University, College of Education and Professional Studies, Ellensburg, Washington; Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Hall of Honor, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System. Professor of Educational Leadership, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin.
Lessons Learned from the Safer Internet Program in EstoniaeLearning Papers
Authors: Birgy Lorenz, Kaido Kikkas
Estonian children are a demographic that appear in the Top 5, in the EU, as Internet users who both take advantage of new ICT solutions as well as become susceptible to their downsides (various online threats). In this country, coordinated efforts in raising e-safety awareness are relatively recent. Earlier activities were poorly coordinated, lacked continuity and relied mostly on volunteers. During the last few years, the Safer Internet Program in Estonia has added a much-needed coordinating approach.
In early days the main emphases were on the cognitive aspects of learning and traditional instructions of teaching in the classroom using outdated and conventional techniques. But today in this world of constant innovations and discoveries, scientists and gadget-experts are continuously searching for one or the two technological devices a day. Nodoubt technology has made our life much easier and better in many aspects. In developed countries, technology facilitates and helps students and teacher to learn things in more effective ways. But in the country like India, the development in technology is not upto that mark. We still are moving towards the path of progress. Thus, this paper will best describes about the conceptual framework regarding futuristic studies related to future technologies such as M-Learning, E-Learning, , iPod, I-Pad self-efficacy learning, Virtual Learning Environment (VLE ) etc. In this paper investigator highlighted some of the studies related to trends in futurology and innovations that could prove an important aspect of education technology.
Prospective U.S. Mathematics Teachers' Engagement in Handheld Cellular Device...Dr. Mokter Hossain
This paper presents quantitative and qualitative data that examine the prospective U.S. mathematics teachers’ engagement in the use of the Internet, hand-held cellular devices, and Web 2.0 activities and their perception of using these technologies for the teaching and learning of Euclidean geometry and other mathematics courses. The study revealed that prospective mathematics teachers in the U.S. have massive engagement in accessing the Internet and Web 2.0-based activities through cellular and handheld mobile devices as well as in their self-reported skills in using Internet, without any significant differences based on their gender. Prospective mathematics teachers experienced numerous advantages and a few minor problems of the blogging activity as a supportive tool in the Euclidean Geometry course. They found blogs a supportive and useful tool for collaborative teaching and learning purposes. Thus, they suggest that blogs and other Web 2.0 tools should be incorporated in the middle and high school mathematics education curricula.
Slides used during the debriefing of the Mobileland workshop during the 2012 EDUCAUSE conference.
https://sites.google.com/site/mccmobileland/channeling-lewis-carol
A learning upgrade - gender and ICT in education
Presented at the Learning and Teaching with Technology Conference (September 2012) by Gerry White, ACER.
Digital access to knowledge in the preschool classroom: Reports from Australiafilzah zahilah mz
Australian preschool teachers’ use of Web-searching in their classroom practice was examined (N = 131).
Availability of Internet-enabled digital technology and the contribution of teacher demographic characteristics,
comfort with digital technologies and beliefs about their use were assessed. Internet-enabled
technologies were available in 53% (n = 69) of classrooms. Within these classrooms, teacher age and beliefs
predicted Web-searching practice. Although comfortable with digital access of knowledge in their everyday
life, teachers reported less comfort with Web-searching in the context of their classroom practice.
The findings identify the provision of Internet-enabled technologies and professional development as
actions to support effective and confident inclusion of Web-searching in classrooms. Such actions are
necessary to align with national policy documents that define acquisition of digital literacies as a goal and assert digital access to knowledge as an issue of equity.
Ziyanak, sebahattin the effectiveness of survey instruments nfaerj v29 n3 2016William Kritsonis
William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Distinguished Alumnus, Central Washington University, College of Education and Professional Studies, Ellensburg, Washington; Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Hall of Honor, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System. Professor of Educational Leadership, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin.
Ziyanak, sebahattin the effectiveness of survey instruments nfaerj v29 n3 2016William Kritsonis
Dr. Sebahattin Ziyanaki is Assistant Professor of Sociology at The University of Texas of the Permian Basin. Dr. Ziyanak has established a reputation as a researcher and professor. Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS. - National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis is Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982). See: www.nationalforum.com
Ziyanak, sebahattin the effectiveness of survey instruments nfaerj v29 n3 2016William Kritsonis
This article examines how sociological imagination of the individuals living in southeastern Turkey is constructed through Movie, The Bliss. Traditional and modern forms of life are symbolically constructed in this movie. The framework of “honor killing,” “masculinity in southeastern Turkey," “cultural deficiency,” and “othering” will be analyzed to explicate how stereotypical southeastern characters are reproduced. Content analysis technique is applied to interpret apparent and latent contents, contexts, aspects and so forth. Developed categories are revisited through Ibn Khaldun's Typology, cultural deficiency theory, Tonnies’ theory, Durkheim’s view on society, and Goffman’s framing process.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982)
This Children are future of a society within a country. They should be provided with all round educational development since educating children has many advantages. If they are educated, they can face any problem and this makes them strong and happy. In other words the growth of a country is dependent on its learned population. Children with special education needs have problems to develop cognitive abilities like thinking, learning and obtain new knowledge and concept. It may also be required to improve their conduct, communication skills and interactions with their environment. It is required to develop customizable and compliant applications designed to support them in adapting with respect to the current situations they face and thus take actions appropriately. Such applications would provide them the assistance to allow them frame their learning essentials and help to process to the diverse sensory and cognitive impairments including the mobility issues. This research will be based on artificial intelligence concept and will be self-adaptable. Besides, in many cases they have the opportunity to perform activities that previously were not accessible to them, because of the interface and contents of the activities have been adapted specifically to them. The study also suggests that the repertoire of types of activities provided is suitable for learning purposes with students with impairments. Finally, the use of electronic devices and multimedia contents increases their interest in learning and attention.
AN INTELLIGENT SELF-ADAPTABLE APPLICATION TO SUPPORT CHILDREN EDUCATION AND L...ijcsit
ABSTRACT
This Children are future of a society within a country. They should be provided with all round educational development since educating children has many advantages. If they are educated, they can face any problem and this makes them strong and happy. In other words the growth of a country is dependent on its learned population. Children with special education needs have problems to develop cognitive abilities like thinking, learning and obtain new knowledge and concept. It may also be required to improve their conduct, communication skills and interactions with their environment. It is required to develop customizable and compliant applications designed to support them in adapting with respect to the current situations they face and thus take actions appropriately. Such applications would provide them the assistance to allow them frame their learning essentials and help to process to the diverse sensory and cognitive impairments including the mobility issues. This research will be based on artificial intelligence concept and will be self-adaptable. Besides, in many cases they have the opportunity to perform activities that previously were not accessible to them, because of the interface and contents of the activities have been adapted specifically to them. The study also suggests that the repertoire of types of activities provided is suitable for learning purposes with students with impairments. Finally, the use of electronic devices and multimedia contents increases their interest in learning and attention.
Dr. Lori Webb and Dr. James Jurica, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRAT...William Kritsonis
Dr. David E. Herrington, Invited Guest Editor, NFEAS JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982
Dr. Lori Webb and Dr. James Jurica, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
James Jurica and Lori Webb - Published National Refereed Article in NATIONAL ...William Kritsonis
James Jurica and Lori Webb - Published National Refereed Article in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Founded 1982
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national refereed, juried, peer-reviewed, blind-reviewed professional periodicals. Any article published shall earned five affirmative votes from members of our National Board of Invited Distinguished Jurors and must be recommended for national publication by members of the National Policy Board representing all National FORUM Journals. Journal issues are distributed both nationally and world-wide.
Our website features national refereed articles that are published daily within our National FORUM Journals Online Journal Division. Over 1,000 articles are available to scholars and practitioners world-wide. Over 250,000 guests visit our website yearly. About 56,000 articles are downloaded for academic purposes at no charge. We have about an 88% rejection rate. See: www.nationalforum.com
Founded in 1982, National FORUM Journals has published the scholarly contributions of over 5,200 professors with over 2,000 articles indexed. Our journals are indexed with many global agencies including Cabell’s Directories, ERIC, EBSCO, SWETS International, Library of Congress National Serials Data Program, and the Copyright Clearance Center, Danvers, Massachusetts.
Global Website: www.nationalforum.com
Zhang,yixin investigating effectiveness of using handheld computers nftej v21...William Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
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Digital Artifact 2 - Investigating Pavilion Designs
young children’s computer skills development from kindergarten to third grade
1. Computers & Education 57 (2011) 1698–1704
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers & Education
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu
Young children’s computer skills development from kindergarten to third grade
Mesut Saçkes a, *, Kathy Cabe Trundle b, Randy L. Bell c
a
Balikesir Provincial Directorate of National Education, Research and Development Unit, 10100 Balikesir, Turkey
b
The Ohio State University, School of Teaching and Learning, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
c
University of Virginia, Curry School of Education, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This investigation explores young children’s computer skills development from kindergarten to third
Received 11 June 2010 grade using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten (ECLS–K) dataset. The sample size of
Received in revised form the study was 8642 children. Latent growth curve modeling analysis was used as an analytical tool to
17 March 2011
examine the development of children’s computer skills using LISREL software version 8.80. Results
Accepted 18 March 2011
indicated, not surprisingly, that the availability of a computer at home and a high socio-economic status
were statistically significant predictors of children’s baseline computer skills in kindergarten. The
Keywords:
availability of computers in kindergarten, however, was a statistically significant predictor of the
Computer skills
Kindergarten development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade. Although there was no
Latent growth curve modeling difference between girls and boys in their baseline computer skills in kindergarten, the rate of devel-
opment in computer skills was higher for girls than boys. Results suggest that the availability of an
adequate level of computers in kindergarten classrooms can help close the initial gap in children’s
computer skills due to socio-economic status and lack of computer access prior to entering school.
Supplying kindergarten classrooms with adequate computers could positively contribute to children’s
long-term development of computer skills.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Computers have increasingly become a regular component of American classrooms, with the ratio of computers to children in the US
increasing to one computer to every four children over the last two decades (Russell, Bebell, O’Dwyer, & O’Connor, 2003). Although some
researchers question the effectiveness of computer-based instruction (Carlsen & Andre, 1992; Clark, 1994; Yaman, Nerdel, & Bayrhuber,
2008), a growing body of literature provides increasing evidence of the effectiveness of using computer technology to facilitate instruc-
tion and learning across a variety of school subjects (Bayraktar, 2002; Clements, 2002; Kulik & Kulik, 1991; McKenney & Voogt, 2009;
Mioduser, Tur-Kaspa, & Leitner, 2000; Trundle & Bell, 2010). National academic content standards identify the use of technology among
the skills that students should develop throughout their education (International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE], 2003). In recent
studies, computer skills were reported to be one of the top skills parents expect their children to develop (Healy, 2000), and employers
expect college graduates to have computer skills (Davis, 1997).
National standards encourage the use of computer technology in classrooms. For example, the National Science Education Standards
(National Research Council [NRC], 1996) suggest that “all students in grades K-4 should develop the ability to use and understand science
through technology and technological tools that help students make better observations and measurements” (p. 138). This increasing
emphasis on the use of computer technology in schools highlights the importance of computer skills in children’s academic success.
Previous research has demonstrated that children do not have equal opportunities to access computer technology at home and in schools
(Attewell, 2001; Norris, Sullivan, Poirot, & Soloway, 2003). Researchers have reported that children with high socio-economic status and
children who attend low-poverty schools are more likely to have access to computer technology (Calvert, Rideout, Woolard, Barr, & Strouse,
2005; Judge, Puckett, & Cabuk, 2004). This difference in access to computers changes as children move to the upper grades because the
availability of computer technology between low-poverty and high-poverty schools becomes narrower or completely diminishes in the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: msackes@gmail.com (M. Saçkes).
0360-1315/$ – see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.03.011
2. M. Saçkes et al. / Computers & Education 57 (2011) 1698–1704 1699
upper grades of school (Judge, Puckett, & Bell, 2006). Nevertheless, children with high socio-economic status continue to have better access
to computer technology at home than children with a low socio-economic status. This differential access to a computer at home might
provide an advantage to children with a high socio-economic status over children with a low socio-economic status in terms of developing
their computer skills (Mumtaz, 2001). Some scholars have described this difference in availability of technology and the resulting gap in
information access as a “digital divide” (Attewell, 2001). More and more children have access to computers at home and this access to
technology seems to contribute to the development of children’s cognitive and non-cognitive skills (Fiorini, 2010; Poynton, 2005). Previous
studies have mainly focused on investigating children’s computer access and its potential influence on academic performance (Poynton,
2005). However, the influence of the digital divide on the development of young children’s computer skills has not been widely exam-
ined in the literature. Limited literature exists on the development of children’s computer skills. These studies suggest that motor devel-
opment, executive functioning abilities, and cognitive maturation influence children’s use of computer technology and even five-year old
children can effectively use computer input devices (Clements, 2002; Donker & Reitsma, 2007; Lane & Ziviani, 2010; Lauricella, Barr, &
Calvert, 2009). Previous studies also demonstrated that although parental scaffolding is important, children are able to develop
computer skills with minimal or no adult guidance, and access to computer technology can promote children’s computer literacy (Inamdar,
2004; Lauricella et al., 2009; Mitra & Rana, 2001).
Success of computer-assisted instructional strategies is largely seen as dependent on teachers’ acceptance of the use of technology in
their classrooms and teachers’ own skills and experiences in using technology (Hu, Clark, & Ma, 2003). Although children’s computer skills
also seem to be a vital part of the success of computer-assisted instruction, the importance of children’s computer skills have been largely
overlooked in the literature partly because such data have not been available. However, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kinder-
garten (ECLS–K) data set provides nationally representative data to address these types of questions. Therefore, this study used the ECLS–K
data to explore the development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade by considering their access to computer
technology in kindergarten.
2. Conceptual model tested in the study
The latent growth curve modeling approach was used to model the development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third
grade. Four variables were used as predictors of children’s computer skills in the model. While gender, socio-economic status, and the
availability of a computer at home were used as predictors of both children’s initial computer skills and the development of children’s
computer skills, the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms was only used as a predictor of the development of children’s
computer skills. The availability of a computer at home and children’s socio-economic status were allowed to covary as children with high
socio-economic status were expected to be more likely to have access to a computer at home.
Although earlier studies indicated a possible gender difference that favors older boys over older girls in computer usage (Essa, 1987; Hess
& Miura, 1985), more recent studies suggest that there might be no longer a gender difference among 3–17 year old children in computer
usage (Newburger, 2001). Nevertheless, the use of computers seems to appeal to boys more than girls, which might lead boys to have better
computer skills than girls. Therefore, gender was used as a potential predictor of children’s initial computer skills as well as the development
of children’s computer skills in the model. Socio-economic status appears to be another potential predictor of children’s computer skills.
Children with a high SES are more likely to have access to a computer at home and parents with higher computer literacy. Thus they are
more likely to have opportunities to develop their computer skills (Becker, 2000; Calvert et al., 2005). Moreover, the research literature
suggests a positive link between children’s home experiences and their mathematics, reading, and science learning skills at schools. Results
of these studies demonstrated that children who had access to materials, such as print media, educational toys, and other learning materials,
at home were more likely to perform better on academic tasks than their peers who did not have access to such materials at home (e.g.,
LeFevre, Polyzoi, Skwarchuk, Fast, & Sowinski, 2010; Yaghoub Zadeh, Farnia, & Ungerleider, 2010). Therefore, SES and the availability of
a computer at home were used as potential predictors of children’s initial computer skills and the development of children’s computer skills.
The availability of computers at school is a potential predictor of the development of children’s computer skills (Becker, 2000). Children who
don’t have access to a computer at home might find opportunities to develop their computer skills in classrooms where computers are
available. Thus, the availability of computer technology in kindergarten classrooms was used as a predictor of the development of children’s
computer skills in the model. The main purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the availability of computers in kindergarten
classrooms on the development of children’s computer skills, rather than to examine the change in children’s access to computers in the
early years. Because, the change in children’s access to computers in schools was investigated in previous studies (Judge et al., 2004, 2006)
the availability of computers in the first and third grade classrooms was not included in the model tested in the current study.
3. Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade and
the predictors of children’s computer skills. More specifically, answers to the following research questions were sought in the study: (1) Do
the socio-economic status, gender, and availability of a computer at home predict children’s initial computer skills at kindergarten and the
development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade? (2) Does the availability of computers in kindergarten
classrooms predict the development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade?
4. Methodology
4.1. Sample
The ECLS–K cohort data were collected using a multistage probability sample design that included stratification, clustering, and over-
sampling of certain subpopulations (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2002). The base year sample (1998–1999) consisted of
22,666 children from 953 public and 460 private schools, and children were followed from kindergarten until the eighth grade. ECLS–K
3. 1700 M. Saçkes et al. / Computers & Education 57 (2011) 1698–1704
sample is a nationally representative sample of the children who started kindergarten in the academic years of 1998–99 in the United States.
A subset of the ECLS–K dataset, kindergarten to third grade, was analyzed in the present study. The sample for the current study included
only first-time kindergarten students and students who remained in the same school until the end of third grade. These criteria were used to
avoid potential confounding effects of repeating kindergarten and/or changing schools. Children whose computer skills were rated by their
teachers from kindergarten to third grade were included in the analysis. The sample resulting from these selection criteria included 8642
children from the ECLS–K data set. Table 1 presents the distribution of the study sample by gender and race.
4.2. Instruments
The Teacher Questionnaire, which was developed by experts from the ECLS–K advisory board (NCES, 2005a,b), was used to collect
information about teachers’ backgrounds, training, and classroom practices. The content of the Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire was
designed by the experts of the ECLS–K advisory board. Data obtained through the questionnaire, which was administered during spring
1999, were utilized to determine the availability of computer technology in kindergarten classrooms. Teachers’ responses to the question
regarding the availability of instructional materials in their kindergarten classrooms were examined. The response categories for this
question were never adequate, often not adequate, sometimes not adequate, and always adequate. Teachers’ response to an item related to
instructional materials, availability of computer equipment, was extracted from the database. This variable was used as an indicator of the
availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms.
Teachers’ responses to the following question were used as a measure of children’s computer use skills: “Uses the computer for a variety of
purposes (for example, by drawing a picture, or counting objects, or typing numbers, letters, or words).” Response categories include not yet (1),
beginning (2), in progress (3), intermediate (4), and proficient (5). These data were collected from teachers’ responses to the Teacher Ques-
tionnaire three times for the children included in this study: fall kindergarten, spring first grade, and spring third grade.
While the information about children’s gender was obtained from the Teacher Questionnaire, children’s level of socio-economic status
was determined based on the responses of parents to the questions in the Parent Questionnaire (NCES, 2005a,b). Parents’ responses to two
questions about their yearly income and their highest educational level were used to create a composite socio-economic status variable
(SES), which was included in the analysis for this study. Data concerning the availability of a computer at home also were extracted from the
Parent Questionnaire. A more detailed description of the development and validation of the Teacher and Parent Questionnaires can be found
in ECLS–K psychometrics and methodology reports (NCES, 2005a,b). Copies of the questionnaires also can be obtained from the ECLS–K
website (http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/kindergarten.asp).
4.3. Data analysis
The main objective of this study was to examine the development of children’s computer skills and investigate the impact of factors that
are responsible for the observed change in children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade. Thus, the latent growth curve
modeling approach (LGM) was utilized as an analytical technique to examine the development of children’s computer skills and the causes
of the differences in children’s individual growth patterns (McArdle & Epstein, 1987). LGM is a special application of structural equation
modeling (SEM) that accommodates the analysis of longitudinal data. With LGM, researchers can model change and examine the ante-
cedents and results of change (Preacher, Wichman, MacCallum, & Briggs, 2008). A basic LGM framework includes two latent factors:
intercept and slope. While the intercept factor represents baseline scores, the slope factor represents the growth in scores. Observed scores
at different times are used as indicators of latent intercept and slope factors. Researchers can include other variables as predictors of baseline
scores and growth in the model. See Preacher et al. (2008) and Hancock and Lawrence (2006) for a more detailed description of the LGM
framework.
The loadings of the children’s computer skills scores observed in kindergarten, first, and third grades on the intercept factor were fixed
to 1, and the loadings on the slope factor were fixed to 0, 21, and 45 respectively to reflect the amount of time in months that passed between
each assessment (as per Hancock & Lawrence, 2006; Schumacker & Lomax, 1996). While the intercept factor represents children’s baseline
skills, the slope factor represents the development of children’s skills from kindergarten to third grade in the model.
Data in the present study were weighted to correct for the study design effect to ensure that results were nationally representative for
the children who started kindergarten in the academic years of 1998–99 in the US. The complex survey design estimation procedure, which
Table 1
Distribution of the sample by gender and race.
Variable N Unweighted % Weighted%
Child Gender
Boys 4281 49.5 49.7
Girls 4361 50.5 50.3
Child Composite Race
White, non-Hispanic 5268 61.0 63.5
Black or African American, non-Hispanic 967 11.2 12.4
Hispanic, race specified 720 8.3 8.6
Hispanic, race not specified 710 8.2 8.6
Asian 473 5.5 2.4
Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander 116 1.3 0.6
American Indian or Alaska native 148 1.7 1.7
More than one race, non-Hispanic 234 2.7 2.1
Not ascertained 6 0.1 0.1
Total 8642 100 100
4. M. Saçkes et al. / Computers & Education 57 (2011) 1698–1704 1701
utilizes the full information maximum likelihood estimation method (FIML), was employed using LISREL version 8.80 to analyze the data
(Jöreskog & Sorbom, 2006). The complex stratified cluster sampling design of the ECLS–K data was taken into account using the appropriate
stratification, cluster, and child level weight variables.
For a complex survey design analysis, the LISREL software provided the following values to evaluate the fit of the model tested: the full
information maximum likelihood chi-square, its corresponding p value, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA).
Therefore, these values were used to evaluate the model fit in the study. The chi-square statistic and RMSEA value are used to evaluate the
degree of misfit or the discrepancy between the true model and the hypothesized model. In other words, these values are indicative of
whether the model tested in the study significantly differs from the true population model that generated the data. A statistically significant
chi-square value indicates that the model is not a good fit to the sample data, while a non-significant value suggests that the model does not
significantly differ from the hypothetical true population model that generated the data (Schumacker & Lomax, 1996). A chi-square test is
very sensitive to large sample sizes. Therefore, researchers developed and proposed alternative measures of model fit, such as RMSEA, that
are not affected by large sample sizes (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). A value of zero RMSEA suggests exact model fit, whereas larger RMSEA
values suggest poorer model fit.
5. Results
5.1. Children’s initial computer skills and availability of computers at home and in kindergarten
Descriptive statistics demonstrated that boys tended to have higher computer skills than girls at the beginning of kindergarten. However,
girls obtained higher scores than boys on the first and the third grade assessments. While, the difference in computer skills between
children with low and high SES was large at the beginning of kindergarten, the magnitude of this difference became much lower as children
moved toward the upper grades. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for children’s computer skills by gender and SES.
Results demonstrated that more than half of the children (57.8%) had a computer at home while 42.2% of the children did not. Almost 15%
of the teachers reported that the availability of computer equipment in their classrooms is never adequate, and 44% reported that they have
always adequate computer equipment. Table 3 presents the weighted percentages of the availability of computers in kindergarten class-
rooms and at home.
5.2. Assessment of model fit
The model tested in this study provided a good fit to the data (Full Information ML Chi-Square ¼ 101.48, df ¼ 10, p < .001). The chi-square
value was significant, which is not surprising as the c2 statistic is easily influenced by large sample sizes (Bentler & Bonett, 1980). Given the
large sample size of the study, we based our evaluation of the model fit on the RMSEA value, which is not affected by sample size. The RMSEA
value was 0.033 (90% CI: 0.027–0.038), which is below the suggested cut-off value of 0.06, indicating the model fits the data very well
(Hu & Bentler, 1999; Schumacker & Lomax, 1996).
5.3. Development of children’s computer skills
The estimate of the intercept mean (initial computer skills) was 2.03 on a scale of 1–5. The estimate of the slope mean (rate of devel-
opment) was 0.01 (p < .01) suggesting development of computer skills from kindergarten to third grade was in a positive direction with an
average increase of 0.01 unit per month. The estimate of the intercept variance was 0.25 indicating a statistically significant difference in
children’s computer skills at the beginning of kindergarten (p < .01). The estimate of the slope variance was 0.001 (p < .01), suggesting that
differences among the children in the rates of change in their computer skills from kindergarten to third grade was statistically significant.
The estimated covariance between children’s baseline computer skills and development in their skills was À0.28 (p > .05), suggesting
children with low level computer skills at the beginning of kindergarten tended to develop at a higher rate than their peers who started with
high level computer skills. However, this tendency was not statistically significant. Fig. 1 illustrates the model tested in the study.
5.4. Predictors of the development of computer skills
Results indicated that the availability of a computer at home (p < .01) and children’s socio-economic status (p < .01) were statistically
significant predictors of children’s initial computer skills at the beginning of kindergarten. Not surprisingly, children with a high socio-
economic status and children who had access to a computer at home were more likely to have higher level computer use skills than their
peers with a low socio-economic status and children who did not have access to a computer at home. These two variables also were related.
There was a positive correlation between socio-economic status and availability of a computer at home. Children with higher socio-
economic status were more likely to have a computer at home (0.41, p < .01).
Table 2
Means and standard deviations of computer skills by gender and SES.a
Kindergarten First Grade Third Grade
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Girls 2.00 1.04 2.40 1.31 2.56 1.29
Boys 2.05 1.08 2.32 1.30 2.49 1.29
Low SES 2.00 1.04 2.35 1.30 2.51 1.29
High SES 2.61 1.28 2.65 1.36 2.85 1.41
a
Weighted.
5. 1702 M. Saçkes et al. / Computers & Education 57 (2011) 1698–1704
Table 3
Availability of computers at kindergarten and at home.
Response Categories Computers
Never adequate 14.9%
Often not adequate 14.9%
Sometimes not adequate 26.2%
Always adequate 44.0%
Total 100.0%
Computer is available at home 57.8%
Computer is not available at home 42.2%
Total 100.0%
Availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms (p < .01) was statistically significant predictors of the development of children’s
computer skills from kindergarten to third grade. Children who were in kindergarten classrooms with adequate levels of computers were
more likely to be rated by their 3rd grade teachers as having higher computer skills.
Gender was not a statistically significant predictor of children’s initial computer skills (p > .05), but it was a significant predictor of the
development of children’s computer skills (p < .01). The rate of development in computer skills was higher for girls than boys (p < .01).
Interestingly, socio-economic status (p > .05) and availability of a computer at home (p > .05) were not statistically significant predictors of
the development of children’s computer skills over time. Socio-economic status, gender, and the availability of a computer at home
explained 16% variance in children’s initial computer skills in kindergarten. Socio-economic status, gender, the availability of a computer at
home, and the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms explained 2% of the variance in the development of children’s computer
skills from kindergarten to third grade. Table 4 presents the path coefficients and associated z-scores for the model.
6. Discussion
This study sought to investigate the development of children’s computer skills from kindergarten to third grade by considering their
access to computer technology. Results suggest that the availability of an adequate level of computers in kindergarten classrooms reduces
the initial performance gap in children’s computer skills due to socio-economic status over time, and especially by third grade. Thus,
supplying kindergarten classrooms with adequate computers could positively contribute to young children’s long-term development of
computer skills throughout their early childhood school experiences.
The success of computer-based instruction in schools partly depends on the children’s computer skills. Results of this study demon-
strated that children with high socio-economic status and children who have access to a computer at home initially were more competent
using computers than their peers with a lower socio-economic status and peers who did not have access to a computer at home. These
results suggest that children with high socio-economic status are more likely to begin their schooling with the skills necessary for them to
benefit from computer-assisted instructional activities in kindergarten. Therefore, early childhood teachers should make an extra effort to
assess and develop the computer skills of children with lower socio-economic status and children who do not have access to a computer at
home.
The results of previous studies indicated that access to computers in schools changed as children progress through school so that all
children tended to have more equal access in the upper grades (Becker, 2000; Judge et al., 2004). However, the results of this study indicate
that the digital divide related to the gap in the computer skills that children bring to school seems to close due to computer experiences
provided in schools. While children who had access to a computer at home were more likely to have higher levels of computer skills at the
beginning of kindergarten, the advantage of having a computer at home vanished as children moved from kindergarten classrooms where
there was an adequate number of computers to the upper grades in schools. Becker (2000) contended that access to a computer at home is
a major source of inequality and schools should play a critical role in helping less-advantaged children in having access to computer
technology. Results of this study suggest that school experiences do play an important role in helping children with low SES to develop their
computer skills.
Gender
.02
-.08
Intercept 1.0
SES .32 Fall Kindergarten
(Initial) 1.0
.41 -.01
1.0
.13 First Grade
Computers -.29
Home 0
.02
Slope .21
Third Grade
.10 (Growth) .45
Computers
Kindergarten
Fig. 1. Model tested in the study. Dashed lines indicates non significant paths at a ¼ .05.
6. M. Saçkes et al. / Computers & Education 57 (2011) 1698–1704 1703
Table 4
Path coefficients and z-scores.
Antecedent Variables Path Coefficient z-scores
SES / Intercept (initial computer skills) 0.32 7.01*
SES / Slope (development of computer skills) À0.01 À0.31
Gender / Intercept (initial computer skills) 0.02 0.96
Gender / Slope (development of computer skills) À0.08 À3.51*
Computer Home / Intercept (initial computer skills) 0.13 4.81*
Computer Home / Slope (development of computer skills) 0.02 0.62
Computer Kindergarten / Slope (development of computer skills) 0.10 2.77*
SES 4 Computer Home 0.41 27.26*
National academic content standards emphasize computer skills as an integral part of children’s academic development. For example,
the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) and the National Mathematics Education Standards (NCTM, 2000) advocate the use of
technology in classrooms and suggest that students should be able to develop technology skills to better benefit from the resources and
opportunities technological tools readily offer. Children who have access to a computer at home start the first step of their academic life with
the advantage of entering school with higher levels of computer skills. These children might be more likely and ready to benefit from
computer-assisted instructional activities than their peers who do not have the same access to computers in their homes. However, the
availability of computers in classrooms seems to help children who do not have computers in their homes to overcome their initial tech-
nology disadvantage. Providing adequate levels of computers to kindergarten classrooms could help children to be better prepared for the
demand of more highly computerized environments in their future academic lives and careers.
Use of the ECLS–K data set resulted in limitations that should be considered in interpreting the results and should be addressed in future
investigations. For example, the present study examined the impact of the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms and did not
focus on the quality of the children’s computer experience. Future studies should examine the types of computer activities available in
kindergarten classrooms and the impact of these activities on the development of children’s computer skills. In the current study, children’s
computer skills assessments were based on teachers’ ratings. Future studies should include other measures of children’s computer skills,
such as children’s efficacy beliefs for using computers and performance based assessments of children’s computer skills. Finally, future
studies can include predictors of children’s computer skills other than the ones included in the present study, including teacher-level
variables, (e.g., teachers’ efficacy beliefs for and perceptions of using computers and teachers’ level of computer literacy) and student-level
variables (e.g., children’s aptitude, level of motor development, and interest in using computers). Results of such studies can contribute to
the development of a theoretical framework for describing and understanding the development of children’s computer skills in early years.
7. Conclusion
This study examined the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms on the development of children’ computer skills from
kindergarten to third grade using a nationally representative sample of kindergarten children in the USA. LGM analysis was utilized as an
analytical technique to examine the development of children’s computer skills and the predictors (gender, SES, availability of computers in
home, and the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms) of the differences in children’s individual growth patterns (McArdle &
Epstein, 1987). Results demonstrated the positive influence of the availability of computers in kindergarten classrooms on the long-term
development of children’s computer skills and provided empirical evidence for the rationale for inclusion of computers in kindergarten
classrooms.
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