You have just finished a health education in-service to the community on the hazards of smoking. A representative of the tobacco industry is present at your in-service and makes the following comment regarding your presentation: "You gave a nice presentation. However, I disagree with you that smoking can cause lung cancer. There is still not enough evidence to indicate that smoking can cause cancer."
Your task is as follows:
1. Respond to his statement and indicate why there is a cause-effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer using the
five criteria for causality
.
2. What is your interpretation of the evidence on how smoking affects lung cancer?
READ: FIVE CRITERIA FOR CAUSALITY
Assignment Expectations, in order to earn full credit:
Please write your paper in your own words. That is the only way I can evaluate your level
Analytic epidemiology is defined as the study of the determinants of disease or reasons for relatively high or low frequency in specific groups. Analytic epidemiology answers questions regarding why the rate is high or low in a particular group. Observations of differences lead to formation of hypotheses.
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula:
(a/a+b) / (c/c+d)
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individ.
Analytic StudiesThere are basically two types of studies experi.docxrossskuddershamus
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula: (a/a+b) / (c/c+d) where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individuals with a disease who were NOT exposed.
d = the number of individuals without a disease who were NOT exposed.
In a case-control study, the sample is based upon illness status, rather than exposure status. The researcher identifies a group of people who meet the case definition and a group of people who do not have the illness (controls). The objective is to determine if the two groups differ in the rate of exposure to a specific factor or factors.
In contrast to a cohort study, the total number of people exposed in a case-control study is unknown. Therefore, relative risk cannot be used. Instead, an odds ratio or risk ratio is used. An odds ratio measures the odds that an exposed individual will develop a disease in comparison to an unexposed individual. Please click the button below to learn how to calculate an odds ratio.
To calculate an odds ratio, you would use the following formula: ad/bc
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individu.
Analytic StudiesThere are basically two types of studies experi.docxrossskuddershamus
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula: (a/a+b) / (c/c+d) where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individuals with a disease who were NOT exposed.
d = the number of individuals without a disease who were NOT exposed.
In a case-control study, the sample is based upon illness status, rather than exposure status. The researcher identifies a group of people who meet the case definition and a group of people who do not have the illness (controls). The objective is to determine if the two groups differ in the rate of exposure to a specific factor or factors.
In contrast to a cohort study, the total number of people exposed in a case-control study is unknown. Therefore, relative risk cannot be used. Instead, an odds ratio or risk ratio is used. An odds ratio measures the odds that an exposed individual will develop a disease in comparison to an unexposed individual. Please click the button below to learn how to calculate an odds ratio.
To calculate an odds ratio, you would use the following formula: ad/bc
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individu.
this presentation takes you through the concept of association observed between variables in a study and how could it become a causative association in step-wise manner.Exemplify using Bradford hill criteria. slides after references are extra slides not covered in the presentation.
Frequency Measures Used in EpidemiologyIntroductionIn e.docxMARRY7
Frequency Measures Used in Epidemiology
Introduction
In epidemiological studies, many qualitative variables have only two possible categories, such as
Alive or dead
Case or control
Exposed and unexposed
The frequency measures for dichotomous variable include:
Ratio
Proportion
Rate
( All the above 3 measure are based on the same formula: )
Ratios, Proportion, and Rates Compared
In a ratio, the values of x and y may be completely independent from each other or x is a part of y
For example , the gender of the children attending a specific program could be compared in one of the following ways:
Proportion is a ratio in which X is included in Y
For example , the gender of the children attending a specific program
Rate is a proportion that measures the occurrence of an event in a population over time
Rate = X
Ratios, Proportion, and Rates Compared
Example 1: The following table was part of an article published by Dr. Mshana and his colleagues. The title of this study is “Outbreak of a novel Enterobacter sp. carrying blaCTX-M-15 in a neonatal unit of a tertiary care hospital in Tanzania. ". Please use this table to answer the following questions.
Source: Mshana SE, Gerwing L, Minde M, Hain T, Domann E, Lyamuya E, et al. Outbreak of a novel Enterobacter sp. carrying blaCTX-M-15 in a neonatal unit of a tertiary care hospital in Tanzania. International journal of antimicrobial agents. 2011;38(3):265-9.
4
Example 1
What is the ratio of males to females? 7 : 10
What proportion of premature babies? 12/17=0.706
What proportion of patients were discharged? 11/17=0.647
What is the ratio of prematurity to birth asphyxia ? 12 : 5
Source: Mshana SE, Gerwing L, Minde M, Hain T, Domann E, Lyamuya E, et al. Outbreak of a novel Enterobacter sp. carrying blaCTX-M-15 in a neonatal unit of a tertiary care hospital in Tanzania. International journal of antimicrobial agents. 2011;38(3):265-9.
5
Example 2:
In 1989, 733,151 new cases of gonorrhea were reported among the United States civilian population. The 1989 mid-year U.S. civilian population was estimated to be 246,552,000. What is the 1989 gonorrhea incidence rate for the U.S. civilian population? (For these data we will use a value of 105 for 10n ).
Answer:
Incidence rate = X
Incidence rate = X = 297.4 per 100,000
6
Measures of association:
They are used to quantify the relationship between exposure and disease among two groups
They are used to compare the disease occurrence among one group with the disease occurrence in the another group
They include the following measures based on the study design:
Risk Ratio (RR):
It also called relative risk
It is used to compare the risk of health related events in two groups
The following formula cis used to calculate the RR:
A risk ratio of 1.0 indicates identical risk in the two groups
A risk ratio greater than 1.0 indicates an increased risk for the numerator group
A risk ratio greater than 1.0 ...
Excelsior College PBH 321 Page 1 CASE-CONTROL STU.docxgitagrimston
Excelsior College PBH 321
Page 1
CASE-CONTROL STUD IES
A case-control study is an observational design that involves studying a population in which cases of disease
are identified and enrolled, and a sample of the population that produced the cases is identified and enrolled
(controls). Exposures are determined for individuals in both groups.
Let’s say that we want to test the hypothesis that pesticide exposure increases the risk of breast cancer.
Consider a hypothetical prospective cohort study of 89,949 women aged 34-59; 1,439 breast cancer cases
were identified over 8 years of follow-up. Blood was drawn on all 89,949 at beginning of follow-up and
samples were frozen. The exposure was defined as the level of pesticides (e.g. DDE) in blood, characterized as
high or low. We compare women with high or low exposures to see if they got breast cancer or not by the end
of follow-up.
Breast Cancer
Yes No Total
DDE
exposure High 360 13,276 13,636
Relative Risk = RR = (360/13,636) / (1,079/76,313) = 1.9
Low 1,079 75,234 76,313
Women with high pesticide levels in the blood have 1.9
times the risk of developing breast cancer after 8 years
than women with low levels
Total 1,439 88,510 89,949
Conducting this study presents a practical problem: quantifying pesticide levels in the blood is very expensive -
-it's not feasible to analyze all 89,949 blood samples (this would cost many thousands of dollars).
To be efficient, we could instead analyze blood on all breast cancer cases (N=1,439) but take only a sample of
the women who did not get breast cancer, say two times as many cases (N=2,878) (controls). This is a case-
control study! Specifically, because we sampled cases and controls from within a complete cohort, we refer to
this as a nested case-control study.
Breast Cancer
Cases Controls
DDE
exposure
High 360 432
Low 1,079 2,446
Total 1,439 2,878
Excelsior College PBH 321
Page 2
Timing and Set Up of a Case-Control Study
Cases
When identifying cases, the criteria for the case definition should lead to accurate classification of disease.
This means the investigator must have efficient and accurate sources to identify cases, such as existing disease
registries or hospitals.
In our standard 2 x 2 table, the number of cases gives you the numerators of the rates of disease in exposed
and unexposed groups being compared.
Disease
Yes
(cases)
No
(controls)
Total
Exposure Yes a ? ? Rate of disease in exposed: a/?
No c ? ?
Rate of disease in
unexposed: c/?
Total a+c ? ?
What is missing? The denominators! If this were a cohort study, you would have the total population (if you
were calculating cumulative incidence) or total person-years (if you were calculating incidence rates) for both
the exposed and non-exposed groups, which would provide the c ...
Consider the following hypothet-ical scenario and results .docxdonnajames55
C
onsider the following hypothet-
ical scenario and results that are
formatted in evidence-based
practice (EBP) language such as those
that you might see in the Cochrane
Collaboration,1 a primary resource for
evidence-based systematic reviews.
Scenario: How effective is a daily
dose of 500 mg of vitamin C in
the prevention of ulcers on the heels of
bedridden elderly clients? Results: With
an NNT of 5, vitamin C is effective (OR,
0.10; 95% CI, 0.05-0.20).
If there are some abbreviations
or values in this situation that are un-
familiar to you, you will find explana-
tions and examples in this article that
will help you in reading, interpreting,
and understanding them as you use
evidence-based literature for your best
practices. Nurses always rise to the
occasion to learn the latest research
information that may improve patient
care and outcomes.
An obstacle to involvement in EBP
is lack of skill in understanding the
‘‘bottom line’’ of systematic reviews
and accompanying risk-related num-
bers.
2-4
Content and research experts
conduct systematic reviews using strict
criteria for inclusion of primary re-
search studies and statistical analysis.
5
The Cochrane Collaboration is a major
resource for more than 1,000 system-
atic reviews of randomized clinical
trials for the effects of healthcare inter-
ventions created through collaboration
of more than 50 worldwide review and
methods teams.6
The systematic review teams basi-
cally seek the response to 1 question:
how many people have a bad outcome
in the experimental group compared
with the control group? Bad outcomes
refer to the undesirable outcomes in a
study, such as development of a heel
ulcer. Noteworthy in EBP statistics is
the simplicity of using a head count
rather than group averages. Even when
individual study results are not statisti-
cally significant, if the experimental
group has fewer bad outcomes than the
control group, the nurse or other pro-
vider might want to apply the results
anyway. Seven terms and their abbre-
viations and formulas are common in
the reported results,7,8 as summarized
in Table 1. In this article, hypothetical
examples and their derivations de-
scribe these 7 terms. At the end, you
can derive these values for a clinical
scenario toward a better understanding
when teaching these terms to others.
Absolute Risk Reduction
Absolute risk reduction (ARR) is the
absolute arithmetic difference (abso-
lute means that one ignores plus and
minus signs) in percentages of bad
outcomes between the experimental
and control groups. Absolute risk reduc-
tion means that more people in the
control group than in the experimen-
tal group develop a bad outcome. To
calculate the ARR, you need to know
just 2 things: the experimental event
rate (EER), or the percentage of the
bad outcome in the experimental group;
and the control group event rate (CER),
or the percentage of the bad outcome in
the control group. Let us look at an ex-
ample: 13% of patients with diabetes
receiv.
Learning objectives:
Recognize that many of the questions you receive will come from patients that just read an article on a news site or social media
Understand that the vast majority of them qualify as B.S. (bad science) rather than G.S. (good science)
Know how to evaluate the article to determine which category applies quickly
You have collected the following documents (unstructured) and pl.docxbriancrawford30935
You have collected the following documents (unstructured) and plan to apply an index technique to convert them into an inverted index.
Doc 1?Information retrieval is the activity of obtaining information resources relevant to an information need from a collection of information resources. Searches can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing.
Doc 2?Information retrieval is finding material of an unstructured nature that satisfies an information need from within large collections.
Doc 3?Information systems is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data.
In the process of creating the inverted index, please complete the following steps:
Remove all stop words and punctuation, and then apply Porter’s stemming algorithm to the documents. Thelist of stop words for this task is provided as follows:
Is, The, Of, To, An, A, From, Can, Be, On, Or, That, Within, And, Use
Create a merged inverted list including the within-document frequencies for each term.
Use the index created in part (b) to create a dictionary and the related posting file.
You may like to test the inverted index by using the following keywords:information, system, index
.
You have been working as a technology associate the information .docxbriancrawford30935
You have been working as a technology associate the information systems department at Corporation Techs for a while now. You have discovered so far that all of Corporation Techs’ computer systems share the same Class C public IP address range, including workstations along with servers providing authentication, e-mail, and both secure and public Web sites.
Your next task in this project is to construct a basic network design. An important requirement for the network design is to reduce the number of public addresses needed as the subnet lease results in very high ISP costs.
Tasks
Construct a basic network design, separating private and public services within the Corporation Techs’ network. To do so, you must:
Access the PCAP files using NetWitness Investigator, and browse the Nmap scan (XML format), topology fisheye chart (PDF format), and Nessus report (HTML format).
Identify vulnerabilities and clear-text information transfer.
Conduct research and determine the best network design to ensure security of internal access while retaining public Web site availability.
Identify any opportunities for reduced ISP costs through port redirection or address translation.
Design a network configuration, identifying network gateways, port or address redirection systems, and the location of hosts within private and protected network segments.
Create a professional report detailing the information above as supportive documentation for the network security plan.
Create a report that includes a basic network diagram and research results.
.
More Related Content
Similar to You have just finished a health education in-service to the communit.docx
this presentation takes you through the concept of association observed between variables in a study and how could it become a causative association in step-wise manner.Exemplify using Bradford hill criteria. slides after references are extra slides not covered in the presentation.
Frequency Measures Used in EpidemiologyIntroductionIn e.docxMARRY7
Frequency Measures Used in Epidemiology
Introduction
In epidemiological studies, many qualitative variables have only two possible categories, such as
Alive or dead
Case or control
Exposed and unexposed
The frequency measures for dichotomous variable include:
Ratio
Proportion
Rate
( All the above 3 measure are based on the same formula: )
Ratios, Proportion, and Rates Compared
In a ratio, the values of x and y may be completely independent from each other or x is a part of y
For example , the gender of the children attending a specific program could be compared in one of the following ways:
Proportion is a ratio in which X is included in Y
For example , the gender of the children attending a specific program
Rate is a proportion that measures the occurrence of an event in a population over time
Rate = X
Ratios, Proportion, and Rates Compared
Example 1: The following table was part of an article published by Dr. Mshana and his colleagues. The title of this study is “Outbreak of a novel Enterobacter sp. carrying blaCTX-M-15 in a neonatal unit of a tertiary care hospital in Tanzania. ". Please use this table to answer the following questions.
Source: Mshana SE, Gerwing L, Minde M, Hain T, Domann E, Lyamuya E, et al. Outbreak of a novel Enterobacter sp. carrying blaCTX-M-15 in a neonatal unit of a tertiary care hospital in Tanzania. International journal of antimicrobial agents. 2011;38(3):265-9.
4
Example 1
What is the ratio of males to females? 7 : 10
What proportion of premature babies? 12/17=0.706
What proportion of patients were discharged? 11/17=0.647
What is the ratio of prematurity to birth asphyxia ? 12 : 5
Source: Mshana SE, Gerwing L, Minde M, Hain T, Domann E, Lyamuya E, et al. Outbreak of a novel Enterobacter sp. carrying blaCTX-M-15 in a neonatal unit of a tertiary care hospital in Tanzania. International journal of antimicrobial agents. 2011;38(3):265-9.
5
Example 2:
In 1989, 733,151 new cases of gonorrhea were reported among the United States civilian population. The 1989 mid-year U.S. civilian population was estimated to be 246,552,000. What is the 1989 gonorrhea incidence rate for the U.S. civilian population? (For these data we will use a value of 105 for 10n ).
Answer:
Incidence rate = X
Incidence rate = X = 297.4 per 100,000
6
Measures of association:
They are used to quantify the relationship between exposure and disease among two groups
They are used to compare the disease occurrence among one group with the disease occurrence in the another group
They include the following measures based on the study design:
Risk Ratio (RR):
It also called relative risk
It is used to compare the risk of health related events in two groups
The following formula cis used to calculate the RR:
A risk ratio of 1.0 indicates identical risk in the two groups
A risk ratio greater than 1.0 indicates an increased risk for the numerator group
A risk ratio greater than 1.0 ...
Excelsior College PBH 321 Page 1 CASE-CONTROL STU.docxgitagrimston
Excelsior College PBH 321
Page 1
CASE-CONTROL STUD IES
A case-control study is an observational design that involves studying a population in which cases of disease
are identified and enrolled, and a sample of the population that produced the cases is identified and enrolled
(controls). Exposures are determined for individuals in both groups.
Let’s say that we want to test the hypothesis that pesticide exposure increases the risk of breast cancer.
Consider a hypothetical prospective cohort study of 89,949 women aged 34-59; 1,439 breast cancer cases
were identified over 8 years of follow-up. Blood was drawn on all 89,949 at beginning of follow-up and
samples were frozen. The exposure was defined as the level of pesticides (e.g. DDE) in blood, characterized as
high or low. We compare women with high or low exposures to see if they got breast cancer or not by the end
of follow-up.
Breast Cancer
Yes No Total
DDE
exposure High 360 13,276 13,636
Relative Risk = RR = (360/13,636) / (1,079/76,313) = 1.9
Low 1,079 75,234 76,313
Women with high pesticide levels in the blood have 1.9
times the risk of developing breast cancer after 8 years
than women with low levels
Total 1,439 88,510 89,949
Conducting this study presents a practical problem: quantifying pesticide levels in the blood is very expensive -
-it's not feasible to analyze all 89,949 blood samples (this would cost many thousands of dollars).
To be efficient, we could instead analyze blood on all breast cancer cases (N=1,439) but take only a sample of
the women who did not get breast cancer, say two times as many cases (N=2,878) (controls). This is a case-
control study! Specifically, because we sampled cases and controls from within a complete cohort, we refer to
this as a nested case-control study.
Breast Cancer
Cases Controls
DDE
exposure
High 360 432
Low 1,079 2,446
Total 1,439 2,878
Excelsior College PBH 321
Page 2
Timing and Set Up of a Case-Control Study
Cases
When identifying cases, the criteria for the case definition should lead to accurate classification of disease.
This means the investigator must have efficient and accurate sources to identify cases, such as existing disease
registries or hospitals.
In our standard 2 x 2 table, the number of cases gives you the numerators of the rates of disease in exposed
and unexposed groups being compared.
Disease
Yes
(cases)
No
(controls)
Total
Exposure Yes a ? ? Rate of disease in exposed: a/?
No c ? ?
Rate of disease in
unexposed: c/?
Total a+c ? ?
What is missing? The denominators! If this were a cohort study, you would have the total population (if you
were calculating cumulative incidence) or total person-years (if you were calculating incidence rates) for both
the exposed and non-exposed groups, which would provide the c ...
Consider the following hypothet-ical scenario and results .docxdonnajames55
C
onsider the following hypothet-
ical scenario and results that are
formatted in evidence-based
practice (EBP) language such as those
that you might see in the Cochrane
Collaboration,1 a primary resource for
evidence-based systematic reviews.
Scenario: How effective is a daily
dose of 500 mg of vitamin C in
the prevention of ulcers on the heels of
bedridden elderly clients? Results: With
an NNT of 5, vitamin C is effective (OR,
0.10; 95% CI, 0.05-0.20).
If there are some abbreviations
or values in this situation that are un-
familiar to you, you will find explana-
tions and examples in this article that
will help you in reading, interpreting,
and understanding them as you use
evidence-based literature for your best
practices. Nurses always rise to the
occasion to learn the latest research
information that may improve patient
care and outcomes.
An obstacle to involvement in EBP
is lack of skill in understanding the
‘‘bottom line’’ of systematic reviews
and accompanying risk-related num-
bers.
2-4
Content and research experts
conduct systematic reviews using strict
criteria for inclusion of primary re-
search studies and statistical analysis.
5
The Cochrane Collaboration is a major
resource for more than 1,000 system-
atic reviews of randomized clinical
trials for the effects of healthcare inter-
ventions created through collaboration
of more than 50 worldwide review and
methods teams.6
The systematic review teams basi-
cally seek the response to 1 question:
how many people have a bad outcome
in the experimental group compared
with the control group? Bad outcomes
refer to the undesirable outcomes in a
study, such as development of a heel
ulcer. Noteworthy in EBP statistics is
the simplicity of using a head count
rather than group averages. Even when
individual study results are not statisti-
cally significant, if the experimental
group has fewer bad outcomes than the
control group, the nurse or other pro-
vider might want to apply the results
anyway. Seven terms and their abbre-
viations and formulas are common in
the reported results,7,8 as summarized
in Table 1. In this article, hypothetical
examples and their derivations de-
scribe these 7 terms. At the end, you
can derive these values for a clinical
scenario toward a better understanding
when teaching these terms to others.
Absolute Risk Reduction
Absolute risk reduction (ARR) is the
absolute arithmetic difference (abso-
lute means that one ignores plus and
minus signs) in percentages of bad
outcomes between the experimental
and control groups. Absolute risk reduc-
tion means that more people in the
control group than in the experimen-
tal group develop a bad outcome. To
calculate the ARR, you need to know
just 2 things: the experimental event
rate (EER), or the percentage of the
bad outcome in the experimental group;
and the control group event rate (CER),
or the percentage of the bad outcome in
the control group. Let us look at an ex-
ample: 13% of patients with diabetes
receiv.
Learning objectives:
Recognize that many of the questions you receive will come from patients that just read an article on a news site or social media
Understand that the vast majority of them qualify as B.S. (bad science) rather than G.S. (good science)
Know how to evaluate the article to determine which category applies quickly
You have collected the following documents (unstructured) and pl.docxbriancrawford30935
You have collected the following documents (unstructured) and plan to apply an index technique to convert them into an inverted index.
Doc 1?Information retrieval is the activity of obtaining information resources relevant to an information need from a collection of information resources. Searches can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing.
Doc 2?Information retrieval is finding material of an unstructured nature that satisfies an information need from within large collections.
Doc 3?Information systems is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data.
In the process of creating the inverted index, please complete the following steps:
Remove all stop words and punctuation, and then apply Porter’s stemming algorithm to the documents. Thelist of stop words for this task is provided as follows:
Is, The, Of, To, An, A, From, Can, Be, On, Or, That, Within, And, Use
Create a merged inverted list including the within-document frequencies for each term.
Use the index created in part (b) to create a dictionary and the related posting file.
You may like to test the inverted index by using the following keywords:information, system, index
.
You have been working as a technology associate the information .docxbriancrawford30935
You have been working as a technology associate the information systems department at Corporation Techs for a while now. You have discovered so far that all of Corporation Techs’ computer systems share the same Class C public IP address range, including workstations along with servers providing authentication, e-mail, and both secure and public Web sites.
Your next task in this project is to construct a basic network design. An important requirement for the network design is to reduce the number of public addresses needed as the subnet lease results in very high ISP costs.
Tasks
Construct a basic network design, separating private and public services within the Corporation Techs’ network. To do so, you must:
Access the PCAP files using NetWitness Investigator, and browse the Nmap scan (XML format), topology fisheye chart (PDF format), and Nessus report (HTML format).
Identify vulnerabilities and clear-text information transfer.
Conduct research and determine the best network design to ensure security of internal access while retaining public Web site availability.
Identify any opportunities for reduced ISP costs through port redirection or address translation.
Design a network configuration, identifying network gateways, port or address redirection systems, and the location of hosts within private and protected network segments.
Create a professional report detailing the information above as supportive documentation for the network security plan.
Create a report that includes a basic network diagram and research results.
.
You have chosen to join WHO. They are particularly interested in.docxbriancrawford30935
You have chosen to join WHO. They are particularly interested in your microbiology skills since there have been many outbreaks of disease around the world. Now that you have reviewed your microbiology, you have been notified that you will be sent to one of two areas, West Africa, or the Middle East. In preparation, the Peace Corp would like you to choose one of these areas and complete a plan to deal with outbreaks or potential outbreaks in the area.
Choose an outbreak from those below to investigate.
Ebola or Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
Locate resources that will provide information about the infection, causing microbe, mode of infection, mode of spread, group or groups specifically susceptible, where outbreak occurred and when, clinical evaluation and diagnosis, infection control.
Find first person reports such as interviews or personal reports or journals on the outbreak. If you need help work with the librarian.
Design and submit an outline of the information you have uncovered. You will use this information to complete the project.
The outline should contain information and cited resources for:
Name of the disease chosen
Causing microbe
Mode of infection
Mode of spread
Group or groups specifically susceptible
Where outbreak occurred and when
Clinical evaluation and diagnosis
Infection control.
.
You have been tasked to present at a town hall meeting in your local.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been tasked to present at a town hall meeting in your local town or city to present the details about a new local policy that is being proposed. The presentation will need to define the problem, proposed solutions, risks, challenges, and funding opportunities/challenges. Topics may include local government changes to communities (for example, transportation, commercial enterprise effects on nearby townships, affordable housing construction, environmental effects of new/old business operations, addressing homelessness support, and others).
Using the
Policy Identification and Analysis Assignment Template [PPTX],
develop an 8–10 slide presentation in which you:
Analyze and define the problem to include possible political conflicts.
Identify risks and challenges.
Identify and construct policy alternatives and solutions.
Identify stakeholders and key roles.
Identify funding opportunities, challenges, and budget cost factors, to include saving measures.
Select supportive and evaluative criteria.
Identify incentives, subsidies, and potential benefits.
Draw conclusions in a thorough summary, including lessons learned.
Use the Internet or Strayer databases at the
Strayer Library
to locate at least three quality resources in this assignment.
Note
: Wikipedia and similar websites do not qualify as quality resources.
Use the
Policy Identification and Analysis Assignment Template [PPTX]
.
.
You have been tasked as the health care administrator of a major hos.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been tasked as the health care administrator of a major hospital to create a financial plan for your organization. What would you include in your financial plan? Compare an operating budget versus a capital budget? Include examples of each budget in a hypothetical department or unit of a hospital. Cite and reference your resources.
.
You have been tasked to devise a program to address the needs of.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been tasked to devise a program to address the needs of crime victims. To better understand what type of program to devise, you need to review some crime data. The crime data will help you to identify the various types of crimes being committed and how the various types of crime victims are impacted by their offenders. Select a source that compiles crime data. Describe why you selected that particular source and what type of data that source contains. Secondly, describe the basic goals of your proposed program and what types of services the program would provide to crime victims based on the various types of crimes. For example, what would be a program goal for a rape victim, and what type of program(s) or service(s) would be devised to address the victim’s needs (this could include gender, age, and group counseling sessions).
Assignment Guidelines
Select a source that compiles crime data.
Address the following in 750–1,000 words:
Why did you select that particular source? Explain in detail.
What type of data does that source contain? Describe in detail.
What are the basic goals of your proposed program? Explain in detail.
What types of services would the program provide to crime victims with regard to the various types of crime? Explain in detail.
Be sure to reference all sources using APA style.
.
You have been successful in your application for the position be.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been successful in your application for the position below and are invited to interview – time and date to be arranged.
Job Title: Social Care Worker – Residential services Panel
The social care worker will…
· work with children / young people, families and / or significant others, Social Work teams, other healthcare providers and agencies, schools, training agencies and community groups.
· care for, protect, and support vulnerable or dependent clients, individually or in groups, in conjunction with the wider multidisciplinary team and other relevant agencies. S/he will ensure the welfare of those under his / her care and will act as an advocate as appropriate.
· contribute to the planning and evaluation of individualised and group programmes of care, which are based on needs, identified in consultation with the client and others and delivered through day-to-day shared life experiences.
· work as part of a team to provide a safe, caring environment for resident clients/ children / young people with the primary aim of providing the intervention necessary to address the issues that are preventing them from fulfilling their outcomes.
· treat clients/ children/ young people and their families with dignity and respect, promoting a culture of unconditional positive regard at all times.
· recognise clients/ children / young people as expert through experience, promoting their participation in care planning, placement planning, decision-making and service delivery.
· contribute to the promotion of good links with neighbours, local community resources, i.e. schools, employment schemes and clubs, local Gardai and any other appropriate service.
· engage in reflective and evidence based practice
. That guideline to use to answer this question 1 to 3
1. Creative practice, reflective practice and team skills
It is important that the Social Care Worker can work independently as well as part of a wider healthcare team, building and maintaining relationships and understanding and valuing individuals and their respective professional roles. S/he should be able to identify the limits of their practice and know when to seek advice and additional expertise or refer to another professional. S/he should be able to give and receive feedback and to input their learning into their practice.
In the space below, please give an example of a situation where you were responsible for an individual piece of work with a service user/group of service users and which demonstrates your ability in the above areas
2
.
Flexibility, resilience and ability to deal with challenges.
An effective Social Care Worker demonstrates a commitment to providing a quality service. S/he is innovative and open to change in striving to ensure high standards in service delivery. Challenges can arise in many ways in the course of Social Care practice and an ability to manage adversity when it arises is an important professional skill.
In the space below, please give an.
You have been hired as a project management consultant by compan.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired as a project management consultant by company XYZ to review the status of a CRM (Customer Relationship Management) implementation by their internal project manager. Project Manager has spent allot of time with stakeholders on request for additional features being added to the project, resulting in 7 CRs (total potential project impact of $400,000). You are to review and assess the available current data on the project and provide specific recommendations and prioritized next steps to the executive committee.
Start Date: March 2021
Planned Finish Date: September 2021
Current Phase: Implementation
Overall Percent Complete: 40%
Overall Approved budget: $1,000,000
Actual Cost to date: $650,000
Number of Change Requests submitted by stakeholders: 7
CPI = 0.45
SPI = 0.65
EV = $400,000
.
You have been hired to manage a particular aspect of the new ad.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired to manage a particular aspect of the new adult addictions center. It is your job to write a proposal to bring to the next board meeting so that funds can be allocated to initiate your plans. This is the brainstorming stage of the planning. Your proposal will need to be scrutinized by the board before it approves it. It is important to be as specific and detailed as possible to justify the needs of your department before going forward. It is also important to be realistic, but at the same time expand your ideas, goals, and aspirations into doable actions because this board wants you to think outside of the box.
MY ASSIGNED ROLE IS COMMUNITY RESOURCES
Community referrals and other needs (e.g., working with the justice system, local businesses, and nonprofit organizations)
Write a 900–1,200 word paper that addresses the following:
What is the department’s role within the organization, and what are its responsibilities?
What are the client needs or services that are addressed by this department?
What individuals and resources are needed to provide those services?
**** Paper must include ****
Abstract
Introduction
Conclusion
References for all of the sections, in APA style
.
You have been hired by Red Didgeridoo Technologies. They know th.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired by Red Didgeridoo Technologies. They know that they need to have network storage technologies, but their IT is a little lost. They want to have a scalable infrastructure to be able to expand and shrink the servers in their infrastructure when needed. In order to do this, they have purchased a license for VMware vSphere 6 Enterprise Plus.
NOTE:There must be at least 1 to 2 paragraphs per question.
1. Find and describe 2 distinct uses for a File Sharing Server which uses the sharing protocol named NFS (at least one of these must be a use specifically involving VMware vSphere 6 Enterprise Plus). List the advantages of using these implementations instead of using SMB or CIFS.
2. Find and describe 2 distinct uses (at least one of these must be a use which specifically involve VMware vSphere 6 Enterprise Plus) for iSCSI technology.
.
You have been hired by TMI to design an application using shell scri.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired by TMI to design an application using shell script programs. TMI
Case
Projects
needs you to design and create a new directory structure.
The company has several departments: accounting, sales, manufacturing, information tech-
nology, and headquarters. The accounting department has accounts receivable, accounts
payable, and payroll functions within it. The manufacturing department runs three shifts
and a weekend shift.The information technology department has five projects in progress.
The sales department has offices located in the West, East, North, and South.
First, design the Linux file system hierarchy on paper. Keep in mind that the depart-
ments, functions, shifts, regions, and projects need to translate into directories. Next, you
need to create this hierarchy on the Linux system. Create at least one empty file in each
directory. Use the department, function, shift, region, or project name as the filename
and include an extension of .dat.
.
You have been hired to evaluate the volcanic hazards associated .docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired to evaluate the volcanic hazards associated with a dormant volcano. The volcano has no historically recorded eruptions, but is showing signs of stirring to life. Assuming that future volcanic activity would be similar to the prehistoric eruptions, what information would you seek out in the field as a part of your evaluation, and why would you collect this information?
.
You have been hired as an assistant to the public health officer for.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired as an assistant to the public health officer for the state. The budget deficit has impacted your state, and with elections high on the list of worries, legislators are concerned about their public image and are contemplating reducing the public health budget for the state. You are being asked to prepare a presentation to persuade legislators not to cut public health spending.
Select a public health program/service that will be impacted by a recently proposed state budget cut.
Prepare a PowerPoint presentation to persuade legislators not to cut public health funding. Present the cost/benefit of the public health program/service, the expected impact of the proposed cut, and conclude with an alternative proposal.
The presentation should have a minimum of 15 slides (not including the reference slides).
Notes should be present with each slide describing the information on the slide.
Provide supporting information.
Use charts, graphs, and other visuals.
Please make sure to present some state and local data of the community that will be impacted by the cuts.
REQUIREMENTS:
- Length: Assignment should be at least 15 slides, not counting reference slides.
- Cite your sources and include reference slides.
.
You have been engaged to develop a special calculator program. T.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been engaged to develop a special calculator program. The requirements for this program are very specific, and are as follows:
Create a Windows Forms application in Visual Studio using C#. The interface should look similar to the following:
Create the following controls, as shown above:
Labels for “Enter Information,” “Name,” “Input 1,” and “Input 2”
3 textboxes, as shown in the picture above
Buttons for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
Buttons for calculating sine, cosine, and tangent (based on the first input textbox only)
A button that calculates modulus
A button that clears the textboxes
Write a method for each of these calculations that will accept the incoming numbers from the two input fields and return the calculated value.
This value should be displayed in a MessageBox window, which should also display the user’s name from the first textbox.
Please submit your zipped Visual Studio project.
.
You have now delivered the project to your customer ahead of schedul.docxbriancrawford30935
You have now delivered the project to your customer ahead of schedule, but slightly over budget. Now, it is time to reflect on what went well and what didn’t go so well. Based on feedback throughout the course, what would you have done differently in terms of scope, resources, and / or schedule, and why?
.
You have now delivered the project to your customer. The project was.docxbriancrawford30935
You have now delivered the project to your customer. The project was delivered ahead of schedule, as requested by your project sponsor, but over budget by 20 percent. Now, it is time to reflect on what went well and what didn’t go well. Based on feedback throughout the course, what would you have done differently in terms of scope, resources, and schedule, and why?
.
You have now experienced the work of various scholars, artists and m.docxbriancrawford30935
You have now experienced the work of various scholars, artists and musicians who have connected words to social justice.
Now, it is your turn. Write a poem, song, spoken word, lecture, or rap that captures the struggle, action or hope that exists in a social issue of black lives matter. Be creative; this is your opportunity to express your reflections and ideas in a personal and compelling way.
.
You have learned that Mr. Moore does not drink alcohol in the mornin.docxbriancrawford30935
You have learned that Mr. Moore does not drink alcohol in the mornings. He does not binge drink, and he does not drink on Sundays. He does, however, drink the other 6 days of the week. Mrs. Moore explains his pattern of drinking Monday through Friday with his partners as stated in the scenario above, but he does not drink at home on those days. She also informs you that he does drink on Saturdays at home, often starting in the afternoon and passing out by dinnertime. He has a history of being loud, frightening, and angry when under the influence of alcohol. You also learn that Mr. Moore’s father was a winemaker from Italy.
Your supervisor, Officer Steve, suggests that you apply your knowledge of issues surrounding alcohol abuse and alcohol addiction to this case and write a memo to him. The memo should include the proper headings: "To," "From," "Date," and "Re:." The docket number and probation case file number should be included in the "Re:" section. You are beginning to determine whether Mr. Moore has an issue with alcohol that needs to be further addressed.
In the memo, do the following:
Submit the assignment in the format of a memo.
Include the proper headings: "To," "From," "Date," and "Re:." The docket number and probation case file number need to be included in the "Re:" section.
Apply the facts of Mr. Moore's case to the definitions of alcohol abuse and alcohol addiction.
Apply these facts to the differences between alcohol use and abuse.
Apply these facts to the DSM-IV criteria for a diagnosis of alcohol abuse.
Apply these facts to the disease model of alcohol abuse.
Apply these facts to the role genetics and heredity may play in the transmission of alcohol abuse from one generation to another
.
.
You have been hired by a large hospitality firm (e.g., Marriot.docxbriancrawford30935
You have been hired by a large hospitality firm (e.g., Marriott International, Hilton, Sheraton, Best Western, etc.) to be the project manager of the firm’s HQ office relocation project. You have been asked to speak to the HQ HR staff about the project. Many of the staff have very little understanding of project management. Also, they are fearful that this project will end up being a failure since other projects have failed at the firm. Explain to them the key elements of project management by comparing it to something they do understand well - human resources management (HRM). Be sure that your explanation addresses their fears of project management.
.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
1.4 modern child centered education - mahatma gandhi-2.pptx
You have just finished a health education in-service to the communit.docx
1. You have just finished a health education in-service to the
community on the hazards of smoking. A representative of the
tobacco industry is present at your in-service and makes the
following comment regarding your presentation: "You gave a
nice presentation. However, I disagree with you that smoking
can cause lung cancer. There is still not enough evidence to
indicate that smoking can cause cancer."
Your task is as follows:
1. Respond to his statement and indicate why there is a cause-
effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer using the
five criteria for causality
.
2. What is your interpretation of the evidence on how smoking
affects lung cancer?
READ: FIVE CRITERIA FOR CAUSALITY
Assignment Expectations, in order to earn full credit:
Please write your paper in your own words. That is the only way
I can evaluate your level
Analytic epidemiology is defined as the study of the
determinants of disease or reasons for relatively high or low
frequency in specific groups. Analytic epidemiology answers
questions regarding why the rate is high or low in a particular
group. Observations of differences lead to formation of
hypotheses.
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and
observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not
occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the
study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may
immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been
developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which
the disease develops to the control group (which had no
modification). In an observational study, the exposure has
already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed
2. and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies
are often more practical and continue to provide the major
contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two
main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and
case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common
experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized
based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a
work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be
considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals
attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred.
Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort
studies involve following a cohort over time in order to
determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the
exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an
association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative
risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed
individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following
formula:
(a/a+b) / (c/c+d)
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were
exposed.
c = the number of individuals with a disease who were NOT
exposed.
d = the number of individuals without a disease who were NOT
exposed.
In a case-control study, the sample is based upon illness status,
rather than exposure status. The researcher identifies a group of
people who meet the case definition and a group of people who
do not have the illness (controls). The objective is to determine
if the two groups differ in the rate of exposure to a specific
factor or factors.
3. In contrast to a cohort study, the total number of people
exposed in a case-control study is unknown. Therefore, relative
risk cannot be used. Instead, an odds ratio or risk ratio is used.
An odds ratio measures the odds that an exposed individual will
develop a disease in comparison to an unexposed individual.
Please click the button below to learn how to calculate an odds
ratio.
To calculate an odds ratio, you would use the following
formula:
ad/bc
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were
exposed.
c = the number of individuals with a disease who were NOT
exposed.
d = the number of individuals without a disease who were NOT
exposed.
Below is an example...
If a researcher selects 50 Lyme disease cases and 100 controls
for a case-control study, and the results indicated that 45 cases
and 10 controls recently hiked in a national forest, the odds
ratio would be inserted into the 2x2 table below:
Lyme Disease
No Disease
TOTAL
Exposure to Hiking
45
10
55
No Hiking
5
90
95
TOTAL
4. 50
100
150
The odds ratio would be calculated as follows:
Odds ratio = (45 x 90) / (10 x 5) = 81
Interpretation of Odds Ratios and Relative Risk
A relative risk or odds ratio that is approximately equal to 1.0
indicates that there is no association between the exposure and
the outcome. If the relative risk or odds ratio is significantly
greater than 1.0, then the outcome and exposure are positively
associated. If the relative risk or odds ratio is significantly less
than 1.0, then the outcome and exposure are negatively
associated and the exposure is referred to as being protective.
For example, exercise may be negatively associated with lung
cancer because individuals who smoke are less likely to
exercise.
To determine if a value is statistically significant, confidence
intervals are often calculated using computer software
programs. A 95% confidence interval is defined as a range of
values that has a 95% probability of containing the value being
estimated (e.g. odds ratio or relative risk). For example, if the
95% confidence interval for the odds ratio of 81 in the above
example is 23.5-302.9, then it tells you that there is a 95%
probability that the odds ratio will be between 23.5 and 302.9.
Confidence intervals that are above 1.0 and DO NOT include
1.0 are statistically significant and may indicate that a food
item is contaminated. For example, a confidence interval of 1.1
- 7.9 is significant because 1.1 (the left number of the
confidence interval) is above 1.0. The number 1.0 is NOT
between 1.1 and 7.9.
Confidence intervals that include 1.0 are NOT significant and
indicate that the food item is probably NOT contaminated.
Using pepsi as an example, the attack rate table indicates that
the 95% confidence interval equals: .8 - 10.5. Because 1.0 is
between .8 and 10.5, it includes one and therefore is probably
NOT contaminated.
5. To identify the contaminated food item you need to identify the
food items that have significant confidence intervals and pick
the food with the highest relative risk
To view an example of how to calculate a relative risk, click
here
Often these values are put into the following 2x2 table:
Disease
No Disease
Exposed
a
b
Unexposed
c
d
The attack rate is a form of incidence in which the numerator is
the number of new cases of a health problem during an
outbreak, and the denominator is the population at the
beginning of the period. Food-specific attack rates are
frequently used in foodborne outbreak investigations to compare
those who ate a specific food with those who did not eat the
food. A high attack rate among persons who ate a specified
food suggests that a food is associated with the illness. A low
attack rate among persons who ate the food suggests that the
food is not associated with the illness. The risk difference is
the difference in attack rates (i.e. the percent ill among those
who ate a specified food minus the percent ill among those who
did not eat the food). Usually, the risk difference is large for
the contaminated food and small for other foods. For example,
the risk difference for cheese in the table below is 74 - 56 = 18.
Food
Those who ate specified food
Those who did not eat food
Ill
Well
Total
6. Attack rate
Ill
Well
Total
Attack rate
Cheese
17
6
23
74%
9
7
16
56%
A statistically significant association between an exposure and a
disease does not necessarily mean that there is a cause-effect
relationship between the exposure and illness. The association
could reflect biases in the design, conduct, or analysis of the
study. The association may also occur because the exposure
and the disease are related to some common underlying
condition. Please click
here
to view the criteria that are widely used to evaluate whether an
association is causal.
http://www.epidemiolog.net/evolving/AnalyticStudyDesigns.pdf
Required Readings
See, A. (2000). Use of Human Epidemiology Studies in Proving
Causation. Defense Counsel Journal, 67 (4). Retrieved on
February 21, 2013 at
http://ruby.fgcu.edu/Courses/Twimberley/EpiRiskAsst/Causatio
n.pdf
The University of Pittsburgh. (2005, March 3). Supercourse:
Web of Causation; Exposure and Disease Outcomes. February
21, 2013 at:
7. http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/lecture/lec19071/index.htm
The missed lessons of Sir Austin Bradford Hill Carl V
Phillips1,2,3 and Karen J Goodman1 Epidemiol Perspect Innov.
2004; 1: 3. Retrieved February 21, 2013 from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524370/
CDC (2004) How to Investigate an Outbreak. Retrieved
February 21, 2013 from
http://www.cdc.gov/EXCITE/classroom/outbreak/objectives.htm