This summary provides the key details from the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses a collection of books about ufology, which is the study of reports and phenomena related to unidentified flying objects (UFOs). It lists the website www.UfologyBooks.com and provides bibliographic information for several books and papers on topics related to UFO sightings and investigations. The document aims to inform readers about resources for learning more about the field of ufology and perspectives on unexplained aerial phenomena.
Implications of gender disparity in concepts of conflict resolution for peace...Alexander Decker
This document discusses concepts of conflict resolution among residents of Gombe town in Nigeria and the implications of gender differences in these concepts for peace and stability. The study found that while males and females did not significantly differ in their overall approaches to conflict resolution, there were some differences when individual items were examined. Five implications for peace and stability were identified based on these differences. The document provides context on understanding conflicts, causes of conflicts, types of conflicts, advantages and disadvantages of conflicts, appropriate conduct during conflicts, and preliminary steps for conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution and peacemaking paperSnowPea Guh
This document discusses conflict resolution and peacemaking. It describes how conflicts often arise from cultural and historical differences between groups. It emphasizes the importance of empathy in resolving conflicts, and outlines a five-stage process for peacemaking: (1) engage a mediator, (2) acknowledge the conflict is problematic, (3) reevaluate past wrongs, (4) develop reconciliation plans, and (5) fully understand the conflict to implement necessary changes. The document stresses that teaching children emotional awareness and empathy provides skills for resolving conflicts constructively rather than through power struggles or violence.
The document describes the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) which assesses an individual's behavior in conflict situations. It outlines the five conflict-handling modes assessed by the TKI: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. The document then provides WIDS DERISMA's TKI profile results, showing their highest score in compromising and lowest in accommodating. It interprets the scores and provides questions to consider for each conflict mode.
The document discusses the nature of peace and conflict. It defines peace as a state of quiet or tranquility without disturbance or violence. Peace can be voluntary through abstaining from agitation or enforced through suppression. How peace is defined determines how one approaches peacemaking. The document also defines conflict as an expressed struggle where interdependent parties perceive incompatible goals or scarce resources and interfere with each other. Conflict can be constructive through understanding issues and finding win-win solutions, or destructive through misunderstanding and win-lose outcomes.
Conflict Resolution: Contextualized Approach to LearningTeresa Mae Garcia
This document discusses approaches to conflict resolution. It defines conflict as a natural human phenomenon that occurs through interaction and differences in preferences. The outcome of conflict can be either positive or negative depending on how it is handled. The document then outlines five strategies for resolving conflict based on the Thomas-Kilmann model: competing, collaborating, compromising, accommodating, and avoiding. It also describes the interest-based relational approach and a five-step conflict resolution process involving setting the scene, gathering information, agreeing on the problem, brainstorming solutions, and negotiating an agreement.
Conflict arises when two or more parties have incompatible or opposing interests or goals. It can occur between individuals, groups, or other entities. The goals of conflict resolution are not to eliminate conflict or opposing interests entirely, but rather to allow opposing interests to be addressed through non-violent and agreed-upon processes. There are various approaches to handling conflict, including competing where one asserts their own interests at the expense of others, accommodating where one cooperates fully at the cost of their own interests, avoiding where one cooperates or asserts neither position, collaborating where one fully cooperates and asserts interests, and compromising where a middle-ground solution is found.
Conflict occurs when disagreements exist over issues or goals, or when emotional tensions cause friction between individuals or groups. There are different types and levels of conflict, including substantive, emotional, intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, and interorganizational. Conflict can be functional when it improves decision making, but dysfunctional when it harms relationships. Successful conflict management involves understanding the causes and stages of conflict, then applying appropriate resolution techniques like compromise, problem solving, or altering structural variables to address the underlying issues fueling the conflict.
This document outlines a module on conflict resolution. It defines conflict resolution and lists learning objectives, including discussing different approaches, writing a reflection, and creating an educational poster. It then discusses what conflict is and different conflict resolution strategies like competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. The Interest-Based Relational approach and a six step conflict resolution process are also presented. Learners will participate in class discussions, create a conflict resolution poster, and write a reflective essay discussing personal experiences with conflict resolution.
Implications of gender disparity in concepts of conflict resolution for peace...Alexander Decker
This document discusses concepts of conflict resolution among residents of Gombe town in Nigeria and the implications of gender differences in these concepts for peace and stability. The study found that while males and females did not significantly differ in their overall approaches to conflict resolution, there were some differences when individual items were examined. Five implications for peace and stability were identified based on these differences. The document provides context on understanding conflicts, causes of conflicts, types of conflicts, advantages and disadvantages of conflicts, appropriate conduct during conflicts, and preliminary steps for conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution and peacemaking paperSnowPea Guh
This document discusses conflict resolution and peacemaking. It describes how conflicts often arise from cultural and historical differences between groups. It emphasizes the importance of empathy in resolving conflicts, and outlines a five-stage process for peacemaking: (1) engage a mediator, (2) acknowledge the conflict is problematic, (3) reevaluate past wrongs, (4) develop reconciliation plans, and (5) fully understand the conflict to implement necessary changes. The document stresses that teaching children emotional awareness and empathy provides skills for resolving conflicts constructively rather than through power struggles or violence.
The document describes the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) which assesses an individual's behavior in conflict situations. It outlines the five conflict-handling modes assessed by the TKI: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. The document then provides WIDS DERISMA's TKI profile results, showing their highest score in compromising and lowest in accommodating. It interprets the scores and provides questions to consider for each conflict mode.
The document discusses the nature of peace and conflict. It defines peace as a state of quiet or tranquility without disturbance or violence. Peace can be voluntary through abstaining from agitation or enforced through suppression. How peace is defined determines how one approaches peacemaking. The document also defines conflict as an expressed struggle where interdependent parties perceive incompatible goals or scarce resources and interfere with each other. Conflict can be constructive through understanding issues and finding win-win solutions, or destructive through misunderstanding and win-lose outcomes.
Conflict Resolution: Contextualized Approach to LearningTeresa Mae Garcia
This document discusses approaches to conflict resolution. It defines conflict as a natural human phenomenon that occurs through interaction and differences in preferences. The outcome of conflict can be either positive or negative depending on how it is handled. The document then outlines five strategies for resolving conflict based on the Thomas-Kilmann model: competing, collaborating, compromising, accommodating, and avoiding. It also describes the interest-based relational approach and a five-step conflict resolution process involving setting the scene, gathering information, agreeing on the problem, brainstorming solutions, and negotiating an agreement.
Conflict arises when two or more parties have incompatible or opposing interests or goals. It can occur between individuals, groups, or other entities. The goals of conflict resolution are not to eliminate conflict or opposing interests entirely, but rather to allow opposing interests to be addressed through non-violent and agreed-upon processes. There are various approaches to handling conflict, including competing where one asserts their own interests at the expense of others, accommodating where one cooperates fully at the cost of their own interests, avoiding where one cooperates or asserts neither position, collaborating where one fully cooperates and asserts interests, and compromising where a middle-ground solution is found.
Conflict occurs when disagreements exist over issues or goals, or when emotional tensions cause friction between individuals or groups. There are different types and levels of conflict, including substantive, emotional, intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, and interorganizational. Conflict can be functional when it improves decision making, but dysfunctional when it harms relationships. Successful conflict management involves understanding the causes and stages of conflict, then applying appropriate resolution techniques like compromise, problem solving, or altering structural variables to address the underlying issues fueling the conflict.
This document outlines a module on conflict resolution. It defines conflict resolution and lists learning objectives, including discussing different approaches, writing a reflection, and creating an educational poster. It then discusses what conflict is and different conflict resolution strategies like competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. The Interest-Based Relational approach and a six step conflict resolution process are also presented. Learners will participate in class discussions, create a conflict resolution poster, and write a reflective essay discussing personal experiences with conflict resolution.
The document discusses several reported UFO sightings and incidents involving unidentified flying objects, including:
- A 1953 sighting over South Dakota where an F-84 jet intercepted and chased a UFO for over 120 miles on radar.
- Two incidents in 1975 where UFOs were observed near nuclear weapons storage areas at Loring Air Force Base in Maine and near underground missile silos at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana. Fighter support was denied during the Loring incident.
- Several other notable UFO sightings and cases are briefly mentioned as well. The document examines reports of UFOs and the potential for cover-ups of UFO activity by governments and military organizations.
This document discusses the history of UFO research organizations and their connections to intelligence agencies like the CIA. It describes how the CIA monitored early UFO groups in the 1950s and placed agents within the largest group, NICAP, which was founded in 1956. Over time, NICAP had CIA employees in leadership roles and faced pressure that led to changes in leadership, suggesting the CIA influenced the direction of research into UFOs.
The document discusses the interaction between linguistic semantics and knowledge representation/processing in natural language understanding systems. It argues that linguistic analysis alone cannot produce unambiguous representations, and that world knowledge and logical inference are also needed. Predicate expressions are treated as referential, referring to concepts rather than objects. This view provides a way to understand the interaction between linguistic and logical aspects of meaning, and enables more modular system architectures with improved portability of components across tasks and domains. However, fully realizing this goal requires further work on clearly defining the division of labor between natural language and AI aspects of understanding.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian medical system that focuses on treating the whole person to achieve physical, mental, and spiritual harmony. It views health as a balance between the three doshas (biological humors) - vata, pitta, and kapha - which combine with the five elements. When doshas are imbalanced, disease occurs. Ayurveda uses herbal medicines, yoga, diet, and lifestyle changes tailored to each person's constitution to restore balance and support the evolution of consciousness. Its goal is to help people experience themselves and the world with joy by addressing physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
The document summarizes the first and only International Crop Circle Making Competition held in 1992. It was organized to test claims that complex crop circles could not be hoaxed by humans. 12 teams participated in the night-time competition, creating formations in a secret wheat field location. The winning team consisted of three young engineers who were able to replicate their intricate design in daylight, demonstrating simple techniques using rollers, ladders, and measuring devices. The competition provided evidence that crop circles could be human-made.
The team name is "Ayurpreachers" which means promoters of Ayurveda. The team leader is Hardik K. Soni who has extensive experience in Ayurvedic research and education. Two learners are also introduced: Sana Bangliwala who is assisting with standardization of herbal formulations, and Krunal Ukani who is working on isolation of active constituents from herbs. The team aims to gather and share knowledge about herbal medicine research through this competition.
This document summarizes research on organic farming practices in India. It finds that traditional organic farming methods offer sustainable solutions to problems caused by conventional chemical-based agriculture, including environmental degradation and health issues. Experiments show that organic methods can equal or exceed chemical yields while improving soil quality over time. Organic crops demonstrated higher quality and profits for farmers. The research validated organic techniques for crop and disease management, improving farmer livelihoods in a sustainable way.
When he was little, William Phair enjoyed school, playing in the park, and watching TV shows like Tweenies, Teletubbies, and Bob the Builder. He disliked going to sleep and playing alone. His favorite toys included action figures, toy cars, and playing with his brother.
Dokumen ini membahas tentang bentuk pangkat dan akar bilangan kompleks. Rumus De Moivre digunakan untuk menghitung bentuk pangkat kompleks, sementara akar kompleks dapat dihitung menggunakan rumus akar dan sifatnya. Contoh soal tentang menentukan akar dan nilai z yang memenuhi persamaan diberikan beserta penyelesaiannya.
The document lists over 200 ufology and UFO-related books for sale through the website www.UfologyBooks.com. The books cover a wide range of topics including UFO crashes, alien encounters, government cover-ups, ancient astronaut theories, and more. Many of the book listings note they can be sliced or scanned from, indicating they are available in digital format.
This document provides information on natural treatment protocols for Lyme disease, including herbal formulas and supplements. It discusses the causes and symptoms of Lyme disease and recommends herbal protocols from herbalists Hart Brent and Stephen Buhner. These include formulas containing propolis, lomatium, and waltheria to target different stages of infection. Additional herbs recommended for immune support, the liver, nervous system, and specific symptoms are also listed. Resources for practitioners experienced with the Buhner protocol are included.
A presentation filled with tips by the investigative recruitment research firm Intellerati on taking a focused approach to candidate sourcing. Visit Intellerati at http://www.intellerati.com.
This book provides a summary and analysis of Jacques Vallee's book "Dimensions: A Casebook of Alien Contact". The book examines the UFO phenomenon through historical cases and explores its relationship to religion, mythology and human experience. It argues that UFOs have interacted with humanity for centuries, often influencing the development of cultures and religions. While UFOs appear to be physical objects, their nature is complex and not fully understood. The book aims to provide a new framework for understanding the phenomenon beyond the extraterrestrial hypothesis.
The document provides guidelines for accreditation of Ayurvedic and Panchakarma centers in Germany. It outlines minimum requirements for infrastructure, staff, treatment procedures, safety, and quality control. Centers must be inspected and certified by a control commission authorized by the governing board to receive Silver Leaf or Gold Leaf accreditation certificates depending on their facilities. The guidelines aim to standardize and ensure authentic practice of Ayurvedic therapies.
Ufology is the study of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and efforts to investigate UFO reports and evidence. Key terms include UFO, which refers to unidentified flying objects; ufologist, which refers to a UFO investigator; and the Roswell incident of 1947, a famous alleged UFO crash in New Mexico that has led to conspiracy theories of a UFO cover-up. The document also mentions UFO sightings, UFO conspiracies, and aliens, which are purported extra-terrestrial beings.
This document discusses strategies for tapping into global markets, including evaluating potential markets, ways to enter new markets, adapting or inventing new products for different cultures, setting prices, distribution methods, and managing perceptions of where a company and its products originate from. It provides advice on waterfall and sprinkler approaches, targeting developed vs developing countries, using global websites, licensing, franchising, segmentation, and communications strategies.
The Core tells the story of scientists who must travel to the center of the Earth to restart its rotation when it inexplicably slows down. They believe this may be caused by an imbalance within the Earth's molten core, so they work to drill through the Earth's crust and outer core to drop a device into the inner core that will restart the planet's rotation and save humanity from global catastrophe. Along the way they face numerous challenges and dangers that threaten their mission to restart the Earth's spinning core before time runs out.
The document discusses the structural aspects of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) that enable its fluorescent properties, as well as its advantages over other fluorescent markers and uses. Specifically, it notes that GFP is composed of 238 amino acids arranged in an alpha helix surrounded by beta sheets, which contains a fluorophore responsible for fluorescence. GFP and its mutants are useful for monitoring viral movement in plants due to their fluorescent properties and ability to be genetically encoded.
Conflict resolution involves facilitating a peaceful end to conflict through communication and collective negotiation. There are a variety of conflict resolution methods, including negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and peacebuilding. Conflict resolution styles are informed by individuals' level of concern for themselves and others, with cooperation seen as the most effective style as it involves finding solutions agreeable to all parties. Culture also influences approaches to conflict resolution, as direct communication may be considered rude in some cultures.
Theory of Information Interchange as a Theoretical Framework for Understandin...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The document discusses several reported UFO sightings and incidents involving unidentified flying objects, including:
- A 1953 sighting over South Dakota where an F-84 jet intercepted and chased a UFO for over 120 miles on radar.
- Two incidents in 1975 where UFOs were observed near nuclear weapons storage areas at Loring Air Force Base in Maine and near underground missile silos at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana. Fighter support was denied during the Loring incident.
- Several other notable UFO sightings and cases are briefly mentioned as well. The document examines reports of UFOs and the potential for cover-ups of UFO activity by governments and military organizations.
This document discusses the history of UFO research organizations and their connections to intelligence agencies like the CIA. It describes how the CIA monitored early UFO groups in the 1950s and placed agents within the largest group, NICAP, which was founded in 1956. Over time, NICAP had CIA employees in leadership roles and faced pressure that led to changes in leadership, suggesting the CIA influenced the direction of research into UFOs.
The document discusses the interaction between linguistic semantics and knowledge representation/processing in natural language understanding systems. It argues that linguistic analysis alone cannot produce unambiguous representations, and that world knowledge and logical inference are also needed. Predicate expressions are treated as referential, referring to concepts rather than objects. This view provides a way to understand the interaction between linguistic and logical aspects of meaning, and enables more modular system architectures with improved portability of components across tasks and domains. However, fully realizing this goal requires further work on clearly defining the division of labor between natural language and AI aspects of understanding.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian medical system that focuses on treating the whole person to achieve physical, mental, and spiritual harmony. It views health as a balance between the three doshas (biological humors) - vata, pitta, and kapha - which combine with the five elements. When doshas are imbalanced, disease occurs. Ayurveda uses herbal medicines, yoga, diet, and lifestyle changes tailored to each person's constitution to restore balance and support the evolution of consciousness. Its goal is to help people experience themselves and the world with joy by addressing physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
The document summarizes the first and only International Crop Circle Making Competition held in 1992. It was organized to test claims that complex crop circles could not be hoaxed by humans. 12 teams participated in the night-time competition, creating formations in a secret wheat field location. The winning team consisted of three young engineers who were able to replicate their intricate design in daylight, demonstrating simple techniques using rollers, ladders, and measuring devices. The competition provided evidence that crop circles could be human-made.
The team name is "Ayurpreachers" which means promoters of Ayurveda. The team leader is Hardik K. Soni who has extensive experience in Ayurvedic research and education. Two learners are also introduced: Sana Bangliwala who is assisting with standardization of herbal formulations, and Krunal Ukani who is working on isolation of active constituents from herbs. The team aims to gather and share knowledge about herbal medicine research through this competition.
This document summarizes research on organic farming practices in India. It finds that traditional organic farming methods offer sustainable solutions to problems caused by conventional chemical-based agriculture, including environmental degradation and health issues. Experiments show that organic methods can equal or exceed chemical yields while improving soil quality over time. Organic crops demonstrated higher quality and profits for farmers. The research validated organic techniques for crop and disease management, improving farmer livelihoods in a sustainable way.
When he was little, William Phair enjoyed school, playing in the park, and watching TV shows like Tweenies, Teletubbies, and Bob the Builder. He disliked going to sleep and playing alone. His favorite toys included action figures, toy cars, and playing with his brother.
Dokumen ini membahas tentang bentuk pangkat dan akar bilangan kompleks. Rumus De Moivre digunakan untuk menghitung bentuk pangkat kompleks, sementara akar kompleks dapat dihitung menggunakan rumus akar dan sifatnya. Contoh soal tentang menentukan akar dan nilai z yang memenuhi persamaan diberikan beserta penyelesaiannya.
The document lists over 200 ufology and UFO-related books for sale through the website www.UfologyBooks.com. The books cover a wide range of topics including UFO crashes, alien encounters, government cover-ups, ancient astronaut theories, and more. Many of the book listings note they can be sliced or scanned from, indicating they are available in digital format.
This document provides information on natural treatment protocols for Lyme disease, including herbal formulas and supplements. It discusses the causes and symptoms of Lyme disease and recommends herbal protocols from herbalists Hart Brent and Stephen Buhner. These include formulas containing propolis, lomatium, and waltheria to target different stages of infection. Additional herbs recommended for immune support, the liver, nervous system, and specific symptoms are also listed. Resources for practitioners experienced with the Buhner protocol are included.
A presentation filled with tips by the investigative recruitment research firm Intellerati on taking a focused approach to candidate sourcing. Visit Intellerati at http://www.intellerati.com.
This book provides a summary and analysis of Jacques Vallee's book "Dimensions: A Casebook of Alien Contact". The book examines the UFO phenomenon through historical cases and explores its relationship to religion, mythology and human experience. It argues that UFOs have interacted with humanity for centuries, often influencing the development of cultures and religions. While UFOs appear to be physical objects, their nature is complex and not fully understood. The book aims to provide a new framework for understanding the phenomenon beyond the extraterrestrial hypothesis.
The document provides guidelines for accreditation of Ayurvedic and Panchakarma centers in Germany. It outlines minimum requirements for infrastructure, staff, treatment procedures, safety, and quality control. Centers must be inspected and certified by a control commission authorized by the governing board to receive Silver Leaf or Gold Leaf accreditation certificates depending on their facilities. The guidelines aim to standardize and ensure authentic practice of Ayurvedic therapies.
Ufology is the study of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and efforts to investigate UFO reports and evidence. Key terms include UFO, which refers to unidentified flying objects; ufologist, which refers to a UFO investigator; and the Roswell incident of 1947, a famous alleged UFO crash in New Mexico that has led to conspiracy theories of a UFO cover-up. The document also mentions UFO sightings, UFO conspiracies, and aliens, which are purported extra-terrestrial beings.
This document discusses strategies for tapping into global markets, including evaluating potential markets, ways to enter new markets, adapting or inventing new products for different cultures, setting prices, distribution methods, and managing perceptions of where a company and its products originate from. It provides advice on waterfall and sprinkler approaches, targeting developed vs developing countries, using global websites, licensing, franchising, segmentation, and communications strategies.
The Core tells the story of scientists who must travel to the center of the Earth to restart its rotation when it inexplicably slows down. They believe this may be caused by an imbalance within the Earth's molten core, so they work to drill through the Earth's crust and outer core to drop a device into the inner core that will restart the planet's rotation and save humanity from global catastrophe. Along the way they face numerous challenges and dangers that threaten their mission to restart the Earth's spinning core before time runs out.
The document discusses the structural aspects of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) that enable its fluorescent properties, as well as its advantages over other fluorescent markers and uses. Specifically, it notes that GFP is composed of 238 amino acids arranged in an alpha helix surrounded by beta sheets, which contains a fluorophore responsible for fluorescence. GFP and its mutants are useful for monitoring viral movement in plants due to their fluorescent properties and ability to be genetically encoded.
Conflict resolution involves facilitating a peaceful end to conflict through communication and collective negotiation. There are a variety of conflict resolution methods, including negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and peacebuilding. Conflict resolution styles are informed by individuals' level of concern for themselves and others, with cooperation seen as the most effective style as it involves finding solutions agreeable to all parties. Culture also influences approaches to conflict resolution, as direct communication may be considered rude in some cultures.
Theory of Information Interchange as a Theoretical Framework for Understandin...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations30 (2006) 57.docxnormanibarber20063
International Journal of Intercultural Relations
30 (2006) 579–603
The role of culture and personality in choice of
conflict management strategy$
Ritu Kaushal!, Catherine T. Kwantes
aUniversity of Windsor, Windsor, Ont., Canada
Received 12 October 2005; received in revised form 17 January 2006; accepted 20 January 2006
Abstract
Globalization has led to an increased emphasis on cultural diversity and its influences
on personal, social, and organizational practices. As the world becomes a smaller place, the
potential for conflict in our daily interactions is increasing. Research investigating the
influence of culture on conflict management and resolution behaviors has demonstrated that
individualism and collectivism do indeed influence a person’s style of conflict resolution
behavior. However, these findings have not been linked to the related constructs of vertical and
horizontal individualism and collectivism [as defined by Triandis, H.C. (1994) Culture and social
behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill] which introduce the concept of accepting authority
within a focus on the self versus the group. A strong parallel exists between the vertical and
horizontal dimensions of individualism and collectivism and power distance. The salience of
this power variable may differ from one culture to the next, and influences not only the nature
of the conflict process itself, but also the conflict resolution strategies adopted. In addition,
studies exploring the influence of various dispositional measures such as self-monitoring and
emotional intelligence have linked them to both cultural variables and styles of conflict resolu-
tion. Although each finding that links a single personality or cultural variable with a particular
style of conflict resolution is indeed useful, it is also limiting. This study explored the relationships
among culture, power, personality, and styles of conflict resolution. Relevance of the findings and
ARTICLE IN PRESS
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel
0147-1767/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.01.001
$An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Fourth Biennial Conference of the International
Academy for Intercultural Research, Kent, OH, USA.
!Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 253 3000; fax: +1 519 973 7021.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Kaushal).
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel
their implications with respect to conflict management and resolution issues across cultures are
discussed.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Conflict; Conflict style; Conflict strategy; Conflict management; Conflict resolution; Culture, diversity;
Cultural values; Cultural beliefs; Cultural cognitions; Personality; Individual differences; Self-monitoring;
Emotional intelligence
1. Introduction
Greater globalization has led to increased attention being paid to cultural diversity and
its influences on personal, social, and organizational practices. As .
The document outlines various theories and models of conflict management. It discusses definitions of conflict and conflict management, as well as causes and types of conflict. Five major conflict management models are described: early models by Blake and Mouton and Thomas; Kuhn and Poole's distributive and integrative model; DeChurch and Marks' meta-taxonomy of agreeableness and activeness; Rahim's five styles of integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising; and the Thomas-Kilmann model of competing, collaborating, compromising, accommodating, and avoiding. Each model categorizes approaches based on different dimensions such as assertiveness and cooperation.
Current Topics in Management, Vol. 18,2016, pp. 201-212Res.docxalanrgibson41217
Current Topics in Management, Vol. 18,2016, pp. 201-212
Research Note
REDUCING JOB BURNOUT THROUGH
EFFECTIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
STRATEGY
M. Afzalur Rahim
Western Kentucky University
The objective of the study was to investigate the relationships of effective conflict
management strategy (i.e., higher uses of the integrating and obliging styles and
lower uses of the dominating and avoiding conflict-handling styles) and less
effective conflict management strategy (i.e., higher uses of the dominating and
avoiding styles and lower uses of the integrating and obliging conflict-handling
styles) to the three components of job burnout (emotional exhaustion, deper
sonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment). Data for the study were
collected from a collegiate sample of 869 employed MBA and undergraduate
students. A MANCOVA analysis showed that respondents who used effective
conflict management strategy reported lower job burnout than those who used
less effective strategy. Implications for management, limitations, and directions
for future research were discussed.
Keywords: conflict-handling styles, effective conflict-management strategies,
job burnout
Conflict is inevitable in organizations. It is a natural outcome of human inter
action that begins when two or more employees come in contact with one
another in attaining their objectives. Relationships among such entities may
become incompatible or inconsistent when two or more of them desire a similar
resource that is in short supply; when they have partially exclusive behavioral
preferences regarding their joint action; or when they have different attitudes,
values, beliefs, and skills (Rahim, 2011).
201
202 Intelligence, Sustainability, and Strategic Issues in Management
Conflict among employees can have both functional and dysfunctional
consequences (de Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012; Jehn, Jonsen, & Rispens, 2014;
Pelled, Eisenhardt, & Xin, 1999). Constructive management of organizational
conflict, such as the conflict between employees and their supervisors that is
the focus of this study, requires that its negative consequences be minimized
and its positive consequences maximized. The value-added contribution of the
present study is that it is designed to show how a mixture of certain conflict
handling styles can lead to reduction in job burnout of employees.
The Dual Concern Model of Conflict Management Styles
One factor that has an important impact on the effective management of
organizational conflict is the style employees use to handle conflicts they are
involved in. The styles of handling interpersonal conflict in organizations were
first conceptualized in 1926 by Mary P. Follett (1940). She discussed three
main ways of handling organizational conflict—domination, compromise,
and integration—as well as other, secondary ways of handling conflict, such
as avoidance and suppression. Blake and Mouton (1964) first presented a con
ceptual scheme.
Assignment on Conflict Management Studies.pdfCassie Romero
This document provides an overview of ethnicity conflict and conflict resolutions in Somalia. It begins with introductions to the historical background of ethnic conflict in Somalia and the nature and causes of conflicts there. It then discusses various tools and approaches that have been used for conflict resolution in Somalia, including establishing rules and procedures, reducing tension between parties, and improving communication between opposing groups. The document also examines specific conflict resolution approaches like forcing, win-win collaborating, compromising, withdrawing, and smoothing over differences.
Paper for the 19th annual symposium on conflict resolution semi finalgelbanna
The document discusses intercultural mediation as a means of conflict resolution. It provides definitions for concepts like conflict, intercultural conflict, and conflict resolution. It examines models of intercultural conflict and levels of analysis. Western approaches like problem-solving workshops are described as well as non-Western approaches from India and Islam. Traditional Islamic methods for dispute resolution include atwah, hudnah, sulh, and sulhah which aim to exit cycles of violence and establish reconciliation between feuding groups.
CULTURES OF CONFLICT HOW LEADERS AND MEMBERS SHAPE CONFLICT .docxannettsparrow
CULTURES OF CONFLICT: HOW LEADERS AND MEMBERS SHAPE CONFLICT
CULTURES IN ORGANIZATIONS
MICHELE J. GELFAND
Department of Psychology
University of Maryland, College Park
College Park, MD 20742
LISA M. LESLIE
University of Minnesota
KIRSTEN KELLER
Rand Corporation
CARSTEN K. W. DEDREU
University of Amsterdam
INTRODUCTION
Why do some organizations develop cultures where conflict is managed productively
whereas others have cultures where members work against one another, sabotaging each other in
and out of the boardroom? Southwest Airlines, for example, has been argued to have a
collaborative conflict culture (Gittell, 2003), whereas organizations such as Playco describe
themselves as having a dominating conflict culture, approaching conflict like they are in “the old
west” or through “warfare games” (Morill, 1995, p. 195). Still others, such as the now defunct
Wang laboratories, are known to have avoidant cultures, in which people actively suppress
conflict at all costs (Finkelstein, 2005). For psychologists, many questions remain unasked and
unanswered: Is there any evidence that conflict cultures exist at the organizational level? If so,
how do such distinct conflict cultures develop? What role do leaders and organizations play in
shaping the development of conflict cultures? Answers to these questions cannot be found in the
psychological literature on conflict, which has focused on conflict management styles at the
individual and small group level and has yet to examine whether and how distinct conflict
cultures develop at higher levels of analysis.
In the present research, we start with the premise that although individuals have
idiosyncratic preferences for different conflict management strategies, organizational contexts
provide strong situations (Johns, 2006; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996) that serve to define socially
shared and normative ways to manage conflict—what we refer to as conflict cultures—which
ultimately minimize individual variation in conflict management strategies (De Dreu, van
Dierendonck, & Dijkstra, 2004; Gelfand, Leslie, & Keller, 2008). Because norms typically
develop around fundamental problems that need to be managed in any social system (Schein,
1992; Schwartz, 1994), and conflict is an inherent problem in all organizational systems, we
expect that distinct conflict cultures can develop in many, if not all, organizations. Accordingly,
we first examine whether we can empirically establish conflict cultures and distinguish different
conflict culture types. We then examine possible antecedents of different conflict cultures –
where do they come from, who shapes conflict cultures and why?
DO CONFLICT CULTURES EXIST?
Individual members of organizations have distinct ways of managing workplace
conflicts. Some prefer a pro-active approach and easily engage in constructive negotiations and
collaborative problem solving. Others are inclined to compete and dominate the conflict partner.
T.
This document summarizes a chapter written by the author in 1976 for the first edition of The Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. The 1976 chapter defined conflict, proposed a taxonomy of five conflict handling modes (competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating), developed a process model of conflict, and a structural model examining factors that influence conflict handling. While primarily descriptive, the chapter also discussed conflict management and the functions of different conflict handling modes, concluding collaboration is generally most beneficial. The current document reflects on the influences and assumptions behind the 1976 chapter in light of the author's updated thinking for a second edition.
This document summarizes a paper by Thomas from 1992 reflecting on his influential 1976 chapter on conflict and conflict management. It discusses the key influences and models presented in the original chapter, including Thomas' definition of conflict, the conflict handling modes taxonomy, a process model, and structural model. It then outlines major developments in the conflict literature since 1976, including validation of the conflict handling modes taxonomy and increased emphasis on the role of cognition. Thomas proposes updates to his process model to incorporate normative reasoning and the role of emotions.
In this thesis, leadership is tested by looking at the influence from cultural dimensions. This cultural influence is on the preference of leadership and the managing of conflicts.
The document discusses psychological models of conflict resolution and their application in school contexts and teacher-pupil interactions. It describes Rahim's five styles of handling interpersonal conflict: integrating, compromising, avoiding, obliging, and dominating. These styles are assessed using the Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory-II (ROCI-II). The document then discusses how each of these conflict styles may be applied and their potential effectiveness in teacher-pupil interactions, with an emphasis on intercultural situations.
What are some essential differences between constructive and destruc.docxtwilacrt6k5
1) The document discusses different types of conflict that can occur in groups, including pseudo-conflict (due to misunderstandings), simple conflict (disagreement over issues or processes), and ego conflict (personal clashes).
2) It describes common causes of conflict like differing perceptions, personalities, knowledge, culture, power dynamics, and expectations. Conflict is generally an inevitable and sometimes useful part of group discussions.
3) The document outlines misconceptions about conflict and strategies for managing different types of conflict constructively, like clarifying positions, finding compromise, and emphasizing shared goals to de-escalate personal tensions.
Humanitarian Intervention and Just War
Author(s): Mona Fixdal and Dan Smith
Source: Mershon International Studies Review , Nov., 1998, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Nov., 1998),
pp. 283-312
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The International Studies Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/254418
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Mershon International Studies Review (1998) 42, 283-312
Humanitarian Intervention and Just War*
MONA FIXDAL
Department of Political Science, University of Oslo
DAN SMITH
International Peace Research Institute, Oslo
Humanitarian intervention is one of the primary international security
problems of today. As an object analysis, it sits at the intersection of the
realist and idealist traditions in the study of international relations.
Despite its high profile, debate on humanitarian intervention is unsatis-
factory; participants talk past one another and most discussion is devoid
of ethical concepts. In particular, there is a striking absence of explicit
reference to the Just War tradition. Only scholars of international law
have explicitly and systematically examined normative issues, but their
focus seems too narrow. The result is a series of what appear to be arbi-
trary judgments about when humanitarian intervention is justified
combined with an often fundamental misunderstanding of the interna-
tional system. This essay presents a sketch of the Just War tradition's main
concepts and argues that it is both possible and advantageous to resort to
them in discussing and evaluating humanitarian intervention. The article
then applies these concepts to the recent debate on humanitarian inter-
vention and shows that almost all of the concerns raised in this
scholarship fit within the Just War framework. The essay focuses on the
criteria from the Just War tradition that deal with when to resort to the
use of armed force.
It would be impossible for the world to be happy ... [if] the innocent were not
allowed to teach the guilty a lesson (Vitoria 1557[1991]:298).
Humanitarian intervention has become one of the most debated topics in interna-
tional politics today. It is among a group of problems-ci ...
Negotiation Lewecki Ch 16 & Ch 5.2 International Cross Cultural Negotiations ...Fan DiFu, Ph.D. (Steve)
This document discusses factors that make international negotiations more complex than domestic negotiations. It outlines two overall contexts that influence international negotiations: environmental context and immediate context. Environmental context includes factors outside of negotiators' control like politics, economics, culture and external stakeholders. Immediate context includes factors negotiators have some influence over like relative bargaining power and desired outcomes. The document also discusses cultural dimensions from Hofstede's model and their impact on negotiation processes and strategies. Effective cross-cultural negotiation requires understanding one's own and other cultures at both general and specific levels.
This document discusses factors that make international negotiations more complex than domestic negotiations. It covers two overall contexts that influence international negotiations: environmental context and immediate context. Environmental context includes factors outside of negotiators' control like politics, economics, culture and external stakeholders. Immediate context includes factors negotiators have some influence over like relative bargaining power and desired outcomes. The document also discusses cultural dimensions from Hofstede's model and their impact on negotiation processes and strategies. Effective cross-cultural negotiation requires understanding one's own and other cultures at both general and specific relationship levels.
The document discusses cross-cultural sales negotiations. It provides an overview of how culture impacts negotiations and outlines a framework for analyzing the negotiation process. The negotiation process is divided into two stages: non-task interaction, which involves establishing rapport, and task-related interaction, which involves exchanging information and reaching an agreement. Status distinction, similarities/differences between negotiators, and reliance on non-verbal communication influence both stages and the negotiation outcome. High-context and low-context cultures differ in how they approach these factors. The document examines literature on these cultural differences and proposes areas for further research.
This document provides an overview of conflicts in organizations. It defines conflict and related terms like mediation and negotiation. It discusses the different types of conflict, including intra-personal, inter-personal, intra-group, inter-group, national, and international conflicts. The document also examines the common sources of conflicts, such as conflicts over resources, psychological needs, values, and inadequate information. It concludes that while conflict is inevitable, the approaches used to manage conflicts determine the intensity.
1. The document discusses the rise of China as a global power and its alternative political model known as the "Chinese model".
2. The Chinese model is state-led and prioritizes development over democracy. It focuses on good governance and gradual political reforms.
3. Over the past three decades, China has experienced vast economic growth under this model, becoming a major trading nation through foreign investment and a stable political system with state control over the economy.
Georg Simmel and David Lockwood made important contributions to conflict theory. Simmel proposed that conflict has sociological significance as it produces or modifies communities of interest and organizations. He argued that conflict itself resolves tensions between opposing elements and aims for a type of unity, even if through the annihilation of one side. Lockwood studied conflict dimensions and types. He distinguished between typologies that classify conflicts and dimensions that can apply to all conflicts and influence their dynamics. Both theorists recognized conflict as an inherent and sometimes productive part of social relationships rather than something purely negative.
Similar to Wrap spencer oatey_0673125-cal-060510-m06_vanmeurshso (20)
This document provides summaries of books and products available for purchase from Frontier Catalogue New Items. Some of the topics covered include cancer prevention, Mayan calendars, crop circles, suppressed science, near death experiences, hollow earth theories, and alternative health treatments. The summaries range from 1 to 6 sentences in length and provide high-level overviews of the contents and perspectives presented in each document.
The U.S. government appears to be covertly attacking Wikileaks and its founder Julian Assange in response to Wikileaks publishing hundreds of thousands of classified documents from the State Department and earlier military leaks from Iraq and Afghanistan. While some of the leaks jeopardized safety, most of the State Department leaks confirmed already public information. The government sees Wikileaks' actions as undermining their authority over classified information, but attacks on Wikileaks' infrastructure sets a worrying precedent for press freedom. Companies like Amazon and PayPal suspended services to Wikileaks after political pressure, showing how legal attacks can achieve results the law itself cannot. This clandestine war on Wikileaks threatens the ability of journalists to publish leaks
The document summarizes the success stories of four individuals:
1) Waris Dirie endured female genital mutilation as a child and was sold into marriage at age 13. She escaped into the desert and later became a successful supermodel and activist against FGM.
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4) Nelson Mandela fought against
This document appears to be a price list from SPKM International Pty. Ltd. for Nim-véda herbal skin care and hair care products, Ayurvedic soaps, and oils including neem, brahmi, and sesame. It lists various products like shampoo, conditioner, body lotion, with their item codes, descriptions, prices with 10% GST indicated, and quantities. Terms and conditions are provided regarding claims and minimum order values.
This document describes a human growth hormone pre-cursor powder drink called Secretagogue Plus. It claims to help stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete more of the body's own growth hormones, without the side effects of hormone replacement therapy. The powder is designed to absorb faster and more effectively than pills or injections when mixed into a drink. Regular use is claimed to help burn fat, build muscle, and improve overall well-being by increasing HGH levels.
This document provides guidance on balancing the attributes of Vata in Ayurveda. It lists the qualities associated with Vata such as dry, light, cold, rough, and mobile. It recommends avoiding situations, foods, and behaviors that promote these qualities. Some key recommendations include eating oily foods, getting massages with sesame oil, avoiding windy areas, and practicing meditation daily to stimulate the mental fire and reduce erratic behavior. The document provides an overview of elimination therapies, balancing digestion, removing mental and physical toxins, and herbal rejuvenation programs to help balance Vata.
Value addition to local kani tribal knowledge, india case study wipo 1-gorin2008
This case study examines the "Jeevani" drug developed in India based on traditional knowledge from the Kani tribe about the medicinal plant arogyapaacha. Scientists isolated active compounds from the plant, developed Jeevani, and patented it. They licensed it to a pharmaceutical company. A trust fund was created to share benefits with the Kani tribe. However, operating the fund and sustainably harvesting the plant posed challenges in ensuring fair benefit-sharing regarding traditional knowledge and genetic resources.
This document provides a list of 58 herbal powders available from LNB Consortium based in Navi Mumbai, India. It includes common herbal powders like amla, ashwagandha, neem, and tulsi. The document notes that India's ancient health care teachings are different from modern diagnostic techniques, relying on simple intake of particular herbs or herb mixtures to cure physical ailments. Customers can order customized mixtures of these herbal powders as needed.
This document is a price list from Trade Technocrats Ltd., a company located in Scarborough, Ontario, Canada that sells botanicals, herbs, spices, essential oils, herbal teas, and extracts. It provides the botanical name, unit, and price for over 100 individual herb and plant items. Prices are subject to change and listed as of January 2011.
ThyroTone is a supplement designed to support a healthy thyroid gland and metabolism. It contains nutrients like L-tyrosine, iodine, selenium, and ashwagandha that are involved in thyroid hormone production and metabolism. Taking ThyroTone can help maintain thyroid and metabolic health for those with underactive thyroid symptoms like fatigue and weight gain. The supplement aims to provide thyroid supporting nutrients that may be lacking in a typical Western diet.
This document provides information about a Thrifty Medley Share from an herbal CSA. The share includes 3 culinary herbs, 1 tea herb, 1 herbal tea blend, and a bottle of facial spray for $30 for a summer share or $102 for all 4 seasons. It lists various herb options to choose from and includes spaces to provide contact and payment information.
The document contains syllabi for senior and junior level natural products and pharmaceutical education courses.
The senior level syllabus covers topics like natural products chemistry, pharmacognosy, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, pharmaceutics, pharmaceutical jurisprudence, analysis, biochemistry, microbiology, and clinical pharmacy.
The junior level syllabus includes pharmaceutics, pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmacognosy, biochemistry and clinical pathology, and human anatomy and physiology. It provides an introduction to various dosage forms, manufacturing processes, inorganic medicinal compounds, crude drugs, biochemistry, and human physiology.
This document provides details of the course "Dravyaguna Vijnana-1" including objectives, prerequisites, course contents, textbook information, and assessment components. The course aims to provide knowledge of basic plant properties and consists of topics like definitions of different Ayurvedic pharmacological concepts, descriptions of important medicinal plants and their properties, and laboratory work identifying plants. Student performance will be evaluated through assignments, a term paper, and laboratory assessments.
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David Wolfe discusses measures individuals can take to protect themselves from nuclear fallout and radiation exposure resulting from the Fukushima disaster in Japan. He recommends supplementing with kelp, ginseng, ashwagandha, chlorella, zeolites, fulvic acid, iodine, sea salt, reishi mushrooms and other supplements which can help the body remove radioactive debris and strengthen the immune system. Ashwagandha in particular helps the thyroid cope with stress from radioactive iodine exposure. Maintaining proper iodine levels through supplementation is important to prevent radioactive iodine from being absorbed by the thyroid. Grounding technology can also help push radiation out of the body.
This document is a price list from Purple Sage Botanicals that provides the common names, botanical names, and prices per 50ml and 100ml bottles of various herbal tinctures. It lists over 100 different herbal tinctures along with their prices. The price list is valid until June 1st, 2011 unless otherwise noted. Customers should check the website for current stock availability of items.
Vacha Rasayana is an Ayurvedic herbal supplement made from a variety of herbs, spices, and minerals. It is formulated to balance Vata dosha and promote mental harmony, peace of mind, and spiritual attainment. Regular consumption may help lift mood, provide a broader perspective, and open the heart center to feelings of love, goodwill, and patience. The supplement comes in the form of a delicious jam and users are recommended to consume several jars over months for full benefits.
This document contains summaries of presentations given at a symposium on neuroscience. It includes 7 symposiums covering topics like molecular mechanisms of brain damage, co-morbidity of drugs of abuse and HIV infection, chemical and neuronal sensitivity, management of acute stroke, major mental disorders, brain aging, and neurodegeneration and regeneration. Each symposium contains 6 presentations on various related subtopics. It also includes information on memorial orations, neuroscience education, award sessions, and oral sessions with multiple presentations on diverse neuroscience research topics.
The document discusses issues around intellectual property rights as they relate to traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in India. It notes that many Indian plants and their medicinal uses have been patented by foreign countries. In response, the Government of India has created a Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) to document traditional knowledge about Indian medicinal plants and make this information accessible to patent offices worldwide to prevent incorrect patents. The TKDL currently includes information on 35,000 Ayurvedic verses and 140,000 pages of data on medicinal plants translated into multiple languages. There is a need to further document indigenous knowledge about Indian plants, convert it to an accessible database, and translate classical language texts to protect intellectual property rights and traditional knowledge.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
2. University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap
This paper is made available online in accordance with
publisher policies. Please scroll down to view the document
itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item and our
policy information available from the repository home page for
further information.
To see the final version of this paper please visit the publisher’s website.
Access to the published version may require a subscription.
Author(s): Nathalie van Meurs and Helen Spencer-Oatey
chapter Title: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Intercultural Conflict:
The "Bermuda Triangle" of Conflict, Culture and Communication
Year of publication: 2010
Link to published version:
http://www.degruyter.de/cont/fb/sk/detailEn.cfm?isbn=978-3-11-
021431-4
Publisher statement: Published version can be found at
http://www.degruyter.de/cont/fb/sk/detailEn.cfm?isbn=978-3-11-
021431-4
3. In Kotthoff, H. and Spencer-Oatey, H. (eds.) (2009) Handbook of Intercultural Communication, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter, pp.99–120.
6. Multidisciplinary perspectives on intercultural conflict:
the ‘Bermuda Triangle’ of conflict, culture and communication
Nathalie van Meurs and Helen Spencer-Oatey
1. Introduction
A few decades ago, managers spent more than 20% of their time trying to resolve conflicts
(Thomas and Schmidt 1976). Nowadays, conflicts are probably even more complex and time
consuming to resolve, because technological advances, the world‟s exponential growth rate, and
globalization have led to increased contact between culturally diverse people. Different norms,
values, and language can make negotiating more stressful and less satisfactory (Brett and
Okumura 1998), and conflict cannot be managed effectively without simultaneously considering
both culture and communication. In fact, the three concepts of conflict, culture and
communication are like a Bermuda Triangle – hazardous conditions will emerge unless the three
are simultaneously handled appropriately.
Conflict processes are studied by researchers in a range of disciplines, including
organizational behaviour, management studies, (intercultural) communication studies, peace
studies, and applied linguistics. Unfortunately, research in these various disciplines tends to exist
in parallel fields, with infrequent passages across theoretical and empirical divides. In this chapter
we provide an overview of key theoretical frameworks, explore some of the main views as to the
impact of culture, and consider the interrelationships between conflict, culture and
communication. We call for more interdisciplinary research, so that boundaries can be broken
down and illuminating new insights can emerge.
2. The concept of conflict
Conflict is an unavoidable element of interaction; it takes place between friends and family, and
within and between groups and organizations. It occurs “when two or more social entities (i.e.
individuals, groups, organizations, and nations) come in contact with one another in attaining
their objectives” and when some kind of incompatibility emerges between them (Rahim 1992: 1).
It is often regarded as undesirable, and much attention is typically focused on how to prevent or
resolve it. However, conflict need not necessarily be undesirable. It can contribute to the
maintenance and cohesion of groups, and it can stimulate reflection and change. So in these
senses, it can be positive.
According to Hammer (2005: 676), conflict entails two key elements: (a) perceived
(substantive) disagreement and (b) strong, negative emotions. The source of the disagreement or
incompatibility can be various, of course. It could be that people have incompatible attitudes,
values, and beliefs; or it could be that two parties require the same resource, or need to engage in
incompatible activities to acquire a goal. In terms of affective experience, Rahim (1992: 17)
argues that the incompatibilities, disagreements, or differences must be sufficiently intense for the
parties to experience conflict. Yet, there can be differences in people‟s threshold of conflict
awareness or tolerance, and this can sometimes be a cause of conflict in itself.
Conflict can be classified into two basic types, according to whether its predominant
basis or source is cognitive or affective. Cognitive conflict results from differences of opinion on
task-related issues such as scarce resources, policies and procedures, whereas affective,
psychological, or relational conflict stems from differences in emotions and feelings (De Dreu
1
4. In Kotthoff, H. and Spencer-Oatey, H. (eds.) (2009) Handbook of Intercultural Communication, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter, pp.99–120.
1997, Rahim 1992, Thomas 1976). Of course, these sources are not mutually exclusive, in that a
conflict can start by being about a task-related issue and then develop into a personality clash.
What, then, do researchers want to find out through their study of conflict? There are three
fundamental issues:
What are the procedural characteristics of conflictive episodes? What tactics,
communicative styles and linguistic strategies can be used to manage them?
What factors influence the preferences, styles and tactics that people may choose, and
what positive and negative impacts do they have on the outcomes? How may cultural
differences impact on the emergence and management of conflict?
What role does communication play in the emergence and management of conflict?
The following sections explore some of the main approaches that researchers have taken in
addressing these questions.
3. Classic frameworks for analyzing conflict
3.1. Thomas‟ (1976) models of dyadic conflict
Kenneth Thomas (1976), in a classic paper, proposed two complementary models of conflict – a
process model and a structural model. The process model focuses on the sequence of events
within a conflict episode, whilst the structural model focuses on the underlying factors that
influence the events.
In his process model, Thomas (1976) proposes that a conflict episode comprises five
main events from the viewpoint of one of the parties: frustration, conceptualization, behaviour,
other‟s reaction, and outcome, with the outcome of a given episode setting the stage for
subsequent episodes on the same issue. Thomas‟ specification of the behavioural element in this
process is particularly well known. He applied Blake and Mouton‟s (1964) classic managerial
grid to the study of conflict, arguing that people may hold different orientations towards a given
conflict, depending on the degree to which they want to satisfy their own concerns and the degree
to which they want to satisfy the other‟s concerns. He identified five orientations: neglect,
appeasement, domination, compromise and integration (see Figure 1). Neglect reflects avoidance
or indifference, in that no attention is paid to the concerns of either self or other. Appeasement
reflects a lack of concern for self, but a high concern for the other, whilst domination represents a
desire to win at the other‟s expense. Compromise is intermediate between appeasement and
domination, and is often the least satisfactory for the two parties. Integration represents a
problem-solving orientation where there is a desire to integrate both parties‟ concerns.
2
5. In Kotthoff, H. and Spencer-Oatey, H. (eds.) (2009) Handbook of Intercultural Communication, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter, pp.99–120.
High Appeasement Integration
Desire to Compromise
satisfy
other’s
concern
Neglect Domination
Low
Low High
Desire to satisfy own
concern
Figure 1. Thomas‟ „grid‟ framework of conflict management orientations
(Based on Thomas 1976: 900)
A number of different terms are now in widespread use for these five orientations, and
these are shown in Table 1. In the rest of this chapter, the terms used are: collaborative,
competitive, compromising, accommodative and avoiding.
Table 1: Main terms used as labels for the five conflict management orientations
High self/high High self/low Medium self/ Low self/high Low self/low other
other concern other concern medium other other concern concern
concern
Integrating Dominating Compromising Appeasing Neglecting
(Thomas (Thomas (Thomas 1976; (Thomas 1976) (Thomas 1976)
1976; Rahim 1976; Rahim Rahim 1992) Accommodative Avoidant/
1992) 1992) Sharing (Thomas 1976) avoiding
Collaborative Competitive (Thomas 1976) Obliging (Thomas 1976;
(Thomas (Thomas (Rahim 1992) Rahim 1992; De
1976) 1976) Yielding (De Dreu 1997)
Problem Contending Dreu 1997)
solving (De (De Dreu
Dreu 1997) 1997)
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Thomas and Kilmann (1974) developed the Thomas–Kilmann conflict MODE instrument
to measure people‟s conflict handling orientations. However, Rahim (1983) criticized its validity
and reliability, and developed the „Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory-II‟ (ROCI-II
Instrument). It achieved higher reliability scores, and this instrument has been widely used by
researchers in management studies and intercultural communication. However, Sorenson, Morse
and Savage (1999) actually measured the underlying concerns particular to the dual concern
model (i.e. self vs. others) and found that only dominating and appeasement strategy choice
correlated with these concerns; the more integrative strategies (i.e. problem solving and obliging)
shared little variance and seemed subject to other contextual variables.
3.2. Intercultural perspectives
In his structural model, Thomas (1976) maintains that people‟s response styles are hierarchically
ordered, in that they have a dominant style, a back-up style, a least-preferred style and so on. He
suggests that this hierarchy could be influenced by factors such as personality, motives and
abilities. Could culture, therefore, influence this hierarchy, with some orientations being more
prevalent in certain societies than in others? Many cross-cultural studies have explored this
question, and a widespread finding (e.g., Bond and Hwang 1986; Morris et al. 1998; Ohbuchi and
Takahashi 1994; Trubinsky et al. 1991) is that a neglect style (that is also labeled avoidance) is
more common among East Asians than among Americans. Yet, van Meurs (2003) found there
were also differences between British and Dutch managers in this respect. Her results showed that
although managers preferred a collaborative approach, the British managers were more avoiding
than the Dutch managers, both in their own eyes and in those of the Dutch. While Britain and the
Netherlands are often grouped together in terms of cultural values, they differ in terms of their
need to avoid uncertainty, with the Dutch having a greater aversion to uncertainty and ambiguity
(Hofstede 1991, 2001). This is a value that could have a major impact on preferences for handling
conflict.
These findings could be regarded as conceptually problematic, because according to
Thomas‟ orientation framework, neglect is an ineffective orientation, in that it reflects a lack of
concern for the interests of either self or other and entails withdrawal. In fact, other researchers
have found that avoiding is motivated by a concern for the relationship with the people involved
(e.g., De Dreu 1997; Leung et al. 1992; Markus and Kitayama 1991; Morris et al. 1998).
Friedman, Chi and Liu (2006) proposed that far from reflecting lack of concern, an avoiding style
could result from concern for others. They hypothesized that it could reflect three possible
concerns: (a) concern that a direct approach will damage the relationship, (b) concern that a direct
approach will be more costly in cost–benefit terms, and (c) genuine concern for others based on
personal values. They also hypothesized that the hierarchical status of the people involved in the
conflict would have an impact. Using respondents from Taiwan and the USA, their results show a
greater tendency to use avoidance than Americans do. They found that this was explained by
higher Taiwanese expectations that direct conflict will hurt the relationship with the other party,
and by greater intrinsic concern for others. They found that it was not explained by differences in
expected career costs/benefits of good/bad relations with others. In addition, their Taiwanese
respondents showed more sensitivity to hierarchy than their American respondents did, in that
avoidance behaviour was even more important for them when the other party was of higher
status.
Superficially these studies suggest that Thomas‟ (1976) grid framework has limited
cross-cultural validity. In fact, however, it is important to distinguish people‟s orientations (i.e.
the degree to which they want to satisfy their own desires and those of the opposing party) and
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the tactics that people use to pursue them. This is a distinction that Thomas himself originally
made, and Friedman, Chi and Liu‟s (2006) qualitative data illustrate its importance. They found
that their Chinese respondents often displayed a long-term orientation, reporting tactics such as
„do nothing right now, but draw a lesson for future actions‟ and „say nothing but collect more data
on my own‟. In other words, they found that avoidance was a tactic for achieving a satisfactory
resolution of the conflict in the longer-term.
However, van Meurs (2003) wanted to assess the motivations for conflict styles by
measuring individual‟s concern for clarity, control and inconvenience without the focus on self
vs. other. She found that managers were equally concerned about clarity but that British managers
were more concerned than Dutch managers about inconvenience (i.e., to prevent awkward and
uncomfortable situations from happening or difficult questions from being asked). They are
unlikely to do so because they care for the other party, so it may be that the Dutch managers are
extremely unconcerned about inconvenience, mainly because they care more about clarity and
control regardless of harmony. Indeed, a concern for inconvenience significantly predicted
managers‟ use of avoiding.
From an intercultural point of view, it is vital, therefore, to explore the tactics that people
use, as well as people‟s desired outcomes for a particular conflict episode and their generally
preferred style or orientation for handling it. Lytle (1999), for example, in her study of Chinese
conflict management styles, reports several categories of behaviour that cannot easily be linked
with the grid framework, because they are tactics rather than orientations or styles. They include
group-oriented behaviour (such as consulting with the group to solve a problem, reframing the
problem as a group problem and appealing to the group for help) and relational behaviour
(including building up the relationship with the other party, and building up „guanxi‟ or social
connections with others).
3.3. Brown and Levinson‟s face model
A second classic study that has had a major impact on studies of conflict is Brown and
Levinson‟s (1987) face model of politeness. These authors start with the basic assumption that
“all competent adult members of a society have (and know each other to have) „face‟, the public
self-image that every member wants to claim for himself” (Brown and Levinson 1987: 61). They
further propose that face consists of two related aspects: negative face and positive face. They
define negative face as a person‟s want to be unimpeded by others, the desire to be free to act as
s/he chooses and not be imposed upon. They define positive face as a person‟s want to be
appreciated and approved of by selected others, in terms of personality, desires, behaviour,
values, and so on. In other words, negative face represents a desire for autonomy, and positive
face represents a desire for approval. The authors also draw attention to another important
distinction: the distinction between self-face and other-face
Brown and Levinson (1987) point out that face is something that is emotionally invested;
it can be lost, maintained or enhanced in interaction, and so interlocutors constantly need to pay
attention to it. They assume that people typically cooperate with each other in maintaining face in
interaction, because people are mutually vulnerable to face attack: if one person attacks another
person‟s face, the other is likely to retaliate. Moreover, they argue that some speech acts (such as
criticism, directives) are inherently face-threatening, and that conflict can be avoided by
managing those speech acts in contextually appropriate ways. They claim that there are five
super-strategies for handling face-threatening acts:
bald on-record performance (clear, unambiguous and concise speech)
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positive politeness (language that is „approach-based‟ and treats the hearer as an in-group
member)
negative politeness (language that is „avoidance-based‟ and respects the hearer‟s desire
for freedom and autonomy)
off-record performance (indirect and comparatively ambiguous speech)
non-performance of the face-threatening act.
People choose which super-strategy to use by assessing the „weightiness‟ of the speech act.
According to Brown and Levinson (1987) this entails assessing the power differential between
the interlocutors, the distance–closeness between them, and the degree of imposition (or face-
threat) of the message itself.
3.4. Limitations of Brown and Levinson‟s face model
Brown and Levinson‟s (1987) face model has been hugely influential. Numerous studies have
used it as an analytic framework and many others have investigated one or more of its elements.
Nevertheless, there have also been widespread criticisms of it, and here we consider those that are
most pertinent to the study of conflict.
As explained in section 3.3, Brown and Levinson‟s (1987) framework starts with the
assumption that harmony is the desired option, because we all want our own face needs to be
upheld. Culpeper (2005, Culpeper, Bousfield and Wichmann 2003), on the other hand, argues that
people may sometimes want to be deliberately offensive or face-threatening, and that Brown and
Levinson‟s (1987) framework is not broad enough to cater for this. He therefore proposes a set of
„impoliteness‟ super-strategies that are mirror images of Brown and Levinson‟s politeness super-
strategies. When speakers use these strategies, their intention is to attack the hearer‟s face, rather
than to uphold it. Culpeper (2005, Culpeper, Bousfield and Wichmann 2003) draws on a variety
of data sources to provide authentic examples of the use of these various super-strategies.
Other researchers have questioned whether Brown and Levinson‟s (1987) focus on the
performance of (face-threatening) speech acts provides a broad enough basis for analyzing the
complexities of (dis)harmony in interaction. Spencer-Oatey (2005), for example, argues that
rapport is dependent on the participants‟ dynamic management of three main factors: interactional
wants (both task-related and relational), face sensitivities, and perceived sociality rights and
obligations. She maintains that relational conflict is likely to emerge if the various participants‟
expectations over each of these factors are not handled appropriately, and that a pre-requisite for
maintaining positive rapport is thus for each of the participants to be aware of and/or sensitive to
the interactional wants, face sensitivities, and perceived sociality rights and obligations that they
each hold. Spencer-Oatey (2000: 29-30) also proposes that people may have different orientations
towards positive rapport:
1. Rapport-enhancement orientation: a desire to strengthen or enhance harmonious
relations between interlocutors;
2. Rapport-maintenance orientation: a desire to maintain or protect harmonious relations
between the interlocutors;
3. Rapport-neglect orientation: a lack of concern or interest in the quality of relations
between the interlocutors (perhaps because of a focus on self);
4. Rapport-challenge orientation: a desire to challenge or impair harmonious relations
between the interlocutors
She points out that people‟s motives for holding any of these orientations could be various.
3.5. A synthesized summary
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Building on the theorizing of Thomas (1976), Brown and Levinson (1987), Spencer-Oatey
(2000), along with Friedman, Chi and Liu‟s (2006) and van Meurs‟ (2003) findings, it seems that
the motivations underlying these conflict-handling tactics can be multiple, and can include the
following (interrelated) concerns:
Cost–benefit considerations (the impact of the handling of the conflict on the
instrumental concerns of self and/or other)
Rapport considerations (the impact of the handling of the conflict on the
smoothness/harmony between the parties)
Relational considerations (the impact of the handling of the conflict on the degree of
distance–closeness and equality–inequality between the parties)
Effectiveness considerations (the impact of the handling of the conflict on the degree of
concern for clarity, control, and inconvenience between parties)
Thomas‟ five conflict-handling orientations or styles cannot be mapped in a
straightforward manner onto these underlying concerns, and thus cannot be explained simply in
terms of concern for self versus concern for other, as Thomas‟s (1976) and Rahim‟s (1983, 1992)
frameworks suggest. Similarly, styles and tactics do not have a one-to-one relationship. Let us
take avoidance as an example. If I avoid handling a conflict, it could be that I want to withdraw
from the problem (as indicated by Thomas‟ grid), but there could also be several other
possibilities. It could be that I want to maintain or build rapport with the other person; it could be
that I want to show respect for the superordinate status of the other person; or it could be that my
long-term goal is to dominate my opponent, and that I feel the best way of achieving this is to
initially avoid conflict whilst I muster my arguments and/or gain support from elsewhere.
Alternatively, I may feel uncomfortable avoiding the problem, because I have a low tolerance for
uncertainty, and prefer to maintain clarity and control. Finding an effective solution may be more
important to me, even if it risks damaging the relationship, because I believe I can amend that at a
later date.
Brown and Levinson‟s (1987) politeness super-strategies, and Culpeper‟s (2005,
Culpeper, Bousfield and Wichmann 2003) impoliteness super-strategies are potential verbal
tactics that primarily relate to rapport considerations (although naturally they can have a knock-
on effect on both relational and cost–benefit considerations). Analysis of the verbal tactics that
people use in conflict episodes is an area where applied linguistics can make a valuable
contribution to the study of conflict (see section 5.2).
The studies discussed in section 3.2 highlight the importance of considering culture in the
Bermuda Triangle of conflict, and we explore this in detail in the next section.
4. Conflict and culture
4.1. Conflict and cultural values
Hofstede (1991, 2001) identified five dimensions of cultural values (individualism–collectivism,
high–low power distance, masculinity–femininity, high–low uncertainty avoidance, and
long/short-term orientation), and many researchers have focused on the impact of individualism–
collectivism on conflict management styles and preferences. Hofstede defines this dimension as
follows:
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Individualism stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are loose:
everyone is expected to look after him/herself and her/his immediate family only.
Collectivism stands for a society in which people from birth onwards are integrated into
strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people‟s lifetime continue to protect them
in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Hofstede 2001: 225
Leung (1987) found that respondents from individualist societies (North America and
Europe) differed in their conflict-handling preferences from those from collectivist societies
(China), although he also found some culture-general results. Ting-Toomey (1999: 211–212)
argues that individualist and collectivist values are reflected in independent and interdependent
self-construals respectively, and that these can impact on conflict as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Cultural Values, Self-Construals and the Conflict Process
(Derived from Ting-Toomey 1999: 211–212)
Individualist Values and Independent Self- Collectivist Values and Interdependent Self-
Construals Construals
1. Conflict is perceived as closely related to 1. Conflict is weighted against the face threat
the goals or outcomes that are salient to incurred in the conflict negotiation process; it
the respective individual conflict parties is also interpreted in the web of
in a given conflict situation. ingroup/outgroup relationships.
2. Communication in the conflict process is 2. Communication in the conflict process is
viewed as dissatisfying when the conflict perceived as threatening when the conflict
parties are not willing to deal with the parties push for substantive discussion before
conflict openly and honestly. proper facework management.
3. Conversely, communication in the 3. Communication in the conflict interaction is
conflict process is viewed as satisfying viewed as satisfying when the conflict parties
when the conflict parties are willing to engage in mutual face-saving and face-giving
confront the conflict issues openly and behaviour and attend to both verbal and
share their feelings honestly (i.e. nonverbal signals.
assertively but not aggressively). 4. The conflict process or outcome is perceived
4. The conflict outcome is perceived as as unproductive when face issues are not
unproductive when no tangible outcomes addressed and relational/group feelings are not
are reached or no plan of action is attended to properly.
developed 5. The conflict process or outcome is defined as
5. The conflict outcome is perceived as productive when both conflict parties can
productive when tangible solutions are claim win–win results on the facework front in
reached and objective criteria are met addition to substantive agreement.
6. Effective and appropriate management of 6. Appropriate and effective management of
conflict means individual goals are conflict means that the mutual „faces‟ of the
addressed and differences are dealt with conflict parties are saved or even upgraded in
openly, honestly, and properly in relation the interaction and they have dealt with the
to timing and situational context. conflict episode strategically in conjunction
with substantive gains or losses.
Not all studies have completely supported the link between individualism–collectivism
and conflict-handling preferences. For example, Gire and Carment (1992) investigated Canadian
(individualist) and Nigerian (collectivist) preferences and found there were various similarities.
Moreover, others have explored the influence of other values. Leung et al. (1990), for instance,
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investigated the impact of masculinity–femininity using respondents from Canada and The
Netherlands (masculine and feminine societies respectively, according to Hofstede‟s data), and
found that their Dutch respondents preferred more harmony-enhancing procedures than their
Canadian respondents did.
Other researchers have used Schwartz‟s (1992; Schwartz et al. 2001) framework of
cultural values to examine the interrelationship between values and conflict management styles.
Schwartz‟s framework has the advantage that it can be measured easily and reliably at the
individual level, whereas Hofstede‟s figures are culture level measures; moreover, the other main
individual-level measure, independent–interdependent self-construal (as referred to by Ting-
Toomey 1999), may be too broad and also of dubious validity (Kim 2005: 108).
In Schwartz‟s (1992; Schwartz et al. 2001) individual-level framework, there are ten
universal value constructs, and they fall into four main groupings: Self-Enhancement, Self-
Transcendence, Openness to Change, and Conservation. Morris et al. (1998) analyzed the extent
to which Schwartz‟s cultural values could predict two of the grid framework conflict handling
styles: avoidance and competition. In a study of Chinese and US managers in joint venture firms,
they predicted that the Chinese managers would have a greater preference for avoidance than the
US managers, and that the US managers would have a greater preference for competition than the
Chinese managers. These predictions were confirmed. They also hypothesized that (a) an
avoiding style would reflect an individual‟s orientation towards Conservation values, and that any
Chinese–US differences in avoiding style would be mediated by country differences in preference
for Conservation; and that (b) a competition style would reflect an individual‟s orientation
towards Self-Enhancement, that any Chinese–US differences in competition style would be
mediated by country differences in preference for Self-Enhancement. Both of these hypotheses
were confirmed.
Bilsky and Jehn (2002), in a study using German students, found that avoiding behaviour
was negatively correlated with Self-Direction (a component value of Openness to Change), and
since Schwartz (1992) argues that Self-Direction and Conservation (Conformity and Tradition)
are polar opposites, this fits in with Morris et al.‟s (1998) findings. In other words, the studies
found that Conservation was important to Chinese MBA students and this was linked with a
preference to avoid conflict, whereas the polar opposite value Openness to Change was important
to German students and this was linked with a preference NOT to avoid conflict. Van Meurs
(2003) suggests that the role of Uncertainty Avoidance needs to be evaluated further as Germanic
clusters have been found to be more uncertainty avoidant than Anglo clusters (Ashkanasy,
Trevor-Roberts and Earnshaw 2002; House et al. 2002). Unfortunately, to date, Uncertainty
Avoidance is not adequately represented by individual-level value measures.
4.2. Conflict, culture and context
One of the weaknesses of this macro level research is that it ignores a lot of contextual variation.
Although there may be differences (such as between Americans and Chinese) in preferred styles
for managing conflict, such generalizations can gloss over the rich complexity and variation that
exists in real-life situations. Davidheiser‟s (2005) study of mediation practices in southwestern
Gambia illustrates this point very vividly. He observed and recorded 121 live conflict mediation
events, conducted 54 ethnographic interviews and 39 semi-structured interviews, and held panel
sessions with Gambian mediation experts. He draws the following conclusions:
Shared values have a profound effect both on how mediation is practiced and on the
nature of the process itself. However, this impact is multi-dimensional and resists easy
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generalization. …Whilst it is true that there appear to be meta-level normative differences
in orientations to mediation in the West and elsewhere, there is also great heterogeneity
in both of these areas. Dichotomizing mediation praxis according to whether the
practitioners are Western or non-Western, traditional or modern, high- or low-context
communicators, glosses over the multiplicity of practice found outside the realm of
theory and dramatically over-simplifies a complex picture.
Mediation practices can be described as „embedded‟, or linked to macro- and micro-
level influences and varying according to the specific context and characteristics of each
case. Peacemaker behaviour was influenced by numerous factors, including the
sociocultural perspectives of the participants and situational variables such as the type of
dispute in question, the nature of the social relations between the parties, and the
participants‟ personalities.
Davidheiser 2005: 736–7
If we are to gain an in-depth understanding, therefore, of intercultural conflict in real-life
situations, it is vital to consider contextual variability. In fact, as Bond, Zegarac and Spencer-
Oatey (2000) point out, culture can be manifested in a variety of ways, in addition to cultural
values, including perception of contextual variables Spencer-Oatey‟s (2005) rapport management
framework identifies some features that can be subject to cultural variation yet that are also
contextually sensitive. These include (but are not limited to) the behavioural norms, conventions
and protocols of given communicative events (e.g., how formal they „should‟ be), the „scripts‟ as
to how given communicative events should be enacted; the rights and obligations associated with
given role relationships; and the contractual/legal agreements and requirements (written and
unwritten) that apply to a given organization, profession or social group. When people‟s
expectations are not fulfilled, they may perceive this as „negatively eventful‟ (Goffman 1963: 7),
and this can (but, of course, need not necessarily) be a source of interpersonal conflict. Many
cross-cultural and intercultural pragmatic studies aim to unpack and illuminate these processes
through careful analysis, as section 5.2 reports.
5. Conflict and communication
5.1. Communicative conflict styles
Much of the argumentation on conflict and cultural values (see section 4.1) touches on the role of
communication. Directness–indirectness is seen as having a particularly important impact on both
the instigation and the management of conflict. It has been found that different cultures may
endorse the same conflict management orientation (e.g., collaborative) yet vary in the way they
handle it verbally. Pruitt (1983) found that both direct and indirect information exchange
correlated with socially desirable, collaborative agreements. Similarly, Adair, Okumura and Brett
(2001) showed that Americans achieve collaborative integration of ideas through direct
communication but that Japanese do so through indirect communication which allows people to
infer preferences. They concluded that “facility in direct or indirect communications may not lead
to joint gains if parties do not also have a norm for information sharing”, and that collaborative
behaviour is based on different motivations, dependent on the culture (Adair, Okumura and Brett
2001: 380). Similarly, van Meurs (2003) found that Dutch managers equated directness with
being consultative, whereas the British preferred to use indirectness and be consultative.
In much intercultural research, directness–indirectness is assumed to be associated with
individualism–collectivism and/or independent–interdependent self-construal, and it is linked
with concern for face. Unfortunately, however, the majority of studies (in management, cross-
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cultural psychology and in communication studies) conflate the measurement of the two, using,
for example, a questionnaire item on directness both as a measure of Individualism/Independence
and as a measure of communicative directness–indirectness. This, of course, is circular and
unsatisfactory. In addition, there is a need to consider whether other communicative styles are
important.
Hammer (2005) proposes two fundamental dimensions (directness–indirectness,
emotional expressiveness–restraint), and four types of conflict styles: Discussion Style (direct but
emotionally restrained), Engagement Style (direct and emotionally expressive), Accommodation
Style (indirect and emotionally restrained), and Dynamic Style (indirect and emotionally
expressive) (cf. Kotthoff in this volume, on communication style). Hammer has developed an
Intercultural Conflict Styles Inventory [ICSI] in relation to this, and has used it, along with his
four-quadrant model, in a variety of applied contexts. He reports that it has been of practical
benefit in his mediation sessions.
In one mediation I conducted, both parties completed the ICSI prior to the initial
mediation session. After reviewing the mediation process with the parties, I then
reviewed with them their ICSs. One of the disputants‟ style was „engagement‟ while the
other was „accommodation.‟ A large part of the conflict between these individuals had
involved misperceptions each held of one another, based on differences in intercultural
conflict resolution style. For example, the accommodation style individual felt the other
party was „rude and aggressive‟ while the engagement individual characterized the
accommodation style person as deceptive and lacking in commitment. After discussing
these misperceptions in terms of differences in conflict resolution styles (rather than
personal traits), the disputants were better able to address their substantive disagreements.
Hammer 2005: 691–2
However, one very major weakness of virtually all the research into the role of
communication in conflict processes that is carried out in management, cross-cultural psychology
and communication studies is that it is nearly always based on self-report data, using Likert-style
responses to questionnaire items. There is a very great need for discourse-based research, of the
kind reported in the next section.
5.2. Conflict and discourse research
One very significant contribution that applied linguistics can make to our understanding of
conflict processes is the identification of the types of linguistic tactics that people may use to
implement the conflict management styles that Thomas (1976) identified. For example, how may
people avoid conflict? What insights does applied linguistic research offer on this question? Most
linguistic research does not attempt to draw any explicit links with frameworks in business and
communication studies, but an exception is Holmes and Marra (2004). Using their New Zealand
workplace data (see Marra and Holmes in this volume), these researchers explored the role that
leaders may play in managing conflict in meetings. They argue that the effective management of
conflict begins well before any actual conflictual episodes occur, and demonstrate how „assertion
of the agenda‟ is one effective technique that skillful leaders use to avoid conflict. They provide
several examples of actual discourse to illustrate ways in which chairpersons achieve this,
including moving talk on to the next agenda item, and directing people‟s attention back to a key
point when disparate views begin to be expressed. They also identify a second tactic that could be
regarded as an avoidance strategy: diverting a contentious issue to another venue for discussion.
Saft (2004) also found that the ways in which meetings are chaired has a major impact on conflict
behaviour. He analyzes two different sets of university faculty meetings in Japan, in which
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arguments were frequent in one set but rare in the other. Saft demonstrates how the chairpersons‟
control and organization of turn-taking in the meetings was crucial, in that it either constrained
the expression of opposition or enabled it.
In both of these studies, the researchers demonstrate how conflict can be avoided through
skillful management of meetings. This data thus indicates that far from being a negative strategy
that shows lack of concern both for self and for other (see Figure 1 above), promoting conflict
avoidance can be a very effective and positive management strategy. This applied linguistic
research thus supports other work in organizational behaviour and cross-cultural psychology (e.g.,
De Dreu 1997; Gire and Carmet 1992; Leung et al. 1990; Markus and Kitayama 1991; Morris et
al. 1998; Ohbuchi and Takahashi 1994) that maintains that conflict avoidance in fact can be
motivated by a concern (rather than lack of concern) for others.
Context is important in terms of the choice of strategy (Rahim 1992). A crisis situation
may need a dominating strategy, whereas a complex problem may require an integrating (i.e.
problem solving) approach, and a relational issue may require people to avoid each other for the
short term. Holmes and Marra‟s (2004) study of workplace discourse confirmed the impact that
context can have on conflict management tactics. They found the following factors to be
important in influencing leaders‟ choices of strategy:
Type of interaction (e.g., workplace meeting), its level of formality, number of
participants, and so on.
Workplace culture, including organizational culture and community of practice culture
Importance/seriousness of the issue
Leadership style
In relation to avoidance, they point out that the seriousness of the issue is a key contextual factor.
They found that, in their data, good chairpersons and effective leaders tended to encourage
„working through conflict‟ when a decision was serious or when it was an important one, for
example, one that set a precedent for subsequent decisions.
Much linguistic research focuses on analyzing the detailed linguistic strategies that occur
in conflictive discourse, and does not attempt to link them to the macro styles identified in
business and communication studies. For example, Günthner (2000) analyzes the ways in which
German participants in a German–Chinese conversation maximize the expression of dissent, and
ways in which the participants end a confrontational frame. She identifies three strategies in her
discourse data that the German participants used for signaling dissent in a focused and maximized
way:
„Dissent-formats‟: the speaker provides a (partial) repetition of the prior speaker‟s
utterance and then negates it or replaces parts of it with a contrasting element.
„Dissent-ties‟: the speaker latches her disagreeing utterance to the prior turn, and thus
produces a syntactic and lexical continuation of the preceding utterance, but then in
continuing it demonstrates consequences which contradict the argumentative line of the
first speaker.
Reported speech: the speaker reproduces the opponent‟s prior utterance (maybe several
turns later) in order to oppose it.
She also identifies three strategies that the participants use to (try to) end a confrontational frame:
Concession, when one participant „gives in‟.
Compromise, where a speaker moves towards the other party‟s position and proposes a
possible „middle ground‟.
Change of activity, where a speaker introduces a new verbal activity, such as focusing on
the situation at hand (e.g., by enquiring „what kind of tea is this?‟)
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15. In Kotthoff, H. and Spencer-Oatey, H. (eds.) (2009) Handbook of Intercultural Communication, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter, pp.99–120.
These last three strategies could, in fact, be linked with the macro styles of avoiding, obliging,
competing, sharing and problem solving. Concession is an obliging strategy, compromise is a
sharing strategy, and change of activity could be regarded as an avoiding strategy.
Another example of the detailed analysis of linguistic strategies in conflictive encounters
is Honda (2002). She analyzes Japanese public affairs talk shows, and examines the ways in
which oppositional comments are redressed or downplayed. Table 3 shows the classification of
strategies that she identifies.
Table 3: Redressive Strategies identified by Honda (2002) in her Analysis of Japanese Public
Affairs Talk Shows
Redressive Gloss Example
Strategy
Mollifiers Remarks that precede the Initial praise
expression of opposition, and Initial token agreement
downplay its directness Initial acceptance of the opponent‟s point of
view
Initial denial of disagreement or one‟s own
remark
Mitigators Features within the Pauses
expression of opposition that Discourse markers that show hesitation
downplay its directness Minimizers such as a little, maybe
Untargeted Expression of opposition that Remark that contradicts or differs from the
opposition does not make it clear opponent‟s view but the opposition is
whether or not it is targeted at attributed as being with a third party rather
a specific person or viewpoint than with the opponent
Remark that contradicts or differs from the
opponent‟s view but is not directed at the
opponent, or made in response to the
opponent‟s previous remarks
Honda (2002) also demonstrates how some confrontations in her data initially proceed in an
unmitigated fashion, but later the opposing parties take restorative action and end their argument
in a seemingly cooperative fashion. In other words, as with Günthner‟s study, different tactics
were used at different points in the conflict. This suggests once again that context (in this case,
discourse context) can influence choice of strategy, and that macro designations of people‟s
conflict management styles will only be able to provide indicative generalizations of their
normative preferences.
A second major contribution that applied linguistics can make to our understanding of
conflict processes, especially in intercultural contexts, is to reveal how conflicts may arise by
carefully analyzing authentic interactions. Bailey (1997, 2000), for example, analyzes service
encounters between Korean retailers and African-American customers to help throw light on the
longstanding conflict between these two groups that had been widely reported in the media.
Analyzing video recordings of the service encounters, he found that there were noticeable
differences in the ways that Korean and African-American customers interacted with the Korean
retailers, such as in terms of length of the encounter, overall quantity of talk, inclusion of
personable topics and small talk, and the amount of affect displayed. Follow-up interviews with
13
16. In Kotthoff, H. and Spencer-Oatey, H. (eds.) (2009) Handbook of Intercultural Communication, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter, pp.99–120.
the customers and the retailers indicated that both the Korean retailers and the African-American
customers evaluated the other negatively, interpreting the other‟s behaviour as disrespectful, and
as racist (in the case of the Korean retailers) and as intimidating (in the case of the African-
American customers). Bailey draws the following conclusion:
… divergent communicative patterns in these everyday service encounters
simultaneously represent (1) an on-going source of tensions; and (2) a local enactment of
pre-existing social conflicts.
Bailey 2000: 87 (italics in the original)
Another example is Spencer-Oatey and Xing (2003). These researchers compare two
Chinese–British business welcome meetings which were very similar in many respects, yet were
evaluated very differently by the participants. One of them was part of a very successful business
visit, whilst the other led to a very problematic visit which came to a climax on the final day
when there was a heated dispute that lasted for nearly two and a half hours. The authors analyze
the reasons for the differences in outcomes, and identify the following: the role of the interpreter
(see also Spencer-Oatey and Xing in this volume), the role of the chairperson, mismatches
between British and Chinese culturally-based and contextually-based assumptions and
expectations, confusion over the roles and relative status of the participants, and a confounding
effect between all of these factors.
6. Concluding comments
The various approaches to studying and analyzing conflict reported in this chapter each have their
own strengths and weaknesses. In terms of research methodology, most organizational
psychological and communication studies research uses either simulated role play in
experimental-type conditions, or self-report questionnaire items. Whilst these approaches are
useful in many respects, they have some serious limitations and need to be complemented by
studies of authentic conflictive encounters and situations. Such studies need to collect various
types of research data, including ethnographic, discourse and/or post-event interview data, in
order to improve the validity and granularity of research findings on conflict. Applied linguists
have a major role to play here. However, it needs to be acknowledged that much applied
linguistic research is impenetrable for people from other disciplines. The analyses are often so
detailed and so full of linguistic technical terms, that they are difficult for non-linguists to follow.
Moreover, it is hard for people (such as intercultural trainers) to pick out the practical relevance
of the findings.
Up to now there has been very little interchange of conceptual frameworks and research
findings between applied linguistic researchers of conflict and those working within
organizational behaviour and communication studies. Findings are typically published in different
journals, and people may be unaware of each other‟s work. We hope that this chapter will help to
start breaking down this divide, and that there will be greater interdisciplinary sharing and
discussion of ideas, concepts and findings, even if some conflict is a concomitant part of the
process!
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