The document discusses several key political institutions in India - Parliament, Executive, and Judiciary. Parliament is the supreme legislative body, consisting of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The Lok Sabha has more power as it is directly elected by the people. The Executive includes both the political executive (elected officials like the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) and the permanent executive (civil servants). The Prime Minister is the head of the political executive. The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, settles disputes and acts as an independent check on the other institutions.

1. WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS

2. ⚫ Office Memorandum
⚫ Mandal Commission
⚫ The Decision Makers
1. Oppositions AgainstThe Mandal Commission
⚫ Need For Political Institutions
⚫ Why Do We Need a Parliament ?
1. Two Houses of Parliament
i. Functions of Parliament
2. Political Executiveand Permanent Executive
i. Prime Ministerand Cabinet Ministers
ii. President
3. Judiciary- Supreme Courtand High Court

3. A communication issued byan appropriateauthority
stating the policyordecision of thegovernment.
Thegovernment issues hundred of orders everydayon
different matters.
A Office memorandumwas theculmination of a long chain
of events.

4. ⚫The governmentof India had appointed the Second
Backward Classes Commission in 1979.
⚫Itwas headed by B.P. Mandal, so it is popularlycalled
the Mandal Commission.
⚫Itwas asked todetermine thecriteria to identify the
sociallyand educationally backward classes in India
and recommended steps to be taken for their
advancement
⚫The commissiongave its report in 1980 and made many
recommendations.
⚫Oneof thesewas 27% of government jobs be reserved
for the sociallyand economically backward classes.

5. ⚫The benefit of job reservationextended from SC to ST toa
third category called SEBC introduced
⚫These reportsand recommendations werediscussed in
the parliament
⚫Many partiesand parliamentarians keptdemanding for
the implementationof thedemands.
⚫1989, Lok Sabha election, the Janata Dal partypromised
that if they will get a chance to form the government they
would implement thedemands.
⚫ Janata Dal formed thegovernmentand its leader V
.P
.
Singh became the prime minister and took different
measures forto implement thecommission report.
⚫Finally, itwas implemented official memorandum-
O.M.No. 36012/31/90 was born on April 13, 1990

6. ⚫Decisionsare made bygovernment.
⚫Presidentof India is The Head of states and all
decisionsare taken in his name.
⚫Prime minister is The Head of Governmentand
actuallyexercisesgovernment power.
⚫ Decision are taken in cabinet meetings.
⚫Parliamentconsistsof two Houses:
⚫Lok Sabhaand Rajya Sabha .
⚫Prime minister must have majority in Lok Sabha.

7. ⚫Some people felt that reservationwasagainst the
principleof equality.
⚫Newspapersand Magazines were full of differentviews
and opinions related with this issue.
⚫Itaffected the thousandsof jobopportunities.
⚫Some personsand associationsopposed thisand filed
thecase in thecourts.
⚫The supremecourtof India bunched all thesecase
together.
⚫This casewas known as “ Indira Sawhney and others Vs
Union of India case.
⚫Eleven judgesof Supreme Court heard thearguments of
both side

8. ⚫In India the political institutionsare arranging and
carrying all the tasks of the country. In modern
democracy these arrangements are known as
Institutions.
⚫Working with institutionsare noteasy, it has lotof
rulesand regulations. It leads todelaysalso.
⚫We need political institutions to frame implementand
regulate rules for thecountry.
⚫However, nowork can bedonewithout the institutions
in a democracy.

10. ⚫In India theseare the three important Political
Institutions
⚫Parliament/ Legislative- The prime ministerand
the cabinet ministers that take all important policy
decisions
⚫Executive- The Civil Servants, working together, are
responsible for taking steps to implement the minister's
decision.
⚫Judiciary- Supreme Court is an institutionwhere
disputes between citizensand the government are
finally settled.

12. The parliamentexercises political authorityon behalf of the
people in manyways:
1. Parliament is the final authority for making law in any
country
. It can also change existing laws orabolish
existing laws and make new ones in theirplace.
2. Parliament exercises control overthosewho run the
government. No decision can be taken without the
supportof the parliament
3. Parliamentalso control the money matters.
4. Parliament is the highest forumof discussion and
debate on public issues and national policy in any
country
. It can seek informationabout any matter.

13. Parliament: In all democracies, an assembly of elected
representatives exercise supreme political authority on
behalf of people. In India such as such as national
assembly called Parliament.
Legislature: The body of elected representatives at the
state level is called Legislatureor Legislativeassembly.

14. ⚫ Parliament plays acentral role in democracies
⚫ The large countries divide the role and powers of the
parliament in two parts.
⚫ Theyare called Chambersor Houses
⚫ One house is usuallydirectly elected by the peopleand
exercises the real power.
⚫ The second house , elected indirectly and perform some
special functions. Theywere looking the interest of various
states, regions and federal units.
⚫ Our Parliament has two houses: Lower House is called Lok
Sabha or House of People and Upper House is called Rajya
Sabhaor Council of States.

15. ⚫ It is directlyelected by the peopleand exercises the
real power.
⚫The maximum strength of the house is 552 of 530
membersareelected from the statesand 20 members
from the Union Territories. Two membersare
nominated by the president of India from the Anglo-
Indian community.
⚫The present membershipof Lok Sabha is 545.

16. ⚫ Is usuallyelected indirectly and performssome special
functions
⚫ The most common work for the second House is to look
after the interests of various states, regions or federal units.
⚫ It has not more than 250 members
⚫ Twelve of Rajya Sabha members are nominated by the
president from persons who have earned distinction in the
field of literature, art, science service.
⚫ Rajya Sabha isa permanent body.
⚫ One third of the members retireevery twoyears.
⚫ At present 245 members in Rajya Sabha, distributed among
different statesand union territories

17. ⚫On ordinary bills both Houses haveequal power. In
case of a deadlock a joint sitting of both Houses is
called where Lok Sabha has numerical majority.
⚫On many matters, Lok Sabhaenjoys more powerthan
Rajya Sabha . Rajya Sabhacan delay itonly by 14 days.
⚫Lok Sabhacontrols Council of Ministers through no
confidence motion . Rajya Sabha does not have this
power.

18. ⚫The one which is elected by the people foronlya
specific period of time is called the Political Executive.
⚫Itsignifies thegovernmentof acountry.
⚫ Theonewhere peopleare appointed on a long-term
basis is called the Permanent Executive or the Civil
Services.
⚫Peopleworking for thecivil services are called the civil
servants.

19. Political executive
⚫ Executives who are elected by
the people fora specific period
arecalled Political Executives.
⚫ Example- Political leaders like
the Prime minister, Council of
Ministers
⚫ Theyremain in officeonlyso
long as they command the
confidence of the majority
membersof the parliament
⚫ They are answerable to people
forall theconsequences of their
decisions
⚫ Theyare more powerful. They
takeall the final decision
⚫ The permanent executives are
salaried withcivil servantswho
areappointed on a long term.
⚫ Personsworking in civil services.
Example: IAS, IPS and IFS
⚫ Theyremain in officeevenwhen
the ruling party changes. Their
tenureof theoffice is fixed.
⚫ Theyare notanswerable to the
people.
⚫ Theyare less powerful. Theydo
nottakedecisions. Instead they
assist political executives in
carrying outday- to- day
administration.
Permanentexecutive

20. The prime ministeris the most importantpolitical institution in thecountry.
The President appoints the Prime Minister. The prime minister does not
havea fixed tenure. Hecontinues in powerso long as remains the leaderof
the majority party or coalition. The currently prime minister of India is
Narender Modi.
1. Hechairs Cabinet meetings
2. Hecoordinate thework of differentdepartment
3. His decisionare final in case disagreementsarise between departments.
4. Heexercises general supervisionof different ministries
5. All ministerswork under his leadership
6. The prime ministerdistributesand redistributeswork tothe ministers.
7. He has the power todismiss ministers.
8. When the Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits. Thus, if the
cabinet is the most powerful institution in India, within thecabinet it is
the Prime Ministerwho is the most powerful

21. Council of ministers is the official name for the body
that includes all the Ministers. It usually has 60 to 80
Ministers of different tasks
1.Usually top level leaders of the ruling party, who are
in charge of the major ministries. Usually the Cabinet
Ministers meet to take decisions in the name of the
council of Ministers. Cabinet is thus the inner ring of
the Council of Ministers. It comprises about 20
ministers.

22. 2. Ministers of State with Independent Charge: are
usually in charge of smaller ministries. They participate in
the cabinet meetings only when specially invited.
3. Ministersof State: Areattached toand required toassist
cabinet Ministers.
The cabinet work as a team. No minister can openly criticise
any decision of the government, even if it is about another
ministry or Department. Every Ministries has secretaries,
who are Civil Servants. The secretaries provide the
necessary background information to the ministers to take
decisions.

23. ⚫ The president of India not elected directly by the people.
All the members of Parliament (MP) and members of
Assemblies (MLA) elect him. A candidate standing for the
post of President has to get majority of votes to win the
election. This ensures that the President of India can be
seen to represent theentire nation .

24. 1. The Presidentof India is the head of the State.
2. Heexercisesonly nominal powers. He is like thequeen of
Britain whose functionsare toa largeextentceremonial.
3. The President supervises the overall functioning of all the
political institutions.
4. All governmentactivities take place in the nameof the
President
5. All laws and majorpolicydecision of thegovernmentare
issued in his/her name
6. All major appointments are made in the name of the President.
These includes the appointment of the Chief Justice of India, the
Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, the Governors
of the States, the Election Commissioners, ambassadors to other
countries etc..
7. All international treatiesand agreementsare made in the name
of the president.
8. The President is the Supreme Commanderof the defence force
of India

25. 1. The President is the head of the Stateand not the
head of thegovernment. Therefore, he exercisesonly
nominal powers and that too on the advice of the
council of ministers.
2. The President can ask the Council of Ministers to
reconsider its advice. But if the sameadvice is given
again, he/she is bound toactaccording to it.
3. A bill passed by the Parliament becomes a law only
after the President gives assent to it. If the President
wants, he/she can delay this forsome timeand send
the bill back to the Parliament for reconsideration.
But if the Parliament passes the bill again, he/ she to
sign it

26. 1. She/he appoints the Chief Justiceof India, the judges
of the Supreme Court and the High Courts of the
states.
2. Heappoints the Prime Ministerof Indiaand other
ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. He
appoints the Governorsof the States.
3. Heappoints the Election Commissionersand
Ambassadors toothercountries

27. ⚫When a partyorcoalition of partiesgets a clear
majority in theelections, the President has toappoint
the leader of the majority party or the coalition that
enjoys majoritysupport in the Lok Sabha
⚫When no partyor Coalition getsa majority in the Lok
sabha, the Presidentexercise his discretion
⚫The Presidentappointsa leaderwho in his opinion can
muster majoritysupport in the Lok Sabha.
⚫In such case, the President can ask the newly
appointed toprove majority in the Lok Sabha within a
specified time

28. ⚫All thecourtsatdifferent levels in the Countryare
collectivelycalled the Judiciary.
⚫It is independentand powerful institutionand is
considered essential fordemocracies.
⚫The Indian Judiciaryconsistsof a Supreme Court for
the entire nation, High Court in the States, District
Courtsand the Courtsat local level
⚫The judiciary in India is alsooneof the mostpowerful
in the World.

29. The Judiciary in India is one of the most powerful
judiciary in the World. India has an integrated
Judiciary. It means the Supreme Court controls the
judicial administration in the country.
1. Settle the Disputes
⚫ Between the Citizens
⚫ Between citizenand government
⚫ Between twoor more state
⚫ Between government at the union and state level
2.
⚫The judges do not act on the direction of the
governmentoraccording to thewishes of the party in
power.

30. ⚫ That is why all the modern democracies have courts that
are independent of the legislatureand theexecutive
3. Interpretthe Constitution of the Country
The Supremecourt and the High court have the power to
interpret the Constitutionof thecountry
4. Judicial Review
They can declare invalid any law of the legislature or the
actions of the executive, whether at the Union level or at
the State level, if they find such a law or action is against
the Constitution. Thus they can determine the
Constitutional validity of any legislation or action of the
executive in thecountry, when it ischallenged before them.
This is known as Judicial review. If the court finds that a
law oran orderof theexecutivedisobeys the provisions of
theconstitution, itdeclares such law ororder null and void.

31. 5. Guardian of Fundamental Rights
The powers and the independence of the Indian judiciary
allow it to act as the guardian of the Fundamental rights.
That is why, the judiciaryenjoys a high level of confidence
among the people.
6. Public Interest Litigation
Anyone can approach thecourts if public interest is hurt by
theactions of thegovernment.
7. Preventthe misuseof government power
The courts intervene to prevent the misuse of the
government’s power to make decisions. They check
malpractices on the partof the publicofficials. That’s why
the judiciary enjoys a high level of confidence among the
people.

32. ⚫ The judges of the S C and H C are appointed by the
President on theadvice of the Prime Ministerand in
consultation with the Chief Justiceof the Supreme Court.
⚫ The Senior most judge of the Supreme Court is usually
appointed the Chief Justice
⚫ Once a person isappointed as judgeof the S C or H C it is
nearly impossible to remove him or her from that position
⚫ A judge can be removed only by an impeachment motion
passed separately by two thirds membersof the two houses
of the parliament
⚫ It has never happened in the historyof Indian democracy

34. Abhishek verma