This document discusses environmental issues related to physical disposal of waste, dead bodies, and housing. It provides details on: 1) Methods of refuse and waste disposal including burning, dumping, composting, controlled tipping, and manure pits. Improper disposal can spread disease. 2) Methods of dead body disposal including burial, tombs, cremation, exposure, burial at sea, and mass graves. Rituals and preservation methods are also discussed. 3) Purposes, requirements, and standards for adequate housing including shelter, space, protection from elements, and preventing disease spread. Poor housing can cause health issues like asthma, tuberculosis, and accidents.

1. ENVIRONMENT
(PHYSICAL-DISPOSALOF
WASTE,DISPOSALOFDEAD
BODYANDHOUSING)
By-
DeveshwarP.Dwivedi

2. DISPOSALOFWASTE
Refusemeansthesoliddiscardedmaterialsproducedbyhumanhabitation
excepthumanexcreta.Refuseisalsocalled"litter".
Thedisposalofrefuseisessentialtopreventspreadingofmanycommunicable
diseaseandpromotionofhealthofcommunitypeople.Healthprofessionalsneed
tohavebasicknowledgeofthesubjectsinceimproperdisposalofwastes
constitutesahealthhazards.
Sourcesofrefuse:
(i)Domesticrefuseisash,rubbishandgarbagefromhousehold.
(ii) Marketrefusecontainslargeproportionsofvegetables,animalwaste
matterandrubbish,brokenglasses.
(iii) Streetrefuseconsistsofleaves,straw,paperandanimaldroppings.
(iv) Stablelittercontainsmainlyanimaldroppingsandleftoveranimal
feeds.
(v)Deadanimals.
Healthhazards:Theaccumulationofrefuseinman'senvironmentisa
healthhazard.Itisbecause:
(i) Refusedecomposesandfavoursflybreeding.
(ii) Itattractsratsandvermin.
(iii) Thepathogenicorganismswhichmaybepresentinrefusemay
beconveyedbacktoman'sfoodthroughdustandflies.
(iv) Thereispossibilityofsoilandwaterpollution.
(v) Heapsofrefusepresentanunsightlyappearanceandarea
nuisance.
Methodsofrefusedisposal:Theprincipalmethodsofrefusedisposal
areasfollows:
1.Burning-Incinerationorburningistheoneofthebestmethodforrefuse
disposal.Biomedicalwastesuchashospitalrefusewhichislikelytobemore
infectiousthanothertypeofrefuseisbestdisposedoffbyburning.Incinerators
areusedforcarriedoutburningofrefusal.Solidmaterialssuchasglass,metals
areavoidedinburningmethod.
2.Dumping:Dumpingisaneasyandsimplyrefusedisposalmethod.The
refusedisposalbydumpinginlow lyingareas,whereincourseoftimerefuse
graduallyshrinksanddecomposesintomanure.
3.Composting(Bangalore2014):Compostingreferstodisposalofhuman

3. excreta(nightsoil)orsludgealongwithrefuse.Itisaprocessofnaturewhereby
organicmatterbreaksdownunderbacterialactionresultingintheformationof
relativelystablematerialcalledcompostwhichhasconsiderablemanorialvalue
forthesoilpitsortrenchesaredug3feetdeep.
4.Controlledtipping:Itisoneofthemostsatisfactorymethodofrefuse
disposal.wheresuitablelandisavailabletherefuseisburiedintrenchesorpits,3
feetdeepforperiodsvaryingfrom 3-6months.Duringthisperiod,therefuseis
brokedownintosimplerchemicalsubstancesandconvertedintomanureby
bacterialaction.Attheendof3-6monthsthedugopenandmanureisbroughtto
surface.Threemethodsareusedinthisoperation:(a)Thetrenchmethod,(b)
Thelampmethod,(c)Theareamethod.
5.Manurepits:Theproblem ofrefuseinruralareascanbesolvedby
digging'manurepits'byindividualhouseholders.
6.Burial:Thisprocessissimilartolandfillorcompostingrefusalis
buriedinpitswhichgetsconvertedtothesoilandhumus.
Publiceducation:Refusedisposalcannotbesolvedwithout
publiceducation.Peoplehaveverylittleinterestincleanlinessoutside
theirhomes.Manymunicipalitiesandcorporationsusuallylookforthe
cheapestsolutionsespeciallyinregardtorefusedisposal.Whatis
neededispubliceducationonthesematters,byallknownmethodsof
healtheducation,viz,pamphlets,newspapers,films,broadcastingetc.
Policeenforcementofthelawsmayalsoneededattimes.

4. DISPOSALOFDEAD
BODIES
Disposalofhumancorpsesordeadbodiesisthepracticeandprocessof
dealingwiththeremainsofadeceasedhumanbeing.Humancorpsespresent
bothasanitationandpublichealthrisk.Likemostanimalswhenhumandie,
theirbodies startto decompose,emitting a foulodourand attracting
scavengersanddecomposers.Forthesereasons,corpsesmustbedisposed
properly.
Methodsofdisposal:Severalmethodsfordisposalarepracticed.In
manycases,themannerofdisposalisdominatedbyspiritualconcernand
desiretoshowrespectforthedead,andmaybehighlyritualized.Thisevent
maybepartofalargerfuneralritual.Sincetheexperienceofdeathisuniversal
toallhumans,practicesregardingcorpsedisposalareapartofeveryculture.
Commonlypracticedmethods:
Themostcommonmethodsofdisposalare:
1.Burial:Burialoftheentirebodyintheearth,oftenwithinacoffinorcasket.
2.TomborMausoleum :Thedeadbodyispermanentlystoredinanabove
groundtombormausoleum.
3.Cremation:Cremationisthemethodwhichburnssofttissueandrenders
muchoftheskeletontoash.Theremains,knownas"cremains",maycontain
largerpiecesofbonewhicharegroundinamachinetotheconsistencyofash.
Theashesmaybestoredinanurnorscatteredonlandorwater.
Lesscommonlypracticedmethods:
1.Disposalbyexposure:
(i)Traditionalexamplesinclude"Tibetskyburial"andthe"Parsitowersof
silence".
(ii)A"bodyfarm"involvesasimilarmethodofdisposalasanobjectofscientific
study.
(iii)Insometraditions,forexamplethatpracticedbythe"Spanishroyalfamily",
thesofttissuesarepermittedtorotoveraperiodofdecades,afterwhichthe

5. bonesareentombed.
2.Burialatsea:
(i)-Droppingoverboardfrom ashiporplane,aform ofburial,oftenusedin
military/navalcontext,wherethecorpse,suitablypreparedandweightedis
depositedintothesea.
(ii)-"Shipburial"aform ofburialatseainwhichthecorpseissetadrift
onaboat.Vikingfuneralcombinesthispracticewithcremation.
(iii)-Illegaldisposalofbodiesinthewater.
(3)-Dissolution:E.g.,inacidorasolutionoflye,followedbydisposal
asliquid.
(4)-Massgravesorplaguepits:Incasesofwar,genocideornatural
disastersincludingdiseaseepidemics,largegroupsofpeoplehavebeenburiedin
massgravesorplaguepits.
Methodsofpreservationofdeadbodies:Insomecasesan
attemptismadetopreservesomeorallofabody.
Thesemethodsinclude:
(i)Cryo-preservation
(ii)Mummification:Itisthemostwellknown
examplesofancientEgypt.
(iii)Taxidermy:A few people such as the
philosopherTeremyBentham,havehadtheirdead
bodiesstuffed.
(iv)Plastination :The preserved body is
prepared bydissection orslicing and fluidsare
replacedwithinertplasticforanatomicalstudyby
medicalstudentsordisplayinmuseums.
Preparationfordisposal:Differentreligions

6. and cultures have various funeral rites that
accompanythedisposalofabody.Somerequire
thatallpartsofthebodyareburiedtogether.Ifan
autopsyhasoccurred,removedpartsofthebody
aresewnbackintothebodysothattheymaybe
buriedwiththerestofthecorpse.
Whenitisnotpossibleforabodytobe
disposedofpromptly,itisgenerallystoredata
morgue.Wherethisisnotpossible,suchasona
battlefield,bodybagsareused.Inthewestern
worldembalmingofthebodyisastandardpartof
preparation. This is intended to temporarily
preserve the corpse throughout the funeral
process.

7. HOUSING
AccordingtoCambridgeDictionaryofAmericanEnglish-housingmeansbuildings
wherepeopleliveinorhousKgisproviålngo}placesforpeoplétolivein.From
theprehistoricages,housesorresidentialbuildingswereconstructedtoprotect
themselvesfromsun,rainandanimals.
Or
Housing isthe physicalstructure which providesprotection againststorm,
lightning,snowfall,rainkete.Housingnotonlyprovidesphysicalprotection,butit
istheimmediatesurroundingandrelatedtothecommunityservices.
Or
housingcanbedefinedastheresidentialbuildingforshelterandimmediate
surroundingandcommunityservicesintheindividual'sexternalenvironment
which include physicalstructure,comfort,sufficientaccomodation,design,
facilities&devicesrequiredtohavethehealthofanindividualorcommunity.
PurposesofHousing:
-Toprovidesheltertotheinmates.
-Toprovidesufficientspaceperpersonstolivein.
-To protectagainstthe harmfuleffects ofnaturaloccurring changes in
environmentsuchasstorm,lighteningetc.
-Toprovidespaceforarrangingreligiouscermonies,gettogetherandsmall
parties,therebypromotessocialrelationshipsresulting in an individualand
communitydevelopment.
-Topreventthespreadofcommunicablediseasesthroughtheproperdesigning
anconstructionofhouses.
-Topreventfromthepollutionexposure,whichishazardoustohealth.
Requirementsofhousing:-
(1)-Itshouldbelocatedatproperresidentialareawherethecommunity
servicesanfacilitiesareavailable.
(2)-Itshouldbedesignedandplannedinsuchawaythatitprovidesadequatespace
pepersontoliveinandadequateprovisionofbasicneedssuchasrecreation,
sleepingcooking,study,sanitaryetc.Adequatespaceshouldbeinhouseto
organisesmallgettogethers.
(3)-Itshouldhavesunshadesinallouteropeningssuchasdoorsandwindowsto
achieveprotectionfromtheglareofsun.

8. (4)-Itshouldhavethickouterwallstopreventdampness.
(5)-Thehouseshouldhaveroofcoveringattachedtoroofsofhousetoprotect
againststorm.
(6)-Thereshouldbeproperorientationofbuildingsoastoachievetheentryoffresh
airormorningsunraysinthelivingrooms.
(7)-Thehouseshouldhavecopperlighteningconductorsonthetopofbuildingto
achieveprotectionagainstlightening.
(8)-Itshouldhaveproperarrangementfordrainingofrainwaterandtheroofshould
beleakproofsoastopreventdampness.Inhillyareas,wheresnow fallis
occurring,thehousesshouldhavesufficientoutwardslopesothatsnow can
movedown.
(9)-Itshouldhaveadequateventilation,light&watersupply.
(10)-Itshouldnothaveholesorgapsorspacefortherodentsorsnakes.
(11)-Itshouldbeabletomeetphysiologicalandpsychologicalneedsofpeople.
HouslngStandards:-
Thehousingstandardsvaryfrom areatoareaorcountrytocountrydueto
certainfactorssuchasculture,traditions&climateetc.Housingstandards
dependuponcertainotherfactorssuchasincomeoffamily,sizeoffamily,their
standardoflivingandeducationoftheindividual/family.
Therequiredstandardsare:—
1.Site-Siteshouldbeproperlyselectedforhousing.Therearemanyfactors
whichareconsideredwhileselectingthesite.
A.-Levelofsiteinrelationtoitssurrounding:— Forproperdrainagefrom the
houses,thesiteshouldbeelevatedinrelationtoitssurroundings.
B.-Availabilityofbasicamenitiesandotherfacilities-Thesiteselectedfor
housingshouldhaveaneasyaccesstowater,electricity,policestation,fire
brigadeandtransportfacilities.
C.-Hardstratum forfoundation-Ahardstratum of1m to1.5m belowtheground
levelisrequiredtoconstructthefoundationofthebuildingsafeandeconomic.
Selectionofsiteshouldnotbenear
*-Thedepositofrefuse,excretaoroffensivematter.
*-Thebankofriverorwaterloggedareatoavoiddampness.
*-Thearecausingsmoke,nuisancefromindustrialbuildings.
*-Thenoisyareas.
2.Orientation-Orientationofbuildingmeanskeepingthebuildingtosuch
positionthatitsfrontfacestheparticulardirection.Theorientationofthebuilding

9. isneededforthepurposethatit—
Suitsthesurroundings
Providestheprivacyandnaturalcomfort.
Protectsthelivingindividualfromnuisanceofnoise,dustetc.
-Preventsthedampnessinthebuilding.
-Provideseasyapproachtonearbyroadsandstreets.
-Providesconstantfreshnessofairandchecksthebreedingofbacteriaby
continuouschangeinair.
3.-Design-Thebuildingshouldbedesignedbykeepingthefollowing
factorsinmind:-
A-Damproof-Dampnessoccursduetothepresenceofmoistureinthe
groundorrainwaterwhichcanpenetratethebuildingfromroof,sidesor
below.Thisdeterioratesthestructureofthebuildingandcauses
unhygienicconditionsforoccupantsandaffectthehealth.
B.-Doors-Doorsshouldbeatleast200mmawayfromthecornerofa
room.
-Iftwodoorsarethere,thentheseshouldbeintheoppositewallsto
achievegoodventilation.
C.Windows-Windowsshouldbeoppositetoeachotheroroppositeto
door.
D.-Stairs-Ifthehouseisofdoubleortriplestorey,thenthestairsarerequired.
E.-Roadsidemargin-Thereshouldbe4.5mmarginontheroadside.
F.-Room-Thenumberandareaofroomsshouldbeaccordingtothesizeof
family.Within the house,the recommended space perperson should be
available.
G.-Floor-Floorshouldbefreefromcracksandcrevicestopreventbreedingof
insectsanditshouldbedamp-proof.Theheightofplinthshouldbe2-3feet.
H.-Walls-Wallsshouldbethickenoughtopreventdampnessandshouldbe
strong.

10. HEALTHPROBLEMSDUETO
INADEQUATE/POORHOUSING
Asthma Tuberculosis
Arthritis Influenza
Rhinitis Bronchitis
Conjuctivitis Commoncold
Eczema Poisoning
Cough Communicable
disease
Wheeze Plague
Accidents PsychosocialStress
Scabies Mentaldisorders
Impetigo
Ringworm
Malaria
Preventlonofhealtproblems:
-Ensuregoodventilationand
light.
-Controlthe moisture byproperconstruction ofbuildings with damp-proof
material.
-Useproperexhaustsystemwhileusingcombustionappliances.
-Checkfromtimetotimeforanyleakagefromroof,gutterorplumbingleaks.
-Checkforrugs,orslipperinessoffloor.
-Don'tleaveanygapbetweenthejoints.
-Checkforcrevices&cracks.
-Don'thaveovercrowdinginhousei.e.moremembersandlessspace.
-Properlyplananddesignthebuildingmeetingtherequiredstandards. Select
appropriatesiteforconstructingabuilding.