This document summarizes a research article that critiques the dominant "information processing model" of advertising. Some key points:
- The information processing model views advertising as a one-way communication to convey a clear message about product benefits in order to increase knowledge, change attitudes, and ultimately drive purchases.
- However, the article argues this model is inadequate and not reflective of how most successful advertising actually works. It cites an example where highly creative advertising that contained no explicit product information performed exceptionally well in the real world, contradicting research predictions.
- The information processing model is deeply embedded in advertising practices through research methodologies, agency/client processes, and marketing textbooks, despite limited empirical support. The article calls
The document summarizes findings from fifteen studies over two decades that show more creative advertising is more effective advertising. The studies found that award-winning, more creative campaigns performed better and achieved client objectives more than less creative campaigns. Specifically, creatively awarded campaigns had higher success rates, were more efficient at generating results, and produced more significant business effects. Additionally, more creative agencies produced better effectiveness results and more creative companies experienced greater stock market growth. In summary, the evidence demonstrates that creativity leads to more effective advertising.
Strategy Magazine wrote about the SPC Card study “Pulse of the Canadian Student Shopper” study.
With 1 million+ cardholders aged 14-24 per year, SPC Card - Canada’s leading student loyalty program, enjoys robust and privileged access to young Canadian shoppers.
This document summarizes a research study about corporate social responsibility (CSR) advertising strategies used by consumer brands. The study analyzed 55 CSR magazine advertisements from 2014-2015. It found that the most common strategy was "direct to charity for societal cause" advertisements. Overall, the CSR messages in the ads aligned well with brand images. CSR ads were also more likely to appear in women's magazines. The document reviews previous literature on how CSR strategies can enhance brand image when causes are properly aligned with brand values and consumer expectations. Effective CSR communication provides transparency about social initiatives.
In the advertising and marketing industries, the debate has raged for decades. Do high levels of creativity make advertising more effective? Or is creativity just irresponsible folly practiced by creative people looking to win their next award? The arguments of both advocates and cynics have until now been based on conjecture and anecdotal evidence. The Case for Creativity brings the debate to a conclusion, telling the story of two decades of international research into the link between creativity and business results.
The document summarizes the findings of a meta-analysis conducted by the Advertising Research Foundation (ARF) on the effectiveness of TV advertising over time. The analysis integrated results from 7 databases comprising 388 cases across different product categories. The analysis found that TV advertising effectiveness does not appear to be declining over time, and may actually be increasing. The index of incremental days of sales or persuasion points delivered from TV advertising was stable or increasing even when controlling for variables like ad quality and wearout. Therefore, TV can still be an effective platform for advertising, particularly for generating brand awareness, though marketers need to be aware of ongoing changes in TV viewing habits and technologies.
This document discusses the design elements of transmedia branding. Transmedia branding is defined as a communication process where brand information is distributed across multiple media channels to create an interactive brand experience. Some key elements of transmedia branding include harnessing collective intelligence, promoting participation as a brand value, and generating spreadability. An example discussed is Old Spice's 2010 "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like" campaign, which saw great commercial success through its creative use of multiple media channels.
Word of Mouth Marketing - Planning and Implementing an Integrated WOMM and A...Advanced Media Productions
Word of Mouth Marketing (WOMM) is driven mainly by customer satisfaction, a two-way dialogue and transparent communications. WOMM strategies include targeting these influencers, participating in blogs and forums, and creating a product with great customer service that people can use or are excited about. Social Media Marketing spreads by itself through the social web and the message must be entertaining, outrageous or have exceptional value. Since a WOMM campaign generates more online buzz when supported by traditional advertising, companies should integrate a WOMM online campaign with offline advertising and plan the integrated advertising carefully so its effectiveness can be measured.
Another advertising industry first, The Brand Cross-Cultural Index (BCCI), Powered by BrandZ™ is an innovation brought to market by Ogilvy & Mather and Millward. The first equity assessment tool of its kind, powered by the world’s largest brand equity database, it assesses and ranks brands based on their appeal to non-Hispanic White, Hispanic, Black and Asian consumers.
The document summarizes findings from fifteen studies over two decades that show more creative advertising is more effective advertising. The studies found that award-winning, more creative campaigns performed better and achieved client objectives more than less creative campaigns. Specifically, creatively awarded campaigns had higher success rates, were more efficient at generating results, and produced more significant business effects. Additionally, more creative agencies produced better effectiveness results and more creative companies experienced greater stock market growth. In summary, the evidence demonstrates that creativity leads to more effective advertising.
Strategy Magazine wrote about the SPC Card study “Pulse of the Canadian Student Shopper” study.
With 1 million+ cardholders aged 14-24 per year, SPC Card - Canada’s leading student loyalty program, enjoys robust and privileged access to young Canadian shoppers.
This document summarizes a research study about corporate social responsibility (CSR) advertising strategies used by consumer brands. The study analyzed 55 CSR magazine advertisements from 2014-2015. It found that the most common strategy was "direct to charity for societal cause" advertisements. Overall, the CSR messages in the ads aligned well with brand images. CSR ads were also more likely to appear in women's magazines. The document reviews previous literature on how CSR strategies can enhance brand image when causes are properly aligned with brand values and consumer expectations. Effective CSR communication provides transparency about social initiatives.
In the advertising and marketing industries, the debate has raged for decades. Do high levels of creativity make advertising more effective? Or is creativity just irresponsible folly practiced by creative people looking to win their next award? The arguments of both advocates and cynics have until now been based on conjecture and anecdotal evidence. The Case for Creativity brings the debate to a conclusion, telling the story of two decades of international research into the link between creativity and business results.
The document summarizes the findings of a meta-analysis conducted by the Advertising Research Foundation (ARF) on the effectiveness of TV advertising over time. The analysis integrated results from 7 databases comprising 388 cases across different product categories. The analysis found that TV advertising effectiveness does not appear to be declining over time, and may actually be increasing. The index of incremental days of sales or persuasion points delivered from TV advertising was stable or increasing even when controlling for variables like ad quality and wearout. Therefore, TV can still be an effective platform for advertising, particularly for generating brand awareness, though marketers need to be aware of ongoing changes in TV viewing habits and technologies.
This document discusses the design elements of transmedia branding. Transmedia branding is defined as a communication process where brand information is distributed across multiple media channels to create an interactive brand experience. Some key elements of transmedia branding include harnessing collective intelligence, promoting participation as a brand value, and generating spreadability. An example discussed is Old Spice's 2010 "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like" campaign, which saw great commercial success through its creative use of multiple media channels.
Word of Mouth Marketing - Planning and Implementing an Integrated WOMM and A...Advanced Media Productions
Word of Mouth Marketing (WOMM) is driven mainly by customer satisfaction, a two-way dialogue and transparent communications. WOMM strategies include targeting these influencers, participating in blogs and forums, and creating a product with great customer service that people can use or are excited about. Social Media Marketing spreads by itself through the social web and the message must be entertaining, outrageous or have exceptional value. Since a WOMM campaign generates more online buzz when supported by traditional advertising, companies should integrate a WOMM online campaign with offline advertising and plan the integrated advertising carefully so its effectiveness can be measured.
Another advertising industry first, The Brand Cross-Cultural Index (BCCI), Powered by BrandZ™ is an innovation brought to market by Ogilvy & Mather and Millward. The first equity assessment tool of its kind, powered by the world’s largest brand equity database, it assesses and ranks brands based on their appeal to non-Hispanic White, Hispanic, Black and Asian consumers.
This document discusses future trends in advertising. It predicts that in 10 years, advertisements will need to be more attention-getting, interactive, and brief due to consumers having less time and shorter attention spans. Small businesses will be able to market themselves globally through online tools. However, some consumers may want fewer product ads, so personalized advertising based on personal data and interests may become more common, though this raises privacy concerns. Celebrity endorsements and visually appealing images in ads will also remain effective strategies.
Gain Perspective About How Strong Brands Make More Money
The third issue of Perspectives, Millward Brown’s quarterly publication, is now available to download on iPad and as a PDF, or view online. Read an advance excerpt from The Meaningful Brand, the new book by Nigel Hollis available later this month from Palgrave Macmillan.
If you missed the previous issues, don’t miss this one. In addition to the exclusive preview from The Meaningful Brand - How Strong Brands Make More Money, it’s full of valuable content about the smartphone wars, effectively repurposing TV ads for online use, and what marketers are learning from neuroscience.
Global leadership and ethical issues in marketing & advertisingChristian Adams
The document discusses several issues related to global leadership and ethics in marketing and advertising. It notes that marketing leaders are responsible for creating brands and strategic engagement with consumers. However, global marketing presents additional challenges, such as accounting for cultural differences between domestic and foreign markets. The document also examines how new technologies like the internet have disrupted industries and changed consumer behavior. Finally, it explores various ethical issues in marketing, such as manipulating consumer behavior and being environmentally sustainable. Effective future marketing leaders will need to navigate these global and ethical challenges.
IMAGE IS INDEED EVERYTHING: AN ANALYSIS OF HOW AMERICANS VIEW LEADING COMPANI...ijmpict
The document analyzes a survey that assessed Americans' views of leading companies' reputations across 7 dimensions. It found:
- Patagonia, Honda, and Moderna were rated highest overall, while Trump Organization, Fox, and Facebook rated lowest.
- Reputation did not perfectly correlate with visibility/familiarity - less visible companies like Patagonia and Moderna had stronger reputations than more visible ones like Amazon.
- The document explores the survey results for each reputational dimension to identify the companies viewed most positively and negatively. It aims to provide insights for corporate reputation management.
New research proves consumers prefer brands that offer unique experiences. Many are even willing to pay more for unique brand experiences. Check out our global research on brand experience trends and learn how to apply these insights to your brand.
Word-of-mouth (WOM) is one of the most effective way of communication in marketing, and it plays important role in consumer purchasing decision. This paper explains the following key points about WOM-
• WOM and its psychological drivers
• How WOM plays a major role in marketing?
• How Word-of-mouth marketing influences purchasing decision of consumers?
• Credibility of sources/narrator
• Effect of negative publicity on purchasing decision of consumer
• eWOM
New trends marketing guerrilla, viral marketing, social media marketing - Uni...Juan Sanchez Bonet
Viral marketing, word of mouth marketing, social media marketing. What's new in marketing and advertising, How to go viral (Viral formula), how can I implement a social media strategy, Guerrilla marketing concepts and best campaigns. Discover the best social media and viral marketing practices and The New Rules of Viral Marketing.
Presentation for Real Madrid School (European Univeristy of Madrid)
Contact me to download
conversemos@juanmarketing.com
See more in http://www.juanmarketing.com/
Effectiveness is at the heart of everything we do. David Ogilvy himself wrote a series of full-page ads in the New York Times in the 1960s with headlines such as "How To Create Advertising That Sells." His most famous book, Ogilvy on Advertising, is packed with guidance on the success factors of effective campaigns.
However, the marketing landscape has changed beyond recognition in the past fifty years. We are delighted to share our latest publication, The Ogilvy & Mather guide to effectiveness. In it, Worldwide Effectiveness Director, Tim Broadbent, deals with one of the most central questions in marketing: how to increase the effectiveness of our campaigns.
As marketing budgets come under increasing pressure in response to economic uncertainty in Europe and elsewhere, effectiveness is rising higher on clients' agendas. The message is timely.
This document discusses film marketing and the relationship between producers and audiences. It analyzes how producers use various types of research like primary, secondary, qualitative and quantitative to understand their target audience. This informs the marketing process which uses advertising, publicity and promotion techniques. Advertising includes film posters, trailers in different formats, and press articles. Publicity can come from stars or viral sharing online. Promotion uses merchandise, product placement, and tie-ins. The document analyzes specific examples from the film Spectre to illustrate how research informed its marketing to a target male audience through posters and trailers designed to appeal to masculine interests.
September 9th and 10th was the launch of the Cross-Cultural Marketing and Communications Association and Total Market Conference. We've taken the time to compile a summary of the event and provide highlights from the day.
The document summarizes a discussion between Tim Suther, CMO of Acxiom, and Emily Cavalier of Argyle Executive Forum on May 5, 2011 about the shifting balance of power between brands and consumers. Suther argues that for marketers to succeed, they need to 1) leverage proprietary customer insights to engage audiences, 2) develop multidimensional insights into customers, 3) create a marketing "central nervous system" to sense and respond to customer actions, and 4) coordinate personalized experiences for customers. Suther estimates that applying these capabilities could increase returns by 15-30% for most brands.
This document summarizes a literature review on the ethical implications of native advertising. It defines native advertising as paid content that matches the style and format of independent editorial content. While native ads can be effective, they are often accused of being deceptive by disguising advertising as real content. The document examines definitions of deceptive advertising and reviews studies on factors that influence the credibility of native ads. It concludes by proposing five guidelines for creating native ads in an ethical manner that avoids misleading consumers about the sponsored nature of the content.
Emotions reader the marketing of emotions in advertisingguest0e39643
This document discusses a shift in advertising from rational appeals to consumers' emotions. It argues that advertising has moved from promoting products' functional features through rational arguments, to attempting to evoke sentimental experiences and emotions through more interactive and sensory-stimulating media. Specifically, it claims that advertisers now aim to customize marketing messages and target consumers' private experiences with brands in order to make brand relationships more ambiguous and difficult to scrutinize publicly. The document analyzes how this shift allows advertisers to expand what they can offer corporate clients and reduce accountability.
Advertising exists to gain our attention in public spaces and persuade us to buy products. It works through various media platforms and appeals to emotions, nostalgia, and aspirations. Advertising suggests life will be better if we consume certain products and makes viewers feel anxiety that can only be relieved by purchasing. While advertising claims to support consumer choice, it also uses stereotypes and sells audiences to other companies. There is debate around how to reasonably limit advertising and whether it imposes values within a free market society.
The document presents data showing that more creative advertising campaigns are more effective than less creative ones. It shows that agencies awarded for creativity on average win more effectiveness awards per $1B billed and have higher success rates, efficiency, and ability to influence perceptions of the brand and company. Creatively awarded campaigns are also linked to higher stock price growth. While rational messages were once prioritized, emotional campaigns now see higher rates of effectiveness. The data suggests that creativity helps campaigns start conversations and gain fame/awareness.
Social media provides opportunities for brands to build awareness, engagement, and loyalty. Effective social media strategies involve understanding consumer behavior online and integrating social platforms into marketing communications. While social media allows constant connection with customers, brands must interact authentically to build trust and avoid risks from inappropriate messaging. Ongoing social engagement can positively influence customers to advocate for brands and influence offline purchasing decisions through their online social networks.
STRATEGIC CONCEPTS IN FESTIVE AND TẾT SEASON - 2021Perry Cao
The document provides strategic concepts for brands during the 2021 festive and Tet season in Vietnam. It highlights insights on customer behaviors and preferences, as well as cultural factors. Key points include:
- Gen X and Boomers are driving mobile and ecommerce growth, while imposed disruption makes people more open to new products
- The festive seasons last 10 days and provide time for customers to research, compare options, and make purchases
- Rural areas account for 60-70% of the population but are underserved by online platforms; basic needs around food, health and education are priorities
- Brands should partner with others, ensure visibility, transparency and consistency in communications to best serve customers across urban and rural areas during this busy
Optimized war games for_korea_proposalTerence Ling
The document discusses war games as a strategic planning tool. It defines war games as workshops where companies simulate competition and develop counterstrategies. The purpose is to understand competitors better by roleplaying their potential strategies and actions. This helps develop proactive plans rather than reactive responses. Feedback from companies shows war games boost competitive insights, cross-functional collaboration, and strategic planning effectiveness.
This document discusses a study of consumer perceptions and values in Anshan City, China. The researchers argue that representations of rural life have become commodified and popular in a way that counters China's trend of urbanization and industrialization. This represents a shift in how Chinese consumers view rural and urban values. The researchers explore similarities to a "Romantic reappraisal of values" that occurred after the industrial revolution in Europe, where rural virtues came to be seen more positively compared to urban constraints. Evidence from new types of rural-themed consumption in Anshan, like farm leisure facilities, supports the idea of a paradigm shift occurring in how Chinese consumers view rural and urban identities.
This document discusses future trends in advertising. It predicts that in 10 years, advertisements will need to be more attention-getting, interactive, and brief due to consumers having less time and shorter attention spans. Small businesses will be able to market themselves globally through online tools. However, some consumers may want fewer product ads, so personalized advertising based on personal data and interests may become more common, though this raises privacy concerns. Celebrity endorsements and visually appealing images in ads will also remain effective strategies.
Gain Perspective About How Strong Brands Make More Money
The third issue of Perspectives, Millward Brown’s quarterly publication, is now available to download on iPad and as a PDF, or view online. Read an advance excerpt from The Meaningful Brand, the new book by Nigel Hollis available later this month from Palgrave Macmillan.
If you missed the previous issues, don’t miss this one. In addition to the exclusive preview from The Meaningful Brand - How Strong Brands Make More Money, it’s full of valuable content about the smartphone wars, effectively repurposing TV ads for online use, and what marketers are learning from neuroscience.
Global leadership and ethical issues in marketing & advertisingChristian Adams
The document discusses several issues related to global leadership and ethics in marketing and advertising. It notes that marketing leaders are responsible for creating brands and strategic engagement with consumers. However, global marketing presents additional challenges, such as accounting for cultural differences between domestic and foreign markets. The document also examines how new technologies like the internet have disrupted industries and changed consumer behavior. Finally, it explores various ethical issues in marketing, such as manipulating consumer behavior and being environmentally sustainable. Effective future marketing leaders will need to navigate these global and ethical challenges.
IMAGE IS INDEED EVERYTHING: AN ANALYSIS OF HOW AMERICANS VIEW LEADING COMPANI...ijmpict
The document analyzes a survey that assessed Americans' views of leading companies' reputations across 7 dimensions. It found:
- Patagonia, Honda, and Moderna were rated highest overall, while Trump Organization, Fox, and Facebook rated lowest.
- Reputation did not perfectly correlate with visibility/familiarity - less visible companies like Patagonia and Moderna had stronger reputations than more visible ones like Amazon.
- The document explores the survey results for each reputational dimension to identify the companies viewed most positively and negatively. It aims to provide insights for corporate reputation management.
New research proves consumers prefer brands that offer unique experiences. Many are even willing to pay more for unique brand experiences. Check out our global research on brand experience trends and learn how to apply these insights to your brand.
Word-of-mouth (WOM) is one of the most effective way of communication in marketing, and it plays important role in consumer purchasing decision. This paper explains the following key points about WOM-
• WOM and its psychological drivers
• How WOM plays a major role in marketing?
• How Word-of-mouth marketing influences purchasing decision of consumers?
• Credibility of sources/narrator
• Effect of negative publicity on purchasing decision of consumer
• eWOM
New trends marketing guerrilla, viral marketing, social media marketing - Uni...Juan Sanchez Bonet
Viral marketing, word of mouth marketing, social media marketing. What's new in marketing and advertising, How to go viral (Viral formula), how can I implement a social media strategy, Guerrilla marketing concepts and best campaigns. Discover the best social media and viral marketing practices and The New Rules of Viral Marketing.
Presentation for Real Madrid School (European Univeristy of Madrid)
Contact me to download
conversemos@juanmarketing.com
See more in http://www.juanmarketing.com/
Effectiveness is at the heart of everything we do. David Ogilvy himself wrote a series of full-page ads in the New York Times in the 1960s with headlines such as "How To Create Advertising That Sells." His most famous book, Ogilvy on Advertising, is packed with guidance on the success factors of effective campaigns.
However, the marketing landscape has changed beyond recognition in the past fifty years. We are delighted to share our latest publication, The Ogilvy & Mather guide to effectiveness. In it, Worldwide Effectiveness Director, Tim Broadbent, deals with one of the most central questions in marketing: how to increase the effectiveness of our campaigns.
As marketing budgets come under increasing pressure in response to economic uncertainty in Europe and elsewhere, effectiveness is rising higher on clients' agendas. The message is timely.
This document discusses film marketing and the relationship between producers and audiences. It analyzes how producers use various types of research like primary, secondary, qualitative and quantitative to understand their target audience. This informs the marketing process which uses advertising, publicity and promotion techniques. Advertising includes film posters, trailers in different formats, and press articles. Publicity can come from stars or viral sharing online. Promotion uses merchandise, product placement, and tie-ins. The document analyzes specific examples from the film Spectre to illustrate how research informed its marketing to a target male audience through posters and trailers designed to appeal to masculine interests.
September 9th and 10th was the launch of the Cross-Cultural Marketing and Communications Association and Total Market Conference. We've taken the time to compile a summary of the event and provide highlights from the day.
The document summarizes a discussion between Tim Suther, CMO of Acxiom, and Emily Cavalier of Argyle Executive Forum on May 5, 2011 about the shifting balance of power between brands and consumers. Suther argues that for marketers to succeed, they need to 1) leverage proprietary customer insights to engage audiences, 2) develop multidimensional insights into customers, 3) create a marketing "central nervous system" to sense and respond to customer actions, and 4) coordinate personalized experiences for customers. Suther estimates that applying these capabilities could increase returns by 15-30% for most brands.
This document summarizes a literature review on the ethical implications of native advertising. It defines native advertising as paid content that matches the style and format of independent editorial content. While native ads can be effective, they are often accused of being deceptive by disguising advertising as real content. The document examines definitions of deceptive advertising and reviews studies on factors that influence the credibility of native ads. It concludes by proposing five guidelines for creating native ads in an ethical manner that avoids misleading consumers about the sponsored nature of the content.
Emotions reader the marketing of emotions in advertisingguest0e39643
This document discusses a shift in advertising from rational appeals to consumers' emotions. It argues that advertising has moved from promoting products' functional features through rational arguments, to attempting to evoke sentimental experiences and emotions through more interactive and sensory-stimulating media. Specifically, it claims that advertisers now aim to customize marketing messages and target consumers' private experiences with brands in order to make brand relationships more ambiguous and difficult to scrutinize publicly. The document analyzes how this shift allows advertisers to expand what they can offer corporate clients and reduce accountability.
Advertising exists to gain our attention in public spaces and persuade us to buy products. It works through various media platforms and appeals to emotions, nostalgia, and aspirations. Advertising suggests life will be better if we consume certain products and makes viewers feel anxiety that can only be relieved by purchasing. While advertising claims to support consumer choice, it also uses stereotypes and sells audiences to other companies. There is debate around how to reasonably limit advertising and whether it imposes values within a free market society.
The document presents data showing that more creative advertising campaigns are more effective than less creative ones. It shows that agencies awarded for creativity on average win more effectiveness awards per $1B billed and have higher success rates, efficiency, and ability to influence perceptions of the brand and company. Creatively awarded campaigns are also linked to higher stock price growth. While rational messages were once prioritized, emotional campaigns now see higher rates of effectiveness. The data suggests that creativity helps campaigns start conversations and gain fame/awareness.
Social media provides opportunities for brands to build awareness, engagement, and loyalty. Effective social media strategies involve understanding consumer behavior online and integrating social platforms into marketing communications. While social media allows constant connection with customers, brands must interact authentically to build trust and avoid risks from inappropriate messaging. Ongoing social engagement can positively influence customers to advocate for brands and influence offline purchasing decisions through their online social networks.
STRATEGIC CONCEPTS IN FESTIVE AND TẾT SEASON - 2021Perry Cao
The document provides strategic concepts for brands during the 2021 festive and Tet season in Vietnam. It highlights insights on customer behaviors and preferences, as well as cultural factors. Key points include:
- Gen X and Boomers are driving mobile and ecommerce growth, while imposed disruption makes people more open to new products
- The festive seasons last 10 days and provide time for customers to research, compare options, and make purchases
- Rural areas account for 60-70% of the population but are underserved by online platforms; basic needs around food, health and education are priorities
- Brands should partner with others, ensure visibility, transparency and consistency in communications to best serve customers across urban and rural areas during this busy
Optimized war games for_korea_proposalTerence Ling
The document discusses war games as a strategic planning tool. It defines war games as workshops where companies simulate competition and develop counterstrategies. The purpose is to understand competitors better by roleplaying their potential strategies and actions. This helps develop proactive plans rather than reactive responses. Feedback from companies shows war games boost competitive insights, cross-functional collaboration, and strategic planning effectiveness.
This document discusses a study of consumer perceptions and values in Anshan City, China. The researchers argue that representations of rural life have become commodified and popular in a way that counters China's trend of urbanization and industrialization. This represents a shift in how Chinese consumers view rural and urban values. The researchers explore similarities to a "Romantic reappraisal of values" that occurred after the industrial revolution in Europe, where rural virtues came to be seen more positively compared to urban constraints. Evidence from new types of rural-themed consumption in Anshan, like farm leisure facilities, supports the idea of a paradigm shift occurring in how Chinese consumers view rural and urban identities.
People have moved from passive users to active drivers of technology and are now at the center of innovation. As consumers have become more connected through technology, they want to participate in its development and are providing information to companies on how technology can better meet consumer needs and desires. This new dynamic relationship is unleashing unprecedented creativity from both consumers and companies.
Happening dc introducingsocialcreativityTerence Ling
This document introduces the concept of social creativity, which involves creating content that encourages social interaction and sharing. It provides examples of campaigns by brands like Hasbro, McDonald's, and Phillips that incorporated social elements to increase engagement. The document argues that to be effective today, content needs to have "ShareValue" by appealing to social networks rather than just individuals. It concludes that producing social content requires new forms of collaboration between creative teams.
This document summarizes a speech given to Tetra Pak about branding. The speaker discusses three main points:
1. Branding is practical, tracing its origins to branding livestock and the development of packaged branded goods in the 19th century which helped consumers identify quality products.
2. Brands add value to businesses by building brand equity which can increase market share and profits as shown by the $4.2 billion acquisition of vitamin water brand Glaceau.
3. Branding extends far beyond consumers to also include business customers and partnerships, with even B2B brands like IBM building strong emotional connections with clients.
Social media platforms are increasingly meeting a variety of consumer needs beyond just staying connected with friends. While social networks excel at meeting needs around relationships and sharing experiences, other platforms like blogs and video sites also fulfill important needs such as self-expression, entertainment, and changing opinions. However, consumer motivations for using different social media vary greatly between countries and regions. Understanding these motivations is key to developing successful social media strategies for brands.
1. The document discusses the concept of prioritization, where consumers are redefining what they are willing to pay more for based on priorities rather than accumulation.
2. It identifies five strategies for prioritization: seeking value for money, being careful, doing research, focusing on style/design/performance, and not buying impulsively.
3. It also provides five brand-building strategies for companies: giving consumers permission to buy, focusing on brand performance, stimulating new user trials, rewarding brand loyalty, and innovating.
The document discusses mobile trends and strategies for mobile marketing. It provides an overview of the mobile landscape, trends, case studies and a roadmap template. The roadmap template outlines assessing priorities, evolution of mobile marketing, category examples, and next steps including costs and commitments needed.
The document provides an overview of key mobile trends, with a focus on trends in Hong Kong. It summarizes that:
- Hong Kong youth have the highest mobile phone ownership rates in Asia, and over 30% of Hong Kong mobile users engage in social networking on their devices.
- When purchasing a new mobile phone in Hong Kong, content/applications is the second most important factor after look/feel.
- Popular social networking sites accessed on mobile devices in Hong Kong include Facebook, Yahoo, and Google.
Why the future of social marketing is globalTerence Ling
Worldwide social network advertising spending is expected to rise 31% in 2010 to $3.3 billion and increase another 29% in 2011 to $4.3 billion. While the US currently accounts for over half of this spending, international markets will see faster growth. Social networks have very high reach in countries like Brazil and Italy. Chinese social networks like QQ and Sina have hundreds of millions of users. Facebook is also growing rapidly outside the US. Meanwhile, homegrown social networks remain popular in individual markets across Europe and Russia. As social networks expand globally, they will become more attractive to large advertisers looking to reach multiple international markets.
This document summarizes surveys of over 500 advertisers, publishers, and developers about the state of the mobile apps industry in 2010. Some key findings include:
- The number of mobile apps developed by advertisers significantly increased from 2009 to 2010, especially for those developing 20-50 apps.
- Android and iPad saw the most growth as app platforms used by advertisers between 2009 and 2010, though iPhone still led.
- 71% of advertisers worked with a mobile ad network in 2010 to help with their app strategies.
- App budgets in 2010 moved away from cannibalizing online budgets, with budgets specifically for app development growing year-over-year.
- Advertisers, publishers,
This document discusses how humor has taken on renewed importance in digital marketing. It provides examples of how Google uses humor effectively in small ways throughout its products and services. It also analyzes new forms of humor that have emerged due to new technologies, such as manipulated photos and interactive jokes. The document concludes with recommendations for brands to take bold strategic risks with humor, understand the social context, and focus on emotive metrics in addition to analytics.
China is rapidly transforming from a factory economy to one focused on innovation and technology. While China was once known for mass producing cheap goods, it now manufactures many advanced electronics and is a top exporter. China is also increasing its investments in technological innovation, with the fastest growing patent numbers worldwide in 2009. Examples like electric car company BYD show China's move from factory to research and development. This evolution presents opportunities for both Chinese and foreign companies to collaborate and benefit from China's growing creative economy.
The document profiles different digital lifestyles that have emerged based on people's behaviors and attitudes online. It identifies 6 main groups: Influencers, Communicators, Knowledge-Seekers, Networkers, Aspirers, and Functionals. Each group is characterized by their demographics, frequency of internet use, digital engagement and consumption levels, and openness to brands. The profiles provide insight into evolving online behaviors to help understand digital consumers.
- The BRICI countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Indonesia) currently have over 610 million internet users and represent about 15% of global GDP.
- By 2015, internet users in the BRICI countries are projected to increase to over 1.2 billion, more than triple the number of users in the US and Japan combined.
- Personal computers are much less common than mobile devices in the BRICI countries, with only about 440 million PCs currently compared to over 1.8 billion mobile subscriptions. Growth of PCs and internet penetration via mobile phones is expected to drive increased internet and digital media consumption.
The document discusses how the rise of the internet and digital media has transformed society into a "virtual society" characterized by constant connectivity, free access to information, and expectations of immediacy and higher value from brands. It outlines how this has disrupted traditional media models and marketing approaches, requiring companies to adapt to new opportunities for interactivity, collaboration, and influence of consumer opinions online. The challenges for brands are to engage with consumers in this new environment and rethink linear marketing approaches.
Bittersweet China: New Discourses of Hardship and Social OrganisationTerence Ling
By Michael B. GRIFFITHS and Jesper ZEUTHEN
" This paper argues that new interpretations of 'eating bitterness' have firmly entered the landscape of China’s social organisation. Whereas the bitterness eaten by heroic types in China’s revolutionary past was directed towards serving others, now the aim of eating bitterness is self-awareness. Furthermore, bitterness-eating, which once pertained to rural-urban migrant workers as opposed to discourses of urban “quality” (㍐䍘, suzhi), has now also
been taken up by the urban middle classes. A new cultural distinction, therefore, adds dignity to migrant workers while potentially marginalising a wide range of unproductive people, both urban and rural. This distinction ultimately mitigates risk to the Chinese regime because the regime makes sure to reward those who eat bitterness. This paper is based on ethnographic data gathered in Anshan, from the rural areas surrounding Chengdu, and our analysis of a TV show about a peasant boy who becomes a Special Forces soldier."
This document summarizes findings from an international survey of over 7,900 parents and 3,100 children about parenting and childhood. Some key findings:
- Happiness is the top aspiration parents have for their children across all countries surveyed. Scandinavian and Benelux countries place the most importance on happiness.
- Parents seek advice from their own parents/in-laws, friends, doctors, and various media sources like books and websites. Doctors and their own parents are most trusted sources.
- Parents desire reliable information on parenting norms but find existing sources lacking. There is demand for trustworthy guidance but aversion to prescriptive advice.
1. The document discusses various frameworks for how advertising works, including the sales, persuasion, involvement, and salience frameworks. It explains concepts like using emotion, shock advertising, and developing brand awareness.
2. Strategic uses of advertising discussed include differentiating brands, reinforcing messages, and engaging customers. The FCB matrix combines involvement with rational/emotional thinking for ad strategies.
3. Case studies are provided on how companies like M&S, Sony Ericsson, Yellow Pages, and NesCafe have effectively used advertising frameworks and strategies.
This document provides a review of advertising ethics. It discusses several issues in advertising ethics, including deceptive advertising, advertising targeting children, and exploitation of sex/gender. It summarizes several studies that have examined topics like how advertising can influence children's preferences and how practitioners view ethics. The document concludes by noting that stakeholders like manufacturers share responsibility for issues like unhealthy eating habits among children, and not just advertisers.
The document discusses message strategies for advertising. It defines message strategy as the major selling idea that emerges as the strongest singular claim about a product or service that has broad appeal. It outlines four types of messages and explains that message consistency involves alignment between what a company says, does, and what others say about them. Finally, it discusses seven message strategy typologies including unique selling proposition, brand image, positioning, and affective strategies.
1) Word of mouth marketing, or "buzz", refers to person-to-person communication about a brand through verbal discussions, visual media, or online channels. Most buzz occurs through in-person interactions rather than online.
2) Studies show that buzz has a significant influence on consumer purchasing decisions globally. People also place the highest trust in recommendations from other consumers rather than from brands.
3) Major companies actively invest in word of mouth marketing techniques like encouraging user participation, fostering emotional connections, disseminating shareable content, and listening to customer feedback. Measurement of buzz is also increasingly important.
This document discusses the expanding role of public relations in organizational branding and messaging. It proposes that public relations can play an important role in crafting the brand narrative and using social media to facilitate conversations about the brand. As storytelling and social media have become important tools in branding, public relations practitioners are well-suited to these tasks due to their skills in relationship building, authentic communication, and two-way conversations. The integration of public relations into branding strategies can help organizations navigate today's consumer landscape that values transparency and social consciousness.
More Than a Product Launch: A Comparative Analysis of Selected Influencer Mar...Reanne Franco
A comparison of the #YSLBlackOpiumExperience and
#UDSummerNights influencer marketing events. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the selected influencer marketing events in the cosmetic industry.
The Brand University - How to make a sustainable, successful brandMinter Dial
The world of branding has, over a very condensed period of time, undergone a virtual and very real revolution as far as both the consumer and the employee are concerned. The challenge that companies are now facing is how to adapt effectively and efficiently to several convergent paradigm shifts. This white paper reviews some of the major changes and raises questions about the implications for today’s leaders. This paper’s position is that, more than ever before, companies need to evolve into Learning Organizations and that instituting a company-wide Brand University can offer a compelling way to accompany such a change.
The document provides 10 ways to produce effective content that sells based on analysis of award-winning campaigns.
1. Be creative - Creative campaigns that win awards outsell less creative campaigns by 11 times due to greater emotional appeal and exposure through social sharing.
2. Set hard objectives - Campaigns are 5 times more effective when objectives are sales or profit focused rather than awareness or image.
3. Aim for fame - Campaigns that increase a brand's fame through social media and PR outperform those with other strategies due to greater exposure.
4. Get a big idea - Brands with a cultural point of view stand for more and engage audiences, leading to increased exposure and sales.
RESEARCH DESIGN REPORTState Your Research StatementWhat is t.docxdebishakespeare
RESEARCH DESIGN REPORT
State Your Research Statement
What is the purpose of your survey?
To find out . . .
Whom would you survey to find first-hand information concerning your research statement?
Why did you choose this group of people to focus on?
What would you ask them about?
List at least three specific questions you would ask.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What type of survey would you use? (phone, email, etc.) Why would you choose that type?
What is the population for your survey?
Why did you choose this population?
What is your sample size?
Explain how your sample will be chosen.
Explain how the term random in relation to your survey.
Will you need a mathematical formula to choose your sample? Why or why not?
Is there a confidence level associated with your sample?
How will your data be collected? Provide all necessary details.
How will your data be analyzed? Why did you choose that format for analysis?
How will your data be interpreted? Will distribution and frequency tables and/or Chi Square play a role in your analysis?
Running head: EFFECT OF ADVERTISING ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SERVICE MARKETING
EFFECT OF ADVERTISING ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SERVICE MARKETING 3
Effects of Advertising on the performance of Service Marketing.
Research Statement
Purpose
The overall purpose of this research is to improve the understanding on advertising programs.
Background and Significance
According to Tellis & Ambler (2007) much knowledge about advertising and income it earns should not hinder anyone from learning that some effects lead to certain reactions, and such knowledge should be used to improve results and evade mistakes. The field of advertising management consists of systems of interacting institutions and organizations, all of which play vital roles during the advertising process. The core of the advertising process includes the organizations that provide the financial resources that support advertising.
According to Clow & Stevens (2009) the overall managerial and financial support are provided by the advertiser for developing advertisements and acquisition of media, time and space, although other institutions are involved during the process. A crucial point is developing an advertising program for the advertiser. In circumstances where several different commodities are offered by the advertising organization, separate programs may be developed for each.
Many (1981) analyzes that advertising today finds itself in serious binds. With a down economy, the 9/11 tragedy and new technology may threaten advertising as a strategic alternative. Advertising will only ensure survival and growth by focusing on its effectiveness. Advertisers expect results based on stated objectives. Clients anticipate proof that must lead to sales or actually yield sales.
Advertising plays a significant role in the society, predominantly in industrialized countries owning well established mass communications infrastructures. ...
This document provides an overview of the changing landscape of advertising and promotion. It discusses how the field is undergoing dramatic changes driven by advances in technology and the growth of digital media. Marketers are looking beyond traditional media and demanding better accountability from agencies. Advertising strategies now involve many media outlets and forms of "branded content" that blend advertising and entertainment. The large Madison Avenue agencies must change to survive, and marketers are allocating more funds to other promotional elements like sales promotion. The introduction prefaces an advertising and promotion textbook that covers these changes and prepares students for the new IMC-focused environment.
Making slogans and unique selling propositions (usp) beneficial to advertiser...Alexander Decker
This document discusses how advertisers can make slogans and unique selling propositions (USPs) beneficial for both advertisers and consumers. It argues that slogans should be concise to be memorable, while USPs should clearly differentiate a brand from competitors. The document also suggests that advertisers should ensure their products are truly unique by identifying an unmet consumer need. When slogans and USPs are crafted effectively in this way, they can satisfy both advertisers by increasing sales and consumers by providing value, creating mutual benefit.
DECEPTIVE ADVERTISING AND CONSUMER REACTION A STUDY OF DELTA SOAPLinaCovington707
DECEPTIVE ADVERTISING AND CONSUMER REACTION: A STUDY OF DELTA SOAP ADVERTISEMENT
Introduction
Deceptive marketing is false or misleading sales activities and information aimed at luring, coercing, seducing, persuading or enticing both potential and existing consumers of a product to patronize a trader, sellers or manufacturers of a product. It is an act of selling concept as the sole aim is geared towards the immediate conversion of goods to cash not minding the aftermath effect it may have on the buyer or consumer as well as the organization’s sales, sustenance and growth potentials. It can be perpetrated through personal selling, advertising, labelling packaging, catalogue, and deceptive tele-marketing. However, in the developed countries of the world such as America and Europe and even in some under-developed countries, deceptive marketing activities are criminal offences under the Competition Act. In addition, the Act governs various deceptive marketing practices, unsupported test claims and testimonials, misleading ordinary price claims, sending deceptive prize notices by mail or e-mail, certain types of multi-level marketing systems and misleading advertising. Specific provisions also supplement the Criminal Code rules regarding promotional contests.
Apart from addressing the serious issue of unusual sales drop and or new product failure in the market that could be occasioned by post purchase dissonance and lack of repeat purchase by the consumer as a result of the nefarious acts of deceptive advertising, it will be of great importance to traders in our various markets and the management of companies as suggestions will be given to the policy makers which also will serve as clues towards improving their marketing policies and programs towards maintaining and wooing both existing and potential consumers respectively.
Besides it will be useful to other organizations, industries and governmental agencies in the area of policy formulation and strategic marketing.
Deceptive advertising is an advertisement or marketing practice, which is considered deceptive if there is a "representation, omission, or practice that is likely to mislead the consumer". The advertisement does not only necessarily have to cause actual deception, but as noted by Federal Trade Commission (FTC, 1998), the act will likely mislead the consumer.
Although the immense ventures and endeavors have been observed on deceptive advertising which includes identifying and measuring deception but a very slim focus is given on its effects on Consumer loyalty. Deceptive advertising is so to speak as the use of fake or deceptive statements in publicity (Campbell, 1995). Deceptive publicity has been around since the inauguration of time and is still common today. Sometimes it is done innocently by an advocate; however, it is done with the intent in the direction of deceiving the consumers (Aaker, 1974). Generally it is perceived that deception in advertising (false claims) leads ...
The document discusses marketing trends and new paradigms. Traditional mass marketing is showing declining returns, while social media that facilitates word-of-mouth is on the rise. The new paradigm focuses on innovating to change social behavior rather than just selling products, finding influencers to spread ideas virally, and decentralizing control to engage customers.
The document provides information about the COM 537 Final Exam from the University of Phoenix, including 30 multiple choice questions covering various communication topics. It discusses communication types, social media criticisms, high-context vs low-context cultures, noise types, listening behaviors, proxemics, public relations roles, crisis communication planning steps, cognitive dissonance, semantics, transactional communication model components, leadership styles, stereotypes, and believing verbal vs non-verbal messages. The document is authored by an online education company providing exam preparation materials.
World Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 3. No. 4. July 2013 .docxambersalomon88660
The document discusses a study on the relationship between the Zeigarnik effect and consumer attention in advertisements. The Zeigarnik effect refers to how people better remember interrupted or incomplete tasks. The study examined how this effect relates to whether advertisements containing interrupted elements are better remembered by consumers. 204 respondents viewed various advertisements and were tested on their attention and recall. The results provided positive support that the Zeigarnik effect can improve consumer attention and memory of advertisements.
Select three advertisements from three different countries using tra.docxzenobiakeeney
Select three advertisements from three different countries using traditional advertising venues and Internet advertising venues. Assess how culture and ethics influence understanding the ad from each country.Incorporate concepts and examples from this week’s lecture in your post.
Week Three Lecture
Advertising Message
Welcome to the world of advertising! How many of you think advertisers unfairly influence us and “make” us buy items we do not need, cannot afford, and will not use? If you raised your hand or silently said “I do,” then you are among a majority of people who think advertisers will lie to encourage sales and believe consumers are helpless pawns in the corporate game of profitability.
Nothing could be further from the truth! Advertisers design catchy slogans, phrases, and songs to help us remember the points about a particular item the organization thinks will appeal to us. Did advertisers create the need? No! Did advertisers determine whether or not we wanted an item? Again, no! Although the psychology behind buyer motivation is the focus for another course, advertisers only use what is known to appeal to a specific group of buyers in hopes of affecting sales.
We are entering a world of bright lights, vivid colors, and every sensory perception will become aware when a commercial is on that appeals to something we have decided we need. Why do we want a Mercedes? Good quality? No, superior quality! But does it really cost $30,000 more to manufacturer a Mercedes than, say, a Ford? Most likely not. Then why do we have a mental image of a Mercedes as a premium product? Why, advertisers, of course! Keep in mind as we move throughout our course . . . advertisers work very hard to write messages and music that will appeal to us and motivate us into action.
The objective of advertising is to “inform, persuade, and reminder consumers about business and organizational products and other offerings” (Ogden & Ogden, 2014, section 4.1). There are three message executional frameworks: cognitive; affective; and conative, and how marketers determine which strategy has the highest probability of producing the desired effect on consumer behavior (Clow & Baack, 2012). Parker (2013) stated national universities tend to use more emotional, ego-based ads whereas regional universities tend to use more informational and rational ads. National universities use the affective message strategy, whereas regional universities use the cognitive message strategy. The key is to determine what type of message has the greatest chance of impacting consumer behavior.
Writing an advertising plan requires tedious and detailed concentration on many items. Figure 4.1 (Ogden & Ogden, 2014) in our text lists the ten steps in writing an advertising plan. As you can see from the figure, there is a tremendous amount of work involved in the planning. Today’s marketing managers are being held responsible for ROI within their allocated budget, so time must be taken to get th.
This document provides an abstract and introduction for a master's thesis that investigates whether single media or cross-media storytelling is more successful for affecting outcomes. The study compares the cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of a print-only storytelling campaign versus a print and internet cross-media storytelling campaign, while also considering the moderating role of consumer product involvement. The introduction reviews literature on storytelling in advertising, different storytelling formats and components, and research on the effectiveness of single media versus cross-media campaigns. The author aims to contribute new insights on using storytelling within a single medium and how media choices should differ based on consumer involvement levels.
According to a financial report from November 2010, company profits for the third quarter were down 12% year-over-year with net income of $148 million, revenues declined 5% to $3.35 billion, and there was a significant decline in profits across several business segments, with some segments seeing profit declines of over 25% or increases of over 200%.
1) Synovate revealed the annual results of its long-running Pan Asia Pacific Cross Media Survey (Synovate PAX) for 2010, tracking media and digital consumption, prosperity, and influence amongst affluent Asians across 11 markets.
2) The survey found that smartphone ownership in Hong Kong more than doubled over the year, while ownership of technologies like laptops, MP4 players, and HDTVs increased.
3) The results also showed that over half of affluent Hong Kong residents now own luxury items, with watches and jewellery being most popular, and ownership of financial products like mutual funds and life insurance remaining high.
The document discusses the concept of "six degrees" as an alternative approach to marketing compared to traditional "360 degree" marketing. It argues that six degrees, which is based on the idea that everyone is connected through six or fewer relationships, can create viral marketing effects through compelling content that people want to share. It provides three case studies where campaigns leveraged this approach to create engagement and advocacy for brands in different categories. The key is to resolve a cultural tension, create shareable content, and make it innovative, entertaining and useful so people will spread the message organically.
This document discusses drivers of online behavior and summarizes key findings from a report on digital consumers' activities and needs. [1] The most frequent online activities are social networking, email, news, sports and weather, which fall along an axis from entertainment to personal management. [2] Despite lower daily use than email, social networking attracts the highest total weekly usage. [3] Ecommerce interactions are seen as the least intrusive time for brands to contact consumers compared to social media or email.
The document provides an overview of insights and how simple, unexpected insights can be highly effective at connecting with consumers and driving business outcomes. It begins with the story of Bernard Sadow developing the wheeled suitcase in the 1970s based on his observation of a man towing heavy machinery on a dolly, demonstrating how acute observation can lead to impactful innovations. It then discusses how insights are most powerful when they are unexpected and cause reexamination of standards. Several case studies are presented to illustrate how leveraging simple insights into human behavior through creative executions can be compelling, such as the Swedish Armed Forces recruitment campaign and the Monopoly City Streets online game. The document emphasizes that gaining critical consumer insights requires curiosity and a refreshed perspective to
Social networking has become integrated into daily life for many online consumers. It has evolved from a core messaging platform to an aggregator of various online services. Consumers can now listen to music, watch videos, play games, and share their location on social networks. Multi-media integration is poised to be a major development, with networks that can make this seamless standing to gain. Brands should look to integrate multi-media into their social media campaigns. The effectiveness of social media strategies depends on the industry category, and tactics must vary by region to be most informative and inspirational.
The document discusses how digital media is transforming markets around the world. It notes that for many consumers in rapid growth markets, internet access is new and empowering as digital offers new experiences. These consumers are more engaged with digital channels and willing to have a voice online. As infrastructure continues to improve, consumers in the top tiers of rapid growth markets are poised to increasingly shape the digital landscape. Statistics show these consumers have more recently adopted the internet, see it as transformational, and are highly engaged daily users of digital media.
The document summarizes 10 presentation techniques used by Steve Jobs that made him a master storyteller. These include planning presentations like a movie, focusing on benefits rather than products, using visual slides instead of text, and practicing presentations extensively. The goal is to inform, educate, and entertain audiences the "Steve Jobs way."
The document discusses how the rise of digital media and the internet has transformed society into a "virtual society" characterized by constant connectivity, free access to information, and expectations of immediacy and higher value from brands. It outlines how this has disrupted traditional models of media consumption and the marketing funnel, requiring brands to rethink how they interact with and provide value to consumers in this new digital landscape. The virtual society is collaborative, social, and shaped by consumer opinions shared online through reviews and recommendations.
What makes social media trustworthy e marketerTerence Ling
A study found that social media users trust information posted by people they know the most. Blog posts were more trusted than Facebook posts, and Twitter posts were trusted the least, even from friends. The type of social media site also impacted trust, with Facebook and blogs being most trusted, followed by online communities, and Twitter being trusted the least. For content to be considered trustworthy, users valued open dialogue that allows both positive and negative comments, high quality content, and responsive content creators.
This document summarizes findings from an international survey of over 7,900 parents and 3,100 children about parenting and childhood. Some key findings:
- Happiness is the top aspiration parents have for their children across all countries surveyed. Scandinavian and Benelux countries place the most importance on happiness.
- Parents seek advice from their own parents/in-laws, friends, doctors, and various media sources like books and websites. Doctors and their own parents are most trusted sources.
- Parents desire reliable information on parenting norms but find existing sources lacking. There is demand for trustworthy guidance but reluctance to be prescribed to.
1. International Journal of Market Research
Vol. 50, No. 1, 2008
www.ijmr.com
Fifty years using the wrong model of advertising1
Robert Heath and Paul Feldwick
University of Bath School of Management
INTRODUCTION: THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL OF ADVERTISING
In 1999 a launch TV commercial for a snack food product aimed at teenagers was pre-tested. The commercial consisted of a pop song with meaningless
gibberish lyrics, accompanying a series of surreally linked and sometimes bizarre scenes. In each scene someone is eating the product, but the ad
contained no information as such about the product.
The research was conducted among teenagers using familiar 'impact and communication'-type questions such as 'Did this commercial give you enough
information about the product?' and 'Do you think someone would find this commercial easy to understand?' From such questions, average scores were
produced for constructs including 'ease of understanding', 'believability', 'relevance', 'branding' and 'persuasion'. On all these, scores were below norms.
The report drew the following conclusions:
This route does not seem to have worked very well ... it hampers understanding and comprehension of intended message.
The song acts as the biggest hurdle – there is a strong element of dislike which overrides message takeout, and impressions about the product.
... the taste, or other details about the product are hardly mentioned spontaneously.
The ad ... is seen in terms of its format rather than communication, which results in relevance, believability and persuasion being low. This is also
supported by the low ease of understanding score.
We feel it may not be appropriate to use this ad as a launch vehicle, given the above concerns. Probably a more simplistic route (a simple story line)
which emphasises the brand name and benefits clearly would work the best.
What is unusual about this case is not the research methodology or the constructs measured, which are typical of those used and indeed mandated by
many multinational corporations. What is unusual is that, for reasons of timing, the advertiser went ahead and ran the ad. The results were exceptional.
It became the most recalled and liked ad among teenagers and adults for three months in a row, in an independent survey of all advertising in its
geographical market. It achieved high spontaneous recall, with 93% liking the ad very much – especially the song. In fact, the campaign became 'the
talk of the town' with many mentions in the press, on TV shows, etc. Most importantly, the brand took a substantial share of the market.
It is not difficult to see why the research got it so wrong. The research report repeatedly concerns itself with constructs that have no relevance to an ad
that deliberately contains no information. Furthermore, the fact that the song that was so disliked in the research later proved hugely popular suggests
an important disconnect between the research environment – a teenager being played a song once or twice by a researcher who is probably the same
age as his parents – and reality – the same teenager hearing the song repeatedly in social situations among peers (cf. Gladwell 2005, Chapter 5).
In hindsight it seems hard to believe that responsible marketers could have invested their money in such a misconceived piece of research. Yet in our
experience this type of behaviour is far from atypical. It serves to demonstrate the extraordinary power of a mental model so deeply embedded in
organisational practice that it routinely overrules judgement. We call this the information processing (IP) model, an umbrella term commonly used in
academia in the US (Meyers-Levy & Malaviya 1999).
The core assumptions and beliefs of the IP model, as it applies to the case study above, are as follows:
q For any ad to be effective, it must communicate a clear (i.e. verbally describable) message about the product or service.
q Success in advertising is indicated by 'recall' of this message, which must also be 'believed' and 'understood'.
In addition, it is commonly held that:
q the advertising process is essentially a one-way communication from the advertiser to the consumer
q the role played by creativity and emotional elements is to support this communication, either by fostering liking of the advertising, which transfers
to the brand, or by increasing attention, which aids memory of the key message
q advertising is most effective when processed with high levels of attention and the active involvement of the viewer.
It should be noted that, in the context of this model, it is seen as perfectly acceptable, indeed advisable, for advertising to be tested in an environment in
which individuals are encouraged to give their full conscious attention to the advertising stimulus being tested.
The universal presence of this model in UK advertising is confirmed in a research study by Hall and Maclay (1991) into beliefs about advertising among
UK advertisers and agencies. They found the most common model in use was a hierarchy of effects persuasion model, which relied on impact,
noticeability, branding and communicating a message (1991, p. 17). They also identified a saliency model, which prioritised the creation of awareness,
2. and an involvement model, which stressed the role of advertising in creating relationships through affective means. But all these models strongly
endorsed the need for a 'unique selling proposition to be clearly established'. Their research suggests that most practitioners simultaneously hold beliefs
that represent different underlying models. It is not that people in advertising don't believe there is a role for creativity, or that building brand
relationships is unimportant. It is that, in practice, these 'softer' values are regarded as less important than, and subservient to, the communication of
information. Thus 'creativity' is fitted into the IP model using the argument that it improves levels of attention or memorability, or in some other way
makes the 'message' of the advertisement more powerful.
The current authors can testify from personal experience that various versions of this IP model have been in common use by practitioners and
marketers for at least the last 50 years, and that it underpins the beliefs of the vast majority even today. They can also testify that, for much of the
advertising produced by mainstream brand communications agencies, the model is of limited importance and in some cases completely irrelevant. Most
advertising practitioners intuitively believe that advertising influences behaviour not simply through the conscious processing of verbal or factual
messages, but by influencing emotions and mediating 'relationships' between the consumer and the brand. This leads to a benign conspiracy between
client and agency in which creativity and communication are able to coexist (Heath 2004). To support this conspiracy, huge resources of corporate
ingenuity are squandered in retrofitting successful campaigns to 'information processing' strategies. So we are led to believe that Heineken's famous
'Refreshes the parts ...' campaign worked mainly because it communicated the 'benefit' of refreshment, that the Guinness 'Surfer' ad is merely a
dramatisation of the 'benefit' that Guinness takes a long time to pour, and that the Andrex 'Puppy' is no more than a branding device that improves recall
that its toilet paper is 'soft, strong, and very long'. It is a bit like saying that King Lear is a great play because it is about families.
The IP model is continually reflected in the language that marketers use. For example, Duncan and Moriarty, writing in Advertising Age described
advertising as 'one-way communication: creating and sending messages' (1999, p. 44). And these same ideas are supported in academia. Jones
describes advertising as an activity that 'increases people's knowledge and changes people's attitudes' (1990, p. 237), and Meyers-Levy and Malaviya,
writing in the Journal of Marketing, consider 'only theories that adopt an information-processing perspective' (1999, p. 45). Ambler, writing about the
dominance of informational persuasion in the US, goes so far as to suggest that 'a challenge elicits much the same reaction as questioning your partner's
parentage' (2000, p. 299). Even Ehrenberg and Jones, who have popularised the terms 'strong theory' for information processing and conversion and
'weak theory' for emotional reinforcement (Ehrenberg 1974; Jones 1990), load the argument in the same way as the earlier expressions 'hard sell' and
'soft sell'. In an instrumental, modernist organisational culture, the concepts 'strong' and 'hard' will inevitably be valued, while 'weak' and 'soft' are
rejected.
But the most convincing evidence of the dominance of the IP model comes from the study of agency or client creative briefing forms. Almost all require a
statement of 'proposition' or 'message'; and those that do not, use language such as 'What is the one thing we want to say?' or ask for 'benefits' and
'support'. These formulas are perpetuated in corporate manuals – for example, Unilever's ABC (Attention, Branding, Communication) guide to
advertising, and the UK Account Planning Group's How to Plan Advertising (Cooper 1997, pp. 53–56). The IP model is also enshrined in marketing
textbooks and business schools – for example, 'Advertising strategy covers two major elements: creating the advertising messages and selecting the
advertising media' (Kotler et al. 2005, p. 766) and 'The message will usually emphasise the key facts that an advertiser wants to communicate' (Adcock
et al. 1998, p. 275). The IP model is, in effect, hard-wired into so many aspects of modern advertising working procedures and so much of the language
used in dialogue between agency and client, that it has taken on the status of a Kühnian 'paradigm', in which advertising people 'never learn concepts,
laws and theories in the abstract and by themselves. Instead, these intellectual tools are from the start encountered in a historically and pedagogically
prior unit that displays them with and through their applications' (Kühn 1996, p. 46).
One might argue that, if great and effective advertising continues to be produced, one should let well alone. As Tom Peters eloquently said, 'If it ain't
broke, don't fix it.' But it seems to us that the dominance of the IP model is increasing, and that it is market research that is driving this increase.
Advertisers, aware that their advertising might appear ineffective, respond by applying more control, more analysis and more measurement, in the
process strengthening the hold that the IP model has over the outcomes. The attempted solution exacerbates the problem in a vicious circle that can only
be broken by adopting some radically new assumptions.
In proposing a new way forward, we do not claim that it represents ultimate truth. Nor do we suggest that advertising never works through giving
information, or through conscious attention. But we do maintain that our recommendations fit much more closely the observed realities of most
successful advertising, and are likely to be infinitely more useful in practice.
Our paper is set out in four parts.
1. First, we trace the history of the IP model, show how it has been supported by an academic tradition based on cognitive processing, and review
some of the attempts to challenge it.
2. Second, we present some empirical evidence from psychology that highlights the inadequacy of the model.
3. Third, we consider the cultural beliefs and structures that support the dominance of this model, and relate these to scientific philosophy.
4. Finally, we show how advertisers and researchers need to change their philosophical stance, and summarise some of the implications this has for
practitioner and research practice.
ORIGINS OF THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
The information processing model may appear to be derived from 'common sense', but it is in fact a construction with deep historical roots. The ideas
and the words that dominate advertising's professional discourse – attention, recall, proposition, benefits, message – are mostly taken for granted as
simple descriptions of an objective reality, absolute truths beyond questioning. Yet in every case their ancestry can be traced back to influential
practitioners or academics of the past.
All we have space for here is to point to two major strands in the archaeology of advertising thinking. The first influential idea we examine is the analogy
of advertising to personal selling, which also provides the original genesis of the highly influential 'hierarchy of effects' models. The second, which also
derives in part from the first, is the model of advertising as 'message transmission'.
Salesmanship in Print
In 1903, John E. Kennedy told Albert Lasker that advertising was 'salesmanship in print' – a formula that helped Lasker make Lord and Thomas the
biggest agency in the world (Gunther 1960, p. 58).
Equating advertising with face-to-face selling was a simple and powerful idea. It especially made sense – and still makes sense today – in direct-
response advertising, where Lord and Thomas built its reputation. The split run had been available since the 1890s, and coupon responses were analysed
and used to fine-tune 'mail order' advertising. The learning from this – the idea that Taylorian efficiency could be applied to advertising – must have
seemed hugely impressive to clients. Claude Hopkins, Kennedy's successor at Lord and Thomas, wrote 'Advertising, once a gamble, has thus become ...
one of the safest of business ventures' (Hopkins 1998, p. 213).
3. What did 'salesmanship in print' mean in practice? For Hopkins, it meant 'hail a few people only' (the prospects), give them as much information as
possible, and then the opportunity to place the order (1998, pp. 220–225). Selling through advertising was for Hopkins a rational, information-based
process, with no room for humour or eccentricity. Selling itself had only recently evolved into a replicable process that could be taught, the first sales
manuals appearing in the 1880s for companies selling calculating machines (Friedman 1999). E. St Elmo Lewis, a salesman for the National Cash Register
Co., invented a four-step formula for selling – get attention, provoke interest, create desire, and then get action by closing the sale. A new opera by
Verdi provided a topical acronym: AIDA (Barry & Howard 1990).
It is interesting to note that all this took place before 'marketing' was enshrined as a recognised activity distinct from sales. The first recorded university
marketing course was not taught until 1902 (Bartels 1951), and even then it was an economic discipline, concerned mostly with the targeting of goods to
the most profitable groups. And advertising as a rational, fact-based sales activity fitted well with the economic imperative of order and control.
AIDA was only the first of a number of 'hierarchy of effects' models concocted by practitioners or academics. Among the most influential are those of
Daniel Starch in the 1920s ('advertising must be seen – read – understood – remembered – acted upon') and Russell Colley in 1961 ('advertising moves
people from unawareness, to awareness, to comprehension, to conviction, to desire, to action') (Barry & Howard 1990). The huge variety of possible
formulas makes it clear that these are all assumptions without any solid empirical basis. But when presented with the authority of successful practitioners
and academics, they sound intuitively appealing and commonsensical. They also provide simple templates for research, and once research
methodologies are adopted to measure attention or recall, research practice and theory become mutually supportive.
The power of these models had further implications. The sales analogy envisages the advertising task as the conversion of a prospect from non-purchase
to purchase. But this image is quite inappropriate in repeat purchase situations, which most advertising is about. Ehrenberg (1974) has shown that buying
behaviour is complex, and that it is often misleading to think of people as neatly divided into buyers and non-buyers of a brand.
The popularity of Starch ratings from the 1930s onward in the US – a syndicated reading and noting study that was sold as a proxy for measuring
'attention' to press ads – represented a major redefinition of 'attention'. It was no longer a case of 'hailing a few people only', as Hopkins said: to get the
high Starch ratings that clients demanded involved attracting the attention of all readers of a publication, prospects or not. To do this, agencies started
incorporating all the things Hopkins had forbidden: eye-catching pictures, funny headlines, white space, or the proverbial 'gorilla in a jock strap' (Ogilvy
1983, p. 161). This practice earned the contempt of old mail-order copywriters such as John Caples (Mayer 1958, p. 249), but helped develop a belief
within agencies, especially in creative departments, that maximising attention at all costs is of paramount importance. Bill Bernbach said, 'You can't sell
to a man who isn't listening', and in this remark we can see how the creative drive towards attention-getting advertising is legitimised for the client's ears
by linking it back to the model of advertising as face-to-face selling (Bernbach n.d.).
Advertising as Message Transmission
Rosser Reeves, head of the successful Bates agency, published an influential book in 1961 called Reality in Advertising in which he forthrightly stated his
own, updated version of Kennedy's definition: 'ADVERTISING IS THE ART OF GETTING A UNIQUE SELLING PROPOSITION INTO THE HEADS OF THE
MOST PEOPLE AT THE LOWEST POSSIBLE COST' (Reeves 1961, p. 121, author's capitals).
The word 'proposition' is another direct derivation from the selling model. But with this new emphasis, Reeves changed the underlying model of selling
from a four-step process to a single, reified object: the proposition. He justified this by asserting (without evidence) that 'The consumer tends to
remember just one thing from an advertisement – one strong claim, or one strong concept' (Reeves 1961, p. 34). In Reeves' metaphor, the proposition
occupies the consumer's brain, where it is assumed to influence behaviour.
In practice, a proposition is a verbal construct, therefore success in advertising was measured by whether the consumer could correctly repeat the
proposition when asked. The privileging of verbal communication over everything else is reflected in the language of advertising, in words such as copy
(often meaning the entire content of an ad) and message. For advertisers, reducing the power of advertising to a simple, verbal, proposition makes it
appear simultaneously rational, replicable, ownable and controllable. It therefore fits the culture of most organisations more comfortably than the
advertisement itself, which is a complex assemblage of visuals, sounds, patterns, and non-verbal cues. Meanwhile, the idea of the 'single-minded'
proposition is another, like attention, that has embedded itself firmly in agency creative departments, which continually demand briefs that are simple,
sometimes even ideally a single word.
Reeves' basic concept of communication is 'message transmission', and success is measured by the accuracy with which what leaves the sender arrives
intact at the receiver. This was an important concept in communications theory when Reeves was writing: in 1948 Claude Elwood Shannon, a
mathematician working for Bell Laboratories, defined the problem of communication as 'to reproduce at a given point in an exact or approximate way a
message selected at another point' (Mattelart & Mattelart 1998, p. 44, emphasis added). Shannon's work may have been useful for telephone engineers,
but it proved a blind alley in human communication. A few years after Reality in Advertising, Paul Watzlawick et al.'s Pragmatics of Human
Communication would turn communications theory on its head by recognising that human communication was a matter of continual social exchange,
involving a number of behavioural modes besides words, and that as well as being about content, it was perhaps more importantly about relationships
(Watzlawick et al. 1967). These ideas offer valuable alternatives to the message transmission model, but up to the present time have been almost
entirely ignored by advertising practitioners and academics.
Support for the IP Model from Academia
The activities of practitioners are influenced by academia through the market research industry and through what is taught in business schools. It is
unlikely that the IP model would dominate as strongly as it does without the support of an academic discourse, which works within the same fundamental
paradigm – dominated by cognition, with emotion relegated to a secondary role. Professor John Phillip Jones, for example, speaks of 'the rational idea
enclosed as it were in an emotional envelope ... The commercials should be likable – but the selling message must be unmistakable' (2002, p. 36,
emphasis added).
It isn't that other ideas have not been proposed. A substantial body of work in the 1950s (e.g. Gardner & Levy 1955; Martineau 1957; Dichter 1964)
argued for the importance of emotions, symbolic and non-verbal communication under the banner of the 'motivation' or 'depth' school of advertising
research. But the most influential model forthcoming was that of Lavidge and Steiner (1961), who devised a three-stage sequential model based upon
contemporary psychological thinking. Their hierarchy, Cognitive → Affective → Conative, left no doubt that the 'realm of cognition' was the key to
successful advertising, and emotion was a consequence of cognition whose influence was strictly limited to the decision-making areas of liking and
preference.
Emotion was not seriously addressed again until Holbrook and Hirschmann (1982) produced their hedonic experiential model, but even they demurred to
the dominance of the IP model, saying 'Abandoning the information processing approach is undesirable, but supplementing and enriching it with ... the
experiential perspective could be extremely fruitful' (1982, p. 138).
Meanwhile, cognition thrived, as witnessed by the popularity of Brock and Shavitt's cognitive response model (1983). The CRM held that, for advertising
messages to be effective, they needed not just to be received, but to be reinterpreted into the individual's own thoughts and rehearsed before being
stored (i.e. analysed). This rehearsal of one's own thoughts was seen as 'a more important determinant of persistence of persuasion than ... rehearsal of
message arguments' (1983, p. 91). These ideas led directly to advertising academia's 'most influential theoretical contribution' (Beard 2002, p. 72),
namely Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model. In the ELM there are two routes for persuasion – central and peripheral – which differ
4. according to 'the extent to which the attitude change that results ... is due to active thinking' (Petty & Cacioppo 1996, p. 256). The central processing
route is:
controlled, deep, systematic, and effortful ... When conditions foster people's motivation and ability to engage in issue-relevant thinking,
the 'elaboration likelihood' is said to be high. This means that people are likely to attend to the appeal; attempt to access relevant
associations, images, and experiences from memory ... (Petty & Cacioppo 1986, p. 128)
In other words, central processing is attentive, and it is evident from the word 'systematic' that this is what psychologists term goal-driven, or top-down,
processing. Peripheral processing, on the other hand, is 'automatic, shallow, heuristic, and mindless' and 'based on affective associations or simple
inferences tied to peripheral cues' (1986, p. 191). And although the ELM does not use emotion as a primary construct, the statement 'based on affective
associations' (1986, p. 191) shows that emotion is at work within peripheral processing. But Petty and Cacioppo make it clear that they see peripheral
processing as a weak advertising route, effective only if tied in to high levels of repetition. The high-involvement 'active thinking' central route is
favoured, because 'Attitude changes via the Central Route appear to be more persistent, resistant, and predictive of behaviour than changes induced via
the peripheral route' (1986, p. 191).
Challenges to the IP Model
There has been no shortage of challenges to the IP model. Critics 40 years ago were pointing to the lack of evidence for recall (Haskins 1964), creative
practitioners such as Bill Bernbach made the case that advertising should be considered as 'warm, human persuasion' (Bernbach n.d.), and research
conferences such as those of the MRS and ESOMAR have seen numerous award-winning papers challenging aspects of the IP model (e.g. Lannon &
Cooper 1983; Heath 1999; Tasgal 2003; Gordon 2005). Despite these assaults nothing much has really changed. One challenge of particular note was
made in the 1960s by leading members of the UK account planning movement, who articulated a coherent model of advertising that challenged the
conventional model on several key points: the dominance of the verbal proposition, the idea that advertising was solely about sales or conversion, the
privileging of rational content-based communication models over the symbolic or emotional mediating of relationships (Feldwick 2007). These were
repeatedly argued against by King (1967, 1977), Joyce (1967), Pollitt (in Feldwick 2000), Hedges (1974/1998) and others. And yet at a fundamental level
the belief systems embodied in client organisations and research protocols never shifted away from the conventional IP model, as witnessed by the APG
How to Plan Advertising document referred to earlier.
Academic challenges to the IP paradigm have likewise failed to make an impression on the world of advertising practice. Herb Krugman, as early as
1965, pointed out that much of the content of TV advertising was 'trivial and sometimes silly' and did not fit the traditional persuasion models prevalent at
the time.
Does this suggest that if television bombards us with enough trivia about a product we may be persuaded to believe it? On the contrary, it suggests that
persuasion as such ... is not involved at all and it is a mistake to look for it ... as a test of advertising's impact ... (1965, p. 353)
Working with Norman Mackworth in 1968, Krugman noted the 'relatively motionless, focused, or passive eye characteristics of TV viewing' (1977, p. 8),
and went on to test the brainwaves of a subject watching TV and reading press advertisements (1971). But his conclusion that television is a medium of
'low involvement' compared to print encouraged advertisers to expend even more energy on getting viewers to pay attention.
A second attack by Andrew Ehrenberg proposed that advertising 'is not as powerful as is sometimes thought, nor is there any evidence that it actually
works by any strong form of persuasion or manipulation' (1974, p. 25). His 'reinforcement' model advanced a theory that 'Advertising's main role is to
reinforce feelings of satisfaction with brands already being used' (1974, p. 33). Ehrenberg saw reinforcement advertising working by taking 'an emotional
instead of an informative tone' (1974, p. 27), but his most controversial assertion was that attitude change was not a mandatory precursor to purchase;
in this respect he was constructing a model similar to peripheral processing in Petty and Cacioppo's ELM. The difference of course was that Ehrenberg
saw this type of advertising as being highly effective, and Petty and Cacioppo regard it as being relatively ineffective.
In later work Ehrenberg focused more on the role that advertising has in creating 'creative publicity' (Ehrenberg et al. 2002), expressing the view that
'advertisements can be effective ... simply through publicising the brand memorably, without having to “persuade” consumers that the brand is better
than they thought before' (2002, p. 11). But it is significant that, nearly 30 years after his reinforcement model was first published, he still in his opening
paragraph feels the need to challenge the persuasive IP model: 'Many people seem to believe that advertising has a primarily persuasive
function' (2002, p. 7).
Others have attempted to contest the IP model. Ambler puts the blame for the dominance of cognitive persuasion on the measurement process: 'When
you get marketing and advertising research showing that logical persuasion (cognition) is important, probably the reason is that they did not measure
anything else' (1998, p. 501). Later he proposed a memory affect cognition (MAC) model based on findings by Damasio, in which he suggests that
cognition can operate as an influence only if affect is in agreement (Ambler 2000).
Heath (2001) published a formal 'low involvement processing' model (later known as low attention processing model), which set out a number of
psychological principles that underpin the operation of advertising at low levels of attention. His model is based on three basic ideas:
1. Damasio's contention that emotions underpin decision-making, not cognition, and that emotion is processed without the need for active attention
to be paid (1994, 1999).
2. Schacter's research, which shows the power of implicit memory and its ability to interact with semantic memory (1996).
3. Dennett's evidence that conscious thinking is a function of subconscious mental processes, not a driver of them (1993).
Heath's model has been widely publicised (e.g. Bullmore 2001; Kaess 2002), and his thinking has been supported and developed by others (e.g.
Cramphorn 2004; Gordon 2006). But a typical reaction by research companies has been to attempt to negate Heath's findings by attributing a 'lesser'
level of influence to low attention processing and a 'greater' level of influence to high attention processing (Hollis & DuPlessis 2002; Mundell et al. 2006).
In effect, as Ambler predicts, these attacks use measures derived from the IP model as evidence to support an assertion that the IP model is more
important than any other interpretation. Like the man searching for his keys under the streetlamp, it assumes if you can't see it then it can't be very
important!
Another response by research companies is to assume that the context in which advertising is consumed – in the case of TV, most often comfortably
seated in the evening following a long day at work – doesn't matter. Cramphorn, for example, diligently applies regression to construct a very convincing
'integrative model', and supposedly shows that 'level of attention ... contributes directly to increase purchase intention' (2006, p. 268). But he takes no
account of the fact that his test advertisements are exposed three times in isolation in 'numerous environments, including private homes, shopping
centres, offices, and hotels' (2006, p. 259). He also ignores the fact that his measure of attention is self-reported, oblivious of the fact that people are
quite unable to assess how much or how little attention they actually pay towards advertising (see Heath & McDonald 2007, discussed below).
Why this matters so much is that it is advertising research that underpins the IP model, and reinforces and perpetuates its dominance among marketers.
As David Penn observes 'the model that still implicitly (and often explicitly) underpins much of contemporary advertising research ... assumes a rational
5. consumer who cognitively and consciously processes information received from advertising and is able to play it back to interviewers, through the
medium of recall' (Penn 2006, p. 516). He concludes that this model probably made sense in the 1950s and 1960s, but suggests it is 'improbable' that it
explains how modern advertising works.
The authors can sympathise with these defensive reactions. After all, if advertising were to be shown to work without the need for a message, and
without the need for high levels of attention and recall, then many of the metrics that have dominated advertising research over the last 25 years, which
have become enshrined in databases and norms throughout the industry, start to come under threat. So what hard evidence is there that the IP model is
wrong?
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE THAT THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL IS FLAWED
In the past there has been little in the way of empirical evidence to support the idea that advertising can work without imparting a rational informational
message. Partly this is because advertising evaluation has historically been dominated by metrics that measure cognitive thinking rather than feeling
(Wiles & Cornwell 1990). The problem is compounded by the difficulty of isolating and measuring the impact of non-cognitive elements on the feelings
and behaviour of the target market. As Vakratsas and Ambler observe, 'cognition usually intervenes in measurement. Asking about feelings brings
cognitive processes into play and induces cognitive bias' (1999, p. 32).
But in the last few years empirical evidence contradicting the IP model has been forthcoming from psychology. For example, experimental work by
Kathryn Braun has confirmed Ehrenberg's claim that advertising can operate as post-purchase reinforcement. Braun (1999) created samples of orange
juice of varying quality and gave it to subjects to taste, claiming it was a trial for a new brand. Following a distraction task, half the subjects were
exposed to advertising for the brand. It was found that the advertising confounded the subject's ability to judge accurately the quality of the juice,
leading to substandard product being highly rated. She concluded that 'advertising received after a direct product experience altered consumers'
recollection of both objective sensory and affective components of that experience' (1999, p. 332).
The need for attention to be paid for advertising to work has also been challenged empirically. D'Sousa and Rao (1995) exposed subjects to repeated
radio advertising for a mature market in a divided-attention situation. Small but significant increases in top-of-mind brand awareness, predicted brand
share and brand choice resulted from increased repetition, showing that advertising can influence choice when repeatedly exposed at low attention. And
Shapiro et al. (1997) provided evidence that advertising can work when processed without any attention. They used a computer-controlled magazine in
which previously unexposed test advertising was placed in a column to one side while attention was constrained on the centre column via the
performance of two tasks. A test group worked on material where the ads were present and a control group on material where the ads were absent. The
results showed that consideration of the advertised product increased, despite subjects being unable to fixate on the advertising. They concluded that
'Advertising has the potential to affect future buying decisions even when subjects ... do not process the ad attentively and ... do not recollect ever
having seen the ad' (Shapiro et al. 1997, p. 102).
Shapiro's conclusions depend on the application of implicit (i.e. non-conscious) memory in advertising processing. Goode (2007) has investigated the role
of implicit memory in a real-life case study of Virgin Trains advertising. Using a technique known as 'process dissociation' he has shown that ads can
work at a subconscious level, and this can explain why creative ads often fail in conventional qualitative research. He concludes that 'it is likely that one
potent way an ad can exert an effect is at a “sub-conscious” level, driven by implicit memory' (Goode 2007, p. 110).
Recent Research into Attention
Krugman's assertion that TV advertising is low involvement compared to press has recently been verified (Heath & McDonald 2007). Level of attention,
defined as the amount of cognitive resource being used, cannot be measured through self-report – people have no idea at any moment how much
'thinking' they are or have been doing – and attempts to get real-time measurement of attention merely serve to increase it. Heath and McDonald
therefore used a head-mounted gaze-tracking camera, which tracks and measures minute autonomic eye movements, which indicate very accurately
how much attention is being paid at any one time (Kroeber-Riel 1979; Deubel & Schneider 1996; Corbetta et al. 1998; Underwood et al. 2003). Gaze
tracking measures only visual attention, but visual and auditory attention are well linked unless distraction occurs (Schmitt et al. 2000). So provided that
subjects are reading newspapers or watching TV in a normal comfortable environment without external distraction, the two systems will be well linked.
However, attention is very sensitive to influence. If you are told that you are going to be looking at some advertising, you will automatically pay more
attention to it. For this reason, Heath and McDonald's research was carefully designed to give no indication that advertising was the main focus. Instead,
subjects were told they were taking part in a pharmacological study to test the effect of TV watching on the eyes. Real newspapers were used and a real
TV programme was shown. The newspaper reading was introduced before the TV watching, ostensibly as a way of allowing the subject to get used to the
equipment, and current editions of The Times and the Sun newspaper made available. After 10–12 minutes, respondents were asked to watch an episode
of Frasier containing three ad breaks, each with five ads. So during neither TV watching nor newspaper reading were subjects aware that advertising was
the focus of the research.
The results, shown in Table 1, were very revealing. Note that attention is expressed in fixations per second relative to the TV programme (FPSr).
Table 1: Results of Heath & McDonald (2007)
This suggests that the average attention paid towards TV advertising is between one-third and one-half that paid towards newspaper advertising. In other
words, Krugman's findings were right, and TV advertising is indeed low attention compared with press advertising.
But what was even more revealing was the nature of processing observed. With newspaper reading the processing was clearly systematic, with ads
sometimes briefly fixated, sometimes carefully read. Rarely did the eyes wander over the paper aimlessly, and subjects did not look away from the
newspaper except when they changed to read another newspaper. With TV, processing was completely different. A few subjects started by watching the
screen carefully and followed the action, but most watched in a 'lazy' way, exactly matching Krugman's description of 'motionless, passive eye
characteristics'. Some looked directly at the screen, but others continuously scanned from side to side across it, never looking directly at the screen at
all. At least one subject fell asleep just before the centre ad break, despite it being 11 o'clock in the morning. What this suggests is that TV watching is
nothing like as systematic as the information processing model assumes it is, and certainly nothing like the focused, goal-driven behaviour one would get
in an artificially contrived research situation with an ad being exposed on its own. And why should it be? As Tellis observes, people 'do not yearn for
ads' (1998, p. 121), and when bombarded by advertising they use selective attention to 'simply ignore most messages that reach them' (1998, p. 120).
Recent Research Supporting the Power of Emotional Content Over Information
The information processing model is, not surprisingly, based upon an assumption that brand choice is driven largely by information, and that recall of
information is therefore a critical factor in determining whether advertising has been successful. This contradicts the findings of experimental psychology,
6. where decision making has been shown to be driven as much by emotions as by knowledge and reasoning (Damasio 1994, 1999, 2003). Research has
also shown that advertising with high levels of emotion is discriminated against by recall metrics (Heath & Hyder 2005; Heath & Nairn 2005).
Even more compelling evidence for the power of emotion in driving brand choice is presented by Heath et al. (2006). This study started by testing online
a total of 43 currently on-air TV ads (23 in the US and 20 in the UK) for their emotional and rational content using a research technique called the CEP™
Test (Cognitive Emotive Power Test). This quantifies two constructs: Cognitive Power™ which measures the potency of the message and rational
information in the advertisement, and Emotive Power™, which measures the potency of the emotional content or creativity in the advertisement.
A second independent sample was then recruited to evaluate the effect that the ads had had. Respondents were asked their favourability towards each
brand using a 10-point scale, and were then shown selected video clips of each of the advertisements to ascertain whether they had seen them before.
The brand favourability scores were then split between those who did and did not recognise the advertisement. The difference in favourability was taken
as an indication of how much the advertising has influenced perceptions of the brand while on air.
With these two data sets it was possible to examine the correlation between the three different constructs: Emotional Content (Emotive Power™),
Rational Content (Cognitive Power™) and difference in Brand Favourability. Despite differences in advertising styles across the two countries, the results,
shown in Table 2, are consistent. Emotive Power™ showed a significant linear relationship with the shift in favourability, but Cognitive Power™ showed no
significant relationship at all.
Table 2: Results of Heath et al. (2006)
So the experimental results show clearly that it is the emotional 'creative' content in advertising that builds favourability, not the rational message. This
again contradicts the idea in the information processing model that it is the communication of the factual message that gives advertising its power.
The results of these various studies leave no doubt that the assumptions made in the information processing model – that advertising is a mechanism for
the transmission of factual information, best processed at high attention, and facilitated by emotional creativity – are flawed. How, then, is it that this
model has survived for nearly a century?
WHY IS THE IP MODEL SO RESISTANT TO CHANGE?
It is evident from the number and variety of challenges that the IP model has resisted that this is not simply a disinterested and transparent debate
about the best way to create effective brand communications. It seems as if the IP model must be satisfying unrecognised needs that in practice
outweigh its failings as a means to its ostensible end. These are not instrumental needs, because the IP model clearly doesn't work very well. This fact is
frequently obscured by success in advertising mostly being defined by intermediate measures based on constructs from the IP model (Heath & Nairn
2005) – a self-fulfilling and self-sustaining situation that places the IP model itself outside the possibility of criticism. Additionally, it can be argued that
tacit support has been lent to the model by claims that it is impossible to measure the effect of advertising on sales (Colley 1961, pp. 10–12; Reeves
1961, p. 4; Lucas & Britt 1963, p. 16).
This however does not fully answer why the model has been so appealing and enduring. We hypothesise that at a deeper level it answers social or
cultural needs: first, within the organisations that are involved in creating advertising (advertisers, agencies and researchers); and, second, in society as
a whole and the relationships that it has with advertising. These are of course complex matters and our ideas here must be considered as speculative.
The IP Model in the Organisation
Postmodern theories of management point out that organisational cultures are substantially based on modernist principles of order, control and
rationality, with a strongly realist ontology and a positivist epistemology (Alvesson & Deetz 2005, p. 61). In other words, organisations tend to work on
the basis of argument, analysis, measurement and factual proof (however illusory the practice of these may be). Within certain limits, such cultures can
be highly effective in making the right decisions and efficient in implementing them. However, they can be very badly adapted to dealing with creative
processes, with emotional decisions, or in general with anything that cannot explicitly be verbalised and/or measured. This has always created a tension
in the creation and judgement of advertising, familiar to anyone who has ever been involved in the process: a contest if you like between intuitive
judgement and the organisational need for measurement and logic.
In this context the powerful attraction of the information processing model is that it appears to translate a chaotic, intuitive process into one that can be
pinned down in words, analysed with logic, and measured. It does this by projecting on to the consumer's choice behaviour the same sort of rational,
fact-based approach that is recognised and valued in the organisation.
As we have already observed, most practitioners believe they have incorporated the importance of emotions and of creativity into their mental models,
but it is the IP model that gives them permission to do this without transgressing the notion of a fundamentally rational organisational worldview. The IP
model persists precisely because it keeps creativity firmly in its place, as the servant of a process that can be presented as fundamentally subject to
rational analysis and control. 'Creativity' comes to assume the same role in the corporate worldview as the spiritual world does in Cartesian dualism: it is
allowed to exist and be talked of as if it were important, but because it has no measurable reality and cannot be subject to analysis and control it is for
7. all 'scientific' purposes non-existent (Midgley 2001). 'Creativity' itself, then, becomes a field in which nothing is rational, nothing can be articulated, no
authority allowed except that of the creative genius, just as the spiritual realm is imagined as a space in which science has no sway. All this creates an
alternative power base for the creative priesthood, comfortably separate from the rationalist corporate culture, with its own criteria for success embodied
in peer approval and the all-important creative awards.
For the marketing organisation, then, the IP model fulfils a need to remain consistent with the organisational myths of rational decision making,
replicability and control. It does this by reducing the essence of the creative content to a single proposition or idea that can be owned, replicated and
controlled; by envisaging the communication process as a mechanistic transfer of this unit of information whose efficiency can be measured; and by
projecting on to the consumer's choices the same myth of rational decision making that the organisation values internally.
The IP Model in Society
The IP model, and its origin in the idea of 'salesmanship', also plays an important role in the way advertising is viewed by society at large, and in its
'licence to operate'. As long as advertising presents itself as offering essentially factual information to consumers who make conscious and rational
decisions, it is seen to play the role of the 'honest advocate' and will therefore be allowed a considerable amount of freedom. If, however, advertising is
seen as operating on the emotions, or on a non-conscious or non-rational consumer, it may be criticised as manipulative, or brainwashing. Note, for
instance, the hysterical responses to the story of 'subliminal advertising' that took place in 1957 (Robinson 1998). Such anxieties are founded on the
belief that human beings are essentially rational, homo economicus, and yet at the same time at the mercy of their 'lower nature', whether this is named
as 'the passions' or the Freudian 'unconscious': part of a long cultural history stretching through the Enlightenment and back to the Ancient Greeks that
'reason' is a sound and virtuous guide, while the 'passions', or emotions, are dangerous, foolish and evil.
In the 1950s the so-called 'motivational researchers' attempted to make sense of consumer behaviour in terms of emotional needs, symbol and
metaphor, and the Freudian unconscious. This approach enjoyed considerable success, and is well represented in Martineau's (1957) book Motivation in
Advertising. Just as this appeared, however, so did The Hidden Persuaders (Packard 1957), which presented much of the same material to the general
public as sinister brainwashing. The title of Rosser Reeves' book, Reality in Advertising, was clearly chosen as a riposte to Martineau. As he anchors the
advertising process firmly back in the realms of the 'selling proposition', Reeves includes a chapter called 'The Freudian hoax', in which he makes his
position very clear: 'there are no hidden persuaders. Advertising works openly, in the bare and pitiless sunlight' (1961, p. 70).
So it is in part the fear of being seen as manipulators of the unconscious that keeps advertisers and agencies from admitting even to themselves the
power of low attention processing, or the emotional effects of advertising. The Hidden Persuaders shows that their fears are not entirely groundless. But
the idea that low attention processing and the emotional effects of advertising equate to something sinister, irresistible and evil is, we suspect, a social
construction based on a myth about how human beings communicate and choose.
In summary, we believe that the IP model has retained its dominance not because it works, but because it appears to make the advertising process
verbal, rational, measurable and subject to conscious control. It fits both our organisational value systems and the fiction of a rational consumer, as part
of an Enlightenment worldview. Any other model is regarded as dissonant with these deeply held values, and is therefore either rejected as 'soft' and
ineffectual, or as excessively powerful in a sinister way.
Philosophical Perspective
The fact that these two positions are mutually contradictory should perhaps warn us that we are dealing here with deeply entrenched mythologies rather
than logic. Students of scientific philosophy will recognise a clear analogy between the positivist stance of marketing, in which 'no statement is
meaningful unless it is capable of being verified' (Crotty 1998, p. 25), and the humanistic Constructivist approach proposed by Hirschmann (1986). The
Positivist view is that only things that are 'apprehendable' and 'perceivable' have any real meaning, and all theory should be based upon constructs that
are directly measurable. The extent to which this attitude pervades marketing is illustrated by the adoption of awareness as a proxy measure of attention
(Brown 1994). The Constructivist view is that all things are relative, a consequence of the individual, and that all research therefore has to explore
beyond the directly measurable. Constructivist epistemology sees factors such as feelings and emotions as critical to the understanding of ontology, and,
as personal constructs, it classifies them as being researchable only via qualitative methods. The Positivist epistemology, on the other hand, sees
feelings and emotions as irrelevant to what is a fundamentally 'realist' ontology, and finds meaning only in quantitative research.
The solution to this standoff was provided by Shelby Hunt, who developed an approach he called 'Contemporary Empiricism' (Hunt 1993). This in effect
drew on the beliefs of the school of Critical Realism, which is credited as being founded by Roy Bhaskar (Collier 1994). It is the Critical Realism
philosophical approach that we see as providing a way out of the straitjacket of the IP model.
THE WAY FORWARD
Critical Realism proposes an epistemology that Bhaskar describes as 'transcendental idealism', defined as 'Beyond the limits of possible experience and
knowledge' (Bhaskar 1975). It accepts the idea of a fundamentally realist ontology, but sees it as comprising multiple levels not all of which are fully
comprehendible. The important thing about Critical Realism is that it allows a scientific approach but at the same time frees up thinking and hypothesis
generation to include 'that which cannot necessarily be observed or verified'. As Robson observes, it is a pragmatic approach which acknowledges that
'positivism has been discredited but avoids the divorce from science' (2002, p. 43).
Roberts (2001) identifies one of the strengths of Critical Realism as its ability to satisfy 'a strong impulse ... to explore how the ideas we might hold about
society are in fact contradicted by underlying structures' (2001, p. 668). This is exactly what we find in new learning from psychology, where the
workings of the mind have been exposed by the work of Zajonc, Damasio, Dennett, Le Doux, Schacter, Wilson and others. What they have shown is that
we are continually influenced by subconscious perception: we cannot function as human beings in any other way. It is because of this that the decisions
we make are always influenced by and sometimes entirely driven by emotions and feelings (Damasio 1994, 2003). These truths are not sinister new
techniques dreamt up by evil scientists, but the way we are, and they apply to our buying behaviour just as to anything else. This thinking is brought into
sharp perspective by Watzlawick et al. (1967), who found human communication to be a continuing process of maintaining or modifying relationships
through all aspects of our behaviour. In this process, what appears to be content (in the sense of verbal message) is frequently of very secondary
importance. It is the 'metacommunication' – the signals that are responded to without conscious attention – that influences feelings and relationships.
These ideas offer a more plausible explanation of how 30 seconds of apparent nonsense, watched through half-closed eyes, can affect brand preference
and buying behaviour, than the old idea of the 'selling proposition'. It is true that informational content and conscious processing have important roles to
play in certain types of advertising, but in the bigger communication picture they are always going to be secondary to the context in which they occur.
What Petty and Cacioppo dubbed as 'peripheral' is in fact the main story, because in most cases what you say is less important than how you say it (or
show it, or sing it, or imply it, etc.).
Implications for Advertisers
If advertisers are to start to operate within a Critical Realism framework, what will they need to do? Certainly abandon some of their comfortable
Positivist beliefs, such as the notion that advertising operates mainly as a rational communication vehicle. They will also have to accept that visuals,
sounds, symbols, music, gestures, context and a host of other things are not aids to recall or attention (or 'engagement'), but exist in their own right as
8. central elements in communication. They will have to understand that people can be powerfully influenced by communication that is processed with low
attention and of which they have no conscious recall, and that decision making is always rooted in the emotions and is often influenced by associations
below the level of consciousness. And they will have to accept that communication operates across a spectrum of responses, and must be planned and
executed not just on the level of explicit content, but on a holistic basis that includes implicit communication.
These principles have major implications for the relationships between advertisers and agencies. For example, clients and agencies will need to take on
board the obvious but oft-denied truth that advertising that contains no 'message', 'proposition' or 'benefits' is not necessarily deficient, and that attempts
to impose them or post-rationalise them generally reduce effectiveness. And creative departments will have to abandon their obsession with simple,
functional briefs and creating 'impact', in favour of creativity that influences emotions and brand relationships – which in truth is what the best creative
work has always done, normally in spite of prevailing theory rather than because of it.
Implication for Market Research
The implications of Critical Realism for the research industry are if anything more extreme, because it is research that addresses directly the issue of
comprehending the reality. And if, as Critical Realism suggests, reality exists on multiple levels, then research, quite simply, must take account of these
levels.
Here are some key observations.
q At the moment, advertising research focuses mostly on what can be directly verified. Awareness and recall can be verified by asking the
respondent to confirm what they have learned. But, on another level, it is patently the case that people also learn and are influenced by things
they forget, possibly in toto to a greater extent than things they remember. So research has to stop focusing on what people remember and start
focusing on how they behave. Increased preference for or favourability towards brands is, after all, what advertising's true objective is, not recall.
q In the same vein, research also has to stop using just what people 'think' as the basis for judgement, and start measuring what they 'feel'.
Feelings and emotions may be hard to 'apprehend', but they are there nonetheless. Whether people smile, laugh or chat animatedly about an ad
tells you a lot more than a question about whether they think something is interesting or amusing. And it should not be forgotten that there are a
multiplicity of new physiological research systems coming online that are able to measure directly emotional reactions.
q This is particularly the case with constructs such as attention and engagement. It is facile to use self-report to assess how much attention
someone will pay to something, when attention (other than at the highest active level) operates entirely beyond people's will. People have not the
least idea how much attention they are paying at any moment in time: you can ask them if they find something interesting, but that does not
necessarily equate to how much attention they will pay.
q Perhaps the most far-reaching change is that Critical Realism requires minimum 'abstraction', defined as the extent to which research is removed
from the reality of real-life experience (Sayer 1992, pp. 86–87). Unlike Constructivism, Critical Realism allows the use of experimental research,
but since the philosophy encompasses unobservable and indeed potentially unexperienceable causal effects then the extent to which the research
context is 'abstracted' from reality becomes especially important. In the case of TV it is unarguable that showing advertisements three times in a
row out of programme context, to people in a hall or shopping mall or on the internet, is an abstraction from reality. People mostly watch TV in
their own homes in the evening when they are tired and sleepy and sometimes surrounded by distractions. Making the assumption that this
doesn't matter is just bad science. What researchers should do is design practical and effective ways of disguising their intentions and getting
accurate findings. It can be done, as evidenced by Heath and McDonald (2007).
q Finally, it should be stressed that Critical Realism does not simply mean a wholesale switch to qualitative research. Critical Realism endorses the
idea of causality, believing that 'The world consists of mechanisms, not events' (Bhaskar 1975, p. 47). This means that it also endorses, indeed
demands, quantification in measurement.
In summary, research in advertising must become more intelligent and sensitive, remembering that human communication is not simple stimulus-
response message transmission, but a complex system. Advertising has become adept at exploiting emotion: O2 , for example, has emerged at the top
of the mobile phone market with totally forgettable blue bubbly TV ads containing no message (Cox et al. 2004). Research has to be clever enough to
judge emotional campaigns like this. It has to be clever enough to evaluate campaigns like the Marlboro Cowboy, which never had a propositional
message, yet still dominates the minds of almost every young person in the western world. It has to be clever enough to tell that policemen wiggling
their feet (Heineken) and surfers waiting for a wave (Guinness) might give birth to two of the most famous beer campaigns of all time, and that an urchin
freewheeling down a hill to the strains of Dvorak's 'New World Symphony' (Hovis) might create an extraordinarily potent food campaign; that a Princess
Diana look-alike jettisoning her furs (VW Golf) and two idiotic oversexed French aristocrats (Renault Clio) might decide the two brand leaders in the small
car market for over a decade. And that a Puppy (Andrex) might rewrite the rules of the toilet paper market (Baker 1993, pp. 53–74, 75–99, 234–253).
To do this, research needs to embrace and understand psychology, and develop techniques that are grounded in a proper understanding of how human
beings conceptualise and make decisions. It must ensure that any research technique is fully consonant with the assumptions made about how that
particular campaign will work, and it must also make sure those assumptions are soundly based.
Researchers have a choice. They can continue to serve up what the market wants, continuing to sell traditional remedies that they must recognise are
inadequate. Or they can take the responsibility for challenging traditional thinking in clients and agencies, and work with them to develop new
methodologies that will offer advertisers a real competitive advantage. We hope that, instead of continuing to defend the status quo, enough researchers
will take the latter route, otherwise the next 50 years may well continue to perpetuate the errors of the last.
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