WAINGEREZA NA BAADA YA UHURU
Baada ya vita kuu ya pili ya dunia Tanganyika ilikuwa chini ya utawala wa mwingereza. Wakati wa utawala huo shughuli za utawala, kidini na biashara zilikuwapo zikiendelea.
Uenezaji wa dini ya kikristo uliendelea chini ya wamisionari ambapo kama ilivyokuwa kwa tawala zilizopita walifungua shule, hospitali, vyuo vya ufundi ambako lugha ya kiswahili ilitumika kama lugha ya kufundishia.
Lahaja za Kiswahili zimekuwa zikichanganya watumiaji wengi na watu wengi wanaojifunza lugha ya Kiswahili, hivyo matini hii imekusudia kuondoa mkanganyiko huo.
Karibu
Huu ni uwasilishaji wa nadharia ya Pijini na Krioli. Kwa upande mwingine uwasilishaji huu unatathimini asili ya kiswahili katika mrejeo wa nadharia hii.
Mahususi kwa wanafunzi wa kidato cha tano na sita.
Part of a full series of ppts on curriculum development available on EFL Classroom - https://community.eflclassroom.com/forum2/topics/elt-curriculum-development
KUONGEZA MSAMIATI WA KISWAHILI
UUNDAJI WA MANENO.
MANENO
Kwa kawaida hakuna lugha inayojitosheleza kimawasiliano na kimantiki hivyo hakuna lugha iliyo bora kuliko nyingine.
Sarufi Matamshi (Fonolojia). Hii ni sehemu ya mada ndogo katika mada kuu ya Matumizi ya Sarufi kwa kidato cha Tano na Sita nchini Tanzania. Jisikie huru kutoa maoni yako na ushauri. Nitafurahi kama ukinipigia simu au ukinitumia barua pepe kunikosoa au kunirekebisha pale nilipokosea. Asante na karibu sana.
Lahaja za Kiswahili zimekuwa zikichanganya watumiaji wengi na watu wengi wanaojifunza lugha ya Kiswahili, hivyo matini hii imekusudia kuondoa mkanganyiko huo.
Karibu
Huu ni uwasilishaji wa nadharia ya Pijini na Krioli. Kwa upande mwingine uwasilishaji huu unatathimini asili ya kiswahili katika mrejeo wa nadharia hii.
Mahususi kwa wanafunzi wa kidato cha tano na sita.
Part of a full series of ppts on curriculum development available on EFL Classroom - https://community.eflclassroom.com/forum2/topics/elt-curriculum-development
KUONGEZA MSAMIATI WA KISWAHILI
UUNDAJI WA MANENO.
MANENO
Kwa kawaida hakuna lugha inayojitosheleza kimawasiliano na kimantiki hivyo hakuna lugha iliyo bora kuliko nyingine.
Sarufi Matamshi (Fonolojia). Hii ni sehemu ya mada ndogo katika mada kuu ya Matumizi ya Sarufi kwa kidato cha Tano na Sita nchini Tanzania. Jisikie huru kutoa maoni yako na ushauri. Nitafurahi kama ukinipigia simu au ukinitumia barua pepe kunikosoa au kunirekebisha pale nilipokosea. Asante na karibu sana.
1. The document discusses multilingualism, its advantages and disadvantages, and how it can be used as a resource in the classroom.
2. Some key advantages of multilingualism include personal, social, cognitive, and economic benefits. However, disadvantages can include issues with pronunciation, syntax, and the development of "pidgin" languages.
3. The document recommends using students' multiple languages as a classroom resource to increase participation, confidence, and understanding that all languages are equally valid. This approach supports learning English while valuing linguistic diversity.
The importance of morphology and syntax in the formation as teachersPercy Cosme
1) The document discusses the importance of morphology and syntax for language teachers in their everyday classroom practice. It argues that a strong understanding of these linguistic concepts helps teachers develop students' vocabulary, reading, writing, listening and speaking skills.
2) Morphology and syntax are closely interrelated, and both are important for acquiring rules of word and sentence formation. Knowing morphological rules aids vocabulary acquisition, while syntax supports reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences.
3) When teaching grammar, teachers should contextualize concepts and make it engaging for learners, rather than just presenting rules. The goal is for students to use grammar as a tool for meaningful communication.
This document provides an overview and comparison of different types of language syllabi, including structural, functional/notional, and situational syllabi. It defines each type and discusses their key characteristics, theoretical bases, considerations for sequencing content, positive and negative aspects. The structural syllabus focuses on grammatical forms, while the functional/notional syllabus emphasizes the communicative functions and notions expressed through language. The situational syllabus organizes content around real or imagined situations. No single syllabus type is appropriate for all contexts. An effective syllabus design considers insights from various approaches.
This document discusses the cognitive approach to language teaching. It explains that the cognitive approach uses cognitive learning theory and emphasizes understanding grammar rules before practicing speaking. Some key points made in the document include:
- The cognitive approach is influenced by transformational-generative grammar and stresses understanding rules first through deductive teaching before exercises.
- Language is viewed as rule-governed behavior under this approach rather than just habit formation.
- Teaching procedures under the cognitive approach include ensuring material is meaningful, explaining rules first before practice, and stimulating creative language use through tasks like sentence production.
This document discusses four major methods of teaching English: the Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method, and the Natural Method. It provides details on the origins, key principles, techniques, merits and demerits of each method. The Grammar Translation Method focuses on translating texts and uses the learner's native language. The Direct Method teaches exclusively in English using real-world examples. The Audio-Lingual Method is based on behaviorism and uses repetition and drills. The Natural Method aims to mimic how children acquire their first language.
Situational language teaching is a methodology that focuses on teaching language through meaningful, situation-based activities. It developed in the 1930s-1960s in Britain and involved introducing new vocabulary and grammar points inductively through structured situations. The goals were to practice language use in contexts and avoid mistakes that create bad habits. Teachers would model situations and guide practice, while learners listened, repeated, and responded to questions.
The document discusses phonemes and allophones in Arabic. It defines phonemes as abstract mental representations of phonological units, and phones as specific speech sounds. Allophones are different realizations of a phoneme that are in complementary distribution. It provides examples of allophones for the phonemes /n/ and /i/ in Modern Standard Arabic. Vowels are described as retracted or centralized when next to emphatic consonants. It also discusses allophonic variation for the consonants /k/, /g/, /n/, /x/, and /ɣ/ in Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. Devoicing of consonants in clusters is mentioned.
This document discusses key concepts related to curriculum design for teaching English as a foreign language. It defines curriculum as a general plan for a course of study including goals, learning outcomes, and evaluation. A syllabus provides more specific details for teaching a particular course, including content selection and sequencing. Methodology refers to the underlying teaching approaches used, while methods are specific classroom techniques. Effective curriculum design involves defining objectives, selecting content, organizing content and learning experiences, and determining evaluation. Curriculum ideologies influence design and include academic rationalism, social efficiency, learner-centeredness, and social reconstructionism.
Linguistic principles of teaching englishThakur Raj
The document outlines several key linguistic principles for teaching a foreign language:
1) Language is a system of symbols that are arbitrary and primarily vocal, so the teacher should use oral-aural methods and teach speaking before reading and writing.
2) Each language has a unique structure and cannot be learned through another language alone, but the learner's native language can help facilitate learning.
3) Language is for communication, so oral usage should be encouraged, and it grows out of and changes with culture over time.
It then provides general principles for teaching a foreign language, including following a natural order of skills, using imitation and forming habits, selecting controlled vocabulary, and using gradation, coordination, and multiple methods while
This document summarizes the articulation of three consonant sounds: [r], [w], and [j]. It describes the tongue and lip positioning for each sound. [r] involves the tongue curled back with the tip near the alveolar ridge. [w] starts with rounded lips that spread apart, allowing airflow. [j] begins with the tongue raised towards the hard palate and airflow along the central tongue. These are called "semi-vowels" as they allow airflow like vowels but never form syllable nuclei, instead acting as consonants. Examples words for each sound are provided.
The Lexical Approach is a language teaching method developed by Michael Lewis in the 1990s that focuses on vocabulary and multi-word phrases rather than traditional grammar. It posits that language consists largely of prefabricated chunks like collocations, idioms, and fixed phrases. Teachers following this approach aim to help students learn and comprehend these common lexical units. Classroom activities emphasize identifying lexical patterns in authentic texts and increasing retention of vocabulary chunks. The goal is for students to perceive language structures through meaningful lexical exposure rather than explicit grammar instruction.
There are several branches of phonetics including articulatory, acoustic, auditory, functional, general, descriptive, historical, special, comparative, practical, and theoretical phonetics. Articulatory phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced. Acoustic phonetics examines the physical properties of sounds. Auditory phonetics investigates how people perceive speech sounds. Functional and comparative phonetics analyze the linguistic and correlational aspects of sounds between languages. Practical phonetics considers how sounds relate to meaning while theoretical phonetics focuses on how phonetic units function in language.
The document discusses how movies can be used as an effective tool for language teaching. Movies provide real-life language input and combine audio and visual elements to help learners comprehend messages. They expose students to characteristics of natural speech like hesitations and regional variations that are difficult to find in textbooks. Movies can be used to develop students' oral, writing, vocabulary and grammar skills. They also provide opportunities to discuss different cultures and encourage a variety of interactive activities in the classroom.
Multilingualism - Meaning, Nature and ScopeSuresh Babu
This document defines and discusses multilingualism. It begins by defining multilingualism as the use of more than one language by an individual or community. It then provides further details on the definition, noting that multilingual individuals are also called multilingual. It also discusses multilingual education. The document then discusses multilingualism in the Indian context, noting that India has over 1700 languages spoken. It also discusses the nature, scope and characteristics of multilingualism.
The document discusses provisions for bad debts and doubtful debts. It provides examples of accounting entries for bad debts, provisions for bad debts, increasing or decreasing provisions based on changes in debtors balances. It also discusses provisions for discounts on debtors to account for potential discounts customers may receive upon payment. Key points covered include debiting bad debts and provisions to the profit and loss account, and extracting relevant balances for debtors, provisions for bad debts and discounts in the balance sheet.
The document provides information on accounting procedures for non-trading organizations, including receipts and payments accounts, income and expenditure accounts, balance sheets, and subscription adjustments. It includes examples of preparing these accounts from sample organizational financial data. Key points covered are:
1) Receipts and payments accounts summarize cash transactions, while income/expenditure accounts are like profit/loss statements.
2) Balance sheets for non-trading organizations list accumulated funds instead of capital.
3) Subscription accounts require adjustments to determine amounts transferred between accounts.
4) The examples demonstrate preparing the various accounts from raw financial information.
1. The document discusses multilingualism, its advantages and disadvantages, and how it can be used as a resource in the classroom.
2. Some key advantages of multilingualism include personal, social, cognitive, and economic benefits. However, disadvantages can include issues with pronunciation, syntax, and the development of "pidgin" languages.
3. The document recommends using students' multiple languages as a classroom resource to increase participation, confidence, and understanding that all languages are equally valid. This approach supports learning English while valuing linguistic diversity.
The importance of morphology and syntax in the formation as teachersPercy Cosme
1) The document discusses the importance of morphology and syntax for language teachers in their everyday classroom practice. It argues that a strong understanding of these linguistic concepts helps teachers develop students' vocabulary, reading, writing, listening and speaking skills.
2) Morphology and syntax are closely interrelated, and both are important for acquiring rules of word and sentence formation. Knowing morphological rules aids vocabulary acquisition, while syntax supports reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences.
3) When teaching grammar, teachers should contextualize concepts and make it engaging for learners, rather than just presenting rules. The goal is for students to use grammar as a tool for meaningful communication.
This document provides an overview and comparison of different types of language syllabi, including structural, functional/notional, and situational syllabi. It defines each type and discusses their key characteristics, theoretical bases, considerations for sequencing content, positive and negative aspects. The structural syllabus focuses on grammatical forms, while the functional/notional syllabus emphasizes the communicative functions and notions expressed through language. The situational syllabus organizes content around real or imagined situations. No single syllabus type is appropriate for all contexts. An effective syllabus design considers insights from various approaches.
This document discusses the cognitive approach to language teaching. It explains that the cognitive approach uses cognitive learning theory and emphasizes understanding grammar rules before practicing speaking. Some key points made in the document include:
- The cognitive approach is influenced by transformational-generative grammar and stresses understanding rules first through deductive teaching before exercises.
- Language is viewed as rule-governed behavior under this approach rather than just habit formation.
- Teaching procedures under the cognitive approach include ensuring material is meaningful, explaining rules first before practice, and stimulating creative language use through tasks like sentence production.
This document discusses four major methods of teaching English: the Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method, and the Natural Method. It provides details on the origins, key principles, techniques, merits and demerits of each method. The Grammar Translation Method focuses on translating texts and uses the learner's native language. The Direct Method teaches exclusively in English using real-world examples. The Audio-Lingual Method is based on behaviorism and uses repetition and drills. The Natural Method aims to mimic how children acquire their first language.
Situational language teaching is a methodology that focuses on teaching language through meaningful, situation-based activities. It developed in the 1930s-1960s in Britain and involved introducing new vocabulary and grammar points inductively through structured situations. The goals were to practice language use in contexts and avoid mistakes that create bad habits. Teachers would model situations and guide practice, while learners listened, repeated, and responded to questions.
The document discusses phonemes and allophones in Arabic. It defines phonemes as abstract mental representations of phonological units, and phones as specific speech sounds. Allophones are different realizations of a phoneme that are in complementary distribution. It provides examples of allophones for the phonemes /n/ and /i/ in Modern Standard Arabic. Vowels are described as retracted or centralized when next to emphatic consonants. It also discusses allophonic variation for the consonants /k/, /g/, /n/, /x/, and /ɣ/ in Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. Devoicing of consonants in clusters is mentioned.
This document discusses key concepts related to curriculum design for teaching English as a foreign language. It defines curriculum as a general plan for a course of study including goals, learning outcomes, and evaluation. A syllabus provides more specific details for teaching a particular course, including content selection and sequencing. Methodology refers to the underlying teaching approaches used, while methods are specific classroom techniques. Effective curriculum design involves defining objectives, selecting content, organizing content and learning experiences, and determining evaluation. Curriculum ideologies influence design and include academic rationalism, social efficiency, learner-centeredness, and social reconstructionism.
Linguistic principles of teaching englishThakur Raj
The document outlines several key linguistic principles for teaching a foreign language:
1) Language is a system of symbols that are arbitrary and primarily vocal, so the teacher should use oral-aural methods and teach speaking before reading and writing.
2) Each language has a unique structure and cannot be learned through another language alone, but the learner's native language can help facilitate learning.
3) Language is for communication, so oral usage should be encouraged, and it grows out of and changes with culture over time.
It then provides general principles for teaching a foreign language, including following a natural order of skills, using imitation and forming habits, selecting controlled vocabulary, and using gradation, coordination, and multiple methods while
This document summarizes the articulation of three consonant sounds: [r], [w], and [j]. It describes the tongue and lip positioning for each sound. [r] involves the tongue curled back with the tip near the alveolar ridge. [w] starts with rounded lips that spread apart, allowing airflow. [j] begins with the tongue raised towards the hard palate and airflow along the central tongue. These are called "semi-vowels" as they allow airflow like vowels but never form syllable nuclei, instead acting as consonants. Examples words for each sound are provided.
The Lexical Approach is a language teaching method developed by Michael Lewis in the 1990s that focuses on vocabulary and multi-word phrases rather than traditional grammar. It posits that language consists largely of prefabricated chunks like collocations, idioms, and fixed phrases. Teachers following this approach aim to help students learn and comprehend these common lexical units. Classroom activities emphasize identifying lexical patterns in authentic texts and increasing retention of vocabulary chunks. The goal is for students to perceive language structures through meaningful lexical exposure rather than explicit grammar instruction.
There are several branches of phonetics including articulatory, acoustic, auditory, functional, general, descriptive, historical, special, comparative, practical, and theoretical phonetics. Articulatory phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced. Acoustic phonetics examines the physical properties of sounds. Auditory phonetics investigates how people perceive speech sounds. Functional and comparative phonetics analyze the linguistic and correlational aspects of sounds between languages. Practical phonetics considers how sounds relate to meaning while theoretical phonetics focuses on how phonetic units function in language.
The document discusses how movies can be used as an effective tool for language teaching. Movies provide real-life language input and combine audio and visual elements to help learners comprehend messages. They expose students to characteristics of natural speech like hesitations and regional variations that are difficult to find in textbooks. Movies can be used to develop students' oral, writing, vocabulary and grammar skills. They also provide opportunities to discuss different cultures and encourage a variety of interactive activities in the classroom.
Multilingualism - Meaning, Nature and ScopeSuresh Babu
This document defines and discusses multilingualism. It begins by defining multilingualism as the use of more than one language by an individual or community. It then provides further details on the definition, noting that multilingual individuals are also called multilingual. It also discusses multilingual education. The document then discusses multilingualism in the Indian context, noting that India has over 1700 languages spoken. It also discusses the nature, scope and characteristics of multilingualism.
The document discusses provisions for bad debts and doubtful debts. It provides examples of accounting entries for bad debts, provisions for bad debts, increasing or decreasing provisions based on changes in debtors balances. It also discusses provisions for discounts on debtors to account for potential discounts customers may receive upon payment. Key points covered include debiting bad debts and provisions to the profit and loss account, and extracting relevant balances for debtors, provisions for bad debts and discounts in the balance sheet.
The document provides information on accounting procedures for non-trading organizations, including receipts and payments accounts, income and expenditure accounts, balance sheets, and subscription adjustments. It includes examples of preparing these accounts from sample organizational financial data. Key points covered are:
1) Receipts and payments accounts summarize cash transactions, while income/expenditure accounts are like profit/loss statements.
2) Balance sheets for non-trading organizations list accumulated funds instead of capital.
3) Subscription accounts require adjustments to determine amounts transferred between accounts.
4) The examples demonstrate preparing the various accounts from raw financial information.
- The document discusses single entry bookkeeping, including definitions, advantages and disadvantages, and how to prepare statements of affairs and profit/loss.
- It provides examples of statements of affairs and profit/loss calculations for businesses keeping single entry records.
- Steps for preparing statements of affairs and converting single entry records to double entry bookkeeping are also outlined.
The manufacturing account shows a production cost of 9,300 consisting of direct material, direct labor, and overhead expenses. Trading account shows a cost of sales of 8,800, gross profit of 700, and sales of 9,500. The balance sheet lists assets of 6,000 including machinery and current assets, and capital of 6,000.
The journal proper is used to record transactions that cannot be entered in subsidiary books like sales returns, purchases returns, and cash books. It contains the date, account debited, account credited, amount, and narrative explaining the transaction. Examples of entries in the journal proper include purchases of fixed assets on credit, sales of fixed assets on credit, and opening entries to record assets, liabilities, and capital on the first day of business.
Depreciation is the reduction in the value of fixed assets over time due to wear and tear, age, or obsolescence. There are three main methods of calculating depreciation: straight-line, diminishing balance, and revaluation. Straight-line depreciation allocates an equal amount of depreciation expense each year, diminishing balance allocates higher depreciation amounts in early years that decrease over time, and revaluation depreciates assets based on annual reappraisals of their value. Proper recording of depreciation expense is important for financial reporting and calculating net income.
This document discusses different types of errors that may occur in bookkeeping and how to correct them. It describes errors that do not affect the trial balance, such as errors of omission, commission, principle, original entry, compensating errors, and complete reversal of entry. It also discusses errors that do affect the trial balance, which are revealed by a disagreement in the trial balance totals. A suspense account is used to temporarily record differences until the errors are located and corrected through journal entries. Examples are provided of each type of error and how to make the correcting journal entries.
- The document discusses control accounts used by large businesses to manage transactions between the firm and its customers (sales ledger) and suppliers (purchases ledger).
- Control accounts act as a summary of amounts owed to and by the firm. They are constructed by recording transactions such as sales, purchases, cash receipts/payments, returns, and discounts in a ledger account.
- Examples are provided of constructing sales and purchases ledger control accounts from sample transaction data. Exercises are also given for learners to practice preparing control accounts.
This document discusses accounting adjustments made at the end of a trading period. Specifically, it addresses adjusting accounts for expenses due but not paid (accrued expenses), prepaid expenses, income earned but not received (outstanding receipts), and income received in advance (prepaid income). Examples are provided for each type of adjustment, showing how to record the adjustments in the relevant expense or income accounts, profit and loss account, and balance sheet. The purpose is to accurately capture all revenues and expenses in the appropriate accounting period in order to determine the true profit or loss for the period.
Life skills like leadership, teamwork, positive relationships, self-worth and confidence are important for surviving in a competitive world undergoing rapid change. Good leadership involves vision, role modeling, effective communication, and motivating followers. Teamwork allows groups to achieve more and improves cooperation. Positive relationships are important for cooperation, peace, and community development. Self-worth and confidence empower individuals, stimulate creativity and accountability, and help people avoid risky behaviors. Developing these key life skills is essential for individuals and societies to adapt and thrive.
This document discusses poverty in Tanzania. It defines poverty and identifies two types: absolute and relative. It then outlines several indicators of poverty including low per capita income, low technology use, and high mortality rates. Several causes of poverty in Tanzania are explained such as climate change, low technology application, diseases, and colonial legacy. The effects of poverty include inability to meet basic needs, high dependency on donors, and increased illiteracy and crime. The document also examines strategies that Tanzania has used to alleviate poverty, such as Ujamaa villages and eliminating school fees, and discusses their effectiveness and challenges.
This document defines key concepts related to economic and social development. It discusses two types of development - economic development shown through improvements in agriculture, industry, trade, and material production, and social development shown through improvements in education, health, transportation, and other social services. Development can be measured at the individual level, looking at factors like education and income, and at the national level, looking at indicators such as per capita income, life expectancy, and literacy rates. Financial institutions like banks and non-banks play an important role in economic development by mobilizing savings and providing loans, investments, and employment opportunities. Both government and private sectors contribute to development through policies, trade, infrastructure, and production of goods and services.
Transport involves the movement of people, goods, and services from one place to another. There are several elements of transport including the way or path taken, the unit of carriage used, the method of propulsion, and terminals for loading and unloading. Transport is important as it promotes trade, develops regions, provides employment, creates utility of goods and services, provides variety, links producers and consumers, generates revenue, moves workers, and eliminates scarcity. However, the transport industry in Tanzania faces problems such as weather effects, hilly terrain, expensive bridge construction, traffic jams, and highway robbers. Efforts have been made to address these problems through liberalization of trade, construction of all-weather roads, and
This document discusses various topics related to money and banking, including:
- The evolution of money from barter trade to commodity money to coins and notes.
- The functions of money as a medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value.
- Banking services like loans, overdrafts, drafts, and different types of cheques.
- Qualities of good money and the demand for money for transaction, precautionary, and speculative motives.
- Differences between money and capital, and forms of money like coins, banknotes, and deposits.
This document provides an overview of marketing concepts including definitions of marketing, the marketing mix, types of markets, and market structures. It defines marketing as identifying and satisfying consumer demand through a system of activities to plan, price, promote, and distribute goods and services. The marketing mix consists of the 4Ps - product, price, promotion, and place. Markets are classified by type of goods (commodity, input, financial) and structure (perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, oligopoly). Market structures differ based on the number of sellers, product differentiation, and barriers to entry.
International trade involves the importing and exporting of goods and services between countries. There are several reasons for international trade, including allowing countries to obtain goods they cannot produce themselves and sell surplus goods. Trade can occur between two countries (bilateral) or multiple countries (multilateral). The main advantages of international trade are that it enables countries to access a greater variety of goods and promotes specialization. Some disadvantages include over-reliance on one export good and the potential for imported goods to have harmful effects. Key terms involved in international trade include imports, exports, balance of trade, balance of payments, and various shipping terms that determine responsibilities for costs.
Communication involves conveying information from one person to another. There are three main methods of communication: writing and reading, talking and listening, and using signs. Factors like urgency, distance, need for details, confidentiality, need for reference, and costs determine the best communication method. Recent developments in Tanzania include the introduction of cellular phones, public pay phones, privatization of telecommunications, improved mail delivery services, internet access, and electronic mail.
Advertising is used to inform customers about new and existing products or services. It provides information on price, quality, name, what is offered, and where to obtain the product. The main goals of advertising are to increase sales, introduce new products, promote branded goods, improve company image, gain more retail outlets, and outcompete rivals. Common forms of advertising media include television, radio, newspapers, posters, cinema, neon signs, direct mail, and trade fairs. Choosing an advertising medium depends on factors like cost, target audience, geographical coverage, and number of people reached.
This document provides information about web development and creating webpages. It discusses using software like HTML, FrontPage, and text editors to design pages with headers, navigation bars, and common layouts. The document explains how to preview pages, publish them to a server so others can access the site, and the difference between a single webpage and an entire website. Key topics covered include HTML tags, page structure, outlining a site map, and hosting a site on an internal or external server.
Mpact of information and communication technology (ict) on the societyKAZEMBETVOnline
ICT has had a significant impact on society. It has transformed education, industry, banking/business, communication, entertainment and more. However, it has also introduced some disadvantages like unemployment, privacy issues, lack of job security, and health risks. To address security issues, techniques like backups, encryption, access controls, passwords, firewalls and intrusion detection are used. Overall, ICT has changed nearly every aspect of modern life while also presenting new challenges around its use.
Mpact of information and communication technology (ict) on the society
Waingereza na baada ya uhuru
1. WAINGEREZA NA BAADA YA UHURU
Baada ya vita kuu ya pili ya dunia Tanganyika ilikuwa chini ya utawala wa mwingereza.
Wakati wa utawala huo shughuli za utawala, kidini na biashara zilikuwapo zikiendelea.
Uenezaji wa dini ya kikristo uliendelea chini ya wamisionari ambapo kama ilivyokuwa kwa
tawala zilizopita walifungua shule, hospitali, vyuo vya ufundi ambako lugha ya kiswahili
ilitumika kama lugha ya kufundishia.
Waingereza hawakupenda wala kutaka mfumo ulioachwa na wajerumani hivyo waliamua
kufanya kiswahili kuwa lugha ya kufundishia katika shule za msingi hadi darasa la nne na pia
wakati huo wamisionari wenye asili ya kijerumani walihama kwa kuhofia utawala mpya wa
mwingereza.
Shule nyingi zilizokuwa nchini zilikuwa na upungufu mkubwa wa walimu na pia zilikosa pesa
za uendeshaji. Biashara kubwa iliyokuwa ikifanyika kwa wakati huo ilikuwa ni ya mazao ya
biashara, madini na mazao yatokanayo na wanyama, nguo na biashara nyinginezo.
Utawala wa mwingereza pamoja na kuifanya lugha ya kiingereza kuwa lugha rasmi ya
mawasiliano ilifanya juhudi za makusudi kukuza na kueneza kiswahili.
Kiswahili kiliposanifiwa katika miaka ya 1920 mambo mengi yalianzishwa na serikali ili
kukieneza kiswahili mfano gazeti la mamboleo lilianzishwa mwaka 1925. Gazeti hili lilienezwa
pande zote za nchi, waliojua kusoma walisoma, wasiojua kusoma walisomewa. Kulikuwa na
ukurasa maalumu wa ushairi ambao ulipendwa sana wakati huo. Pamoja na gazeti hili
yalianzishwa magazeti mengine mfano: - gazeti la Baraza la habari za wakilindi lilichapiswa
unguja mwaka 1931.
Wakati wa utawala wa waingereza ndipo kituo cha redio kilianzishwa mwaka (1952)
kilijengwa barabara ya kichwele kiliitwa sauti ya Dar es Salaam na baadae kilibadilishwa na
kuitwa sauti ya Tanganyika. Kituo hiki mwanzoni kilitangaza maeneo ya Dar es salaam tu na
eneo jirani na lugha iliyokuwa ikitumika ni kiswahili. Kiswahili ni lugha ya matangazo, Gavana
wa kwanza aliamua kiswahili kisanifiwe mwaka 1923. Sababu zilizopelekea kusanifiwa kwa
kiswahili ni kwamba hazionekani.
Mathalani mombasa walichukua lugha ya kihija, pemba waliongea kipemba, unguja waliongea
kiunguja, tanga walizungumza kitanga
Kwahiyo basi ilikuwa ni vigumu kumtahini mwanafunzi lahaja mbalimbali, hivyo ulitakiwa
mfumo ambao kungelikuwa na tawi moja la lahaja ambapo ingetumika kufundishia na kutahini
mwanafunzi katika makoloni ya Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi na Zaire.
Mwaka 1920 ilizinduliwa kamati iliyoitwa interrior language commitee na kazi zake zilikuwa ni
kusanifu lugha ya kiswahili, na kuanza kazi yake mwaka 1925.
2. Kamati iliunganisha wakurugenzi wa makoloni ya waingereza kutoka nchi zilizotajwa na pia
zilizohusisha wataalamu wa lugha na walimu wa lugha.
Mfano: Edward Steeve, Mchungaji Krapf, Naadeu na mkewe katika halmashauri hii iliteuliwa
lahaja ya kiunguja kiusanifu.
SABABU YA KUTEULIWA LAHAJA YA KIUNGUJA
(I) Kiunguja kilienea zaidi kuliko lahaja nyingine
(II) Lahaja ya kiunguja ilikidhi hoja ya kimawasiliano.
(III) Kiunguja ni lahaja iliyokubali kubadilika kiurahisi
(IV) Kiunguja kilikubaliwa na wengi mwisho kufikia mwaka 1929 kiunguja kilifanywa lahaja
rasmi na sanifu
HATUA ZILIZOCHUKULIWA
1. Kamusi iliyoandikwa na Manan ilikubaliwa kufundishia.
2. Mafupisho yote ya vitabu vilivyobidi kufundishia mashuleni ilibidi vichapishwe na
kamati ya lugha.
3. Kamati ilisimamia ukuaji na uendeshaji wa vipaji chipukizi wa kiswahili.
4. Kamusi ya kiingereza “Petrick Johnson” ilipitishwa kuwa ya urasimu.
HARAKATI ZA KUPIGANIA UHURU
Kuanzia mwaka 1940 kulikuwa na vurugu za kupigania uhuru kote Afrika ya
Mashariki.kulikuwa na vikundi mbalimbali vilivyoendesha harakati hizo.
Mfano: -
- Vyama vya kupigania uhuru U.P.C huko Uganda, KANU Kenya na T.P.P Tanganyika.
Katika harakati hizo lugha ya mawasiliano ilikuwa kiswahili.
- Vyama hivyo vilikuwa na makundi ya umoja wa wanawake na vijana. Jumuiya hizi za
chama zilitumika kuhamasisha harakati za ukombozi kupitia nyimbo, mashairi, ngonjera n.k.
- Na kwakuwa kampeni za kupigania uhuru ziliendelea hadi huko vijijini, lugha ya kiswahili
ikawa hadi huko. Mwaka 1954 kilianzishwa chama ha UKUTA ambacho kilihamasisha
wananchi wa sanaa ya fasihi hususani ushairi na ngonjera. Lengo kubwa lilikuwa ni kuinua
vipaji vya washairi wadogowadogo.
KISWAHILI AFRIKA MASHARIKI NA PWANI.
3. Kiswahili hakikuenea katika uwiano uliosawa katika nchi za Afrika Mashariki na kati. Kuna
sababu nyingi ambazo zilizuia ama zilisaidia kukua na kuenea kwa lugha hii.
(a) TANZANIA
Kiswahili kilienea katika sehemu kubwa ya Tanzania kutokana na sababu zifuatazo.
Wakati wa waarabu kulikuwa na misafara mikuu ya biashara ya watumwa pamoja na
biashara nyinginezo. Misafara hii ilisaidia kwa kiasi kikubwa ukuaji na uenezaji wa lugha
ya kiswahili.
Hapakuwa na wanyama wakali wa kuweza kuzuia misafara hii kwenda bara.
Wajerumani walipotawala nchi walifanya juhudi za kueneza na kukuza kiswahili.
Kulianzishwa vyombo vya habari ambavyo ni kama redio, magazeti ambavyo kwa kiasi
kikubwa vilitumia lugha ya kiswahili.
Harakati ya kupigania uhuru zilisaidia kukua na kuenea kwa lugha ya kiswahili.
(b) KENYA
Kuenea kwa kiswahili Kenya kulikumbana na matatizo mbalimbali hata hivyo kiswahili kiliweza
kujipenyeza katika maeneo kadhaa. Tatizo kubwa lilikuwa ni: -
Wanyama wakali ambao walizuia misafara kutoka pwani kwenda bara
Makabila makali kama wamaasai na wamang’ati ambao hawakuwaruhusu wageni kupita
au kuingia katika himaya zao.
Wakoloni walihimiza matumizi ya lugha za kienyeji kufundishia katika shule za msingi.
Hata hivyo baadae kiswahili kiliweza kutumika zaidi katika sehemu za mjini kama vile
Nairobi, na mashambani katika maeneo ya mizani, katika maeneo hayo kulikuwa na
mkusanyiko wa watu kutoka sehemu mbalimbali za nchi.
(c) UGANDA NA RWANDA
Kiswahili katika nchi ya Uganda hakikupata msukumo wowote wa kimaendeleo, wageni
kutoka pwani waliofika Uganda walikuwa ni waarabu. Lugha waliyotumia ilikuwa ni kiswahili
na kwa sababu walihusisha na kiislamu. Pia tawala za kienyeji za Uganda zilikuwa na nguvu na
utamaduni wowote wa kigeni haukukaribishwa.
Wamisionari wa kizungu ambao walikuwa ni wakatoliki pia walichochea chuki ya waganda
dhidi ya waislamu na lugha ya kiswahili ilibaki kutumika kwa uchache maeneo ya mjini kama
4. vile Jinja na Kampala na pia ilikuwa ni lugha inayotumika jeshini sababu iliwaunganisha
maaskari toka makabila mbalimbali.
Misafara ya wageni kutoka pwani ya Afrika Mashariki ilipofika Rwanda ilipata vikwazo,
wanyarwanda hawakupendelea mambo ya wageni, ilikuwa ni pamoja na lugha zao.
Wajerumani walipoanza utawala Rwanda kama sehemu ya Tanganyika mwishoni mwa karne ya
9 walikipenyeza kiswahili katika nchi ya Rwanda.
Katika utawala wao walihimiza matumizi ya lugha ya kiswahili waliotoka Tanganyika walikuwa
na wakalimani wao ambao walijua kinyarwanda na kiswahili. Pamoja na maafisa wake wengine
hii ikachochea wanyarwanda kujifunza kiswahili.
Baada ya wajerumani ikawekwa chini ya utawala wa kibelgiji waliofuata walikikuta kiswahili
katika mawasiliano yao na badala yake wakaingiza kifaransa na wakati huohuo dini ya kikatoliki
ikatawala kiswahili kikahusianishwa na kiislamu.
Wakati wa utawala wa kibelgiji kiswahili kilitumika katika sehemu chache mjini,mpakani mwa
Tanganyika na Rwanda.
Baada ya uhuru wa Rwanda serikali iliimarisha uhusiano na majirani zake. Ilianza kufundisha
kiswahili katika chuo kikuu cha KYELI na toka wakati huo idadi ya walimu wa kiswahili
iliongezeka, vilevile redio Rwanda ilianza matangazo ya kiswahili ambayo yalikuwa saa moja
hadi masaa mawili kwa siku. Vipindi vilivyokuwa vikitangazwa ni matangazo ya mpira, salamu
na maombi ya wasikilizaji.
BURUNDI
Kama ilivyokuwa kwa Rwanda.
Kiswahili nchini Burundi hakikuwa na nafasi ya kuenea kwa sababu tawala za kabila zilikuwa na
nguvu sana.
Wajerumani walipotawala Burundi walihimiza matumizi ya kiswahili kwa maeneo machache
ambayo kiswahili kilipenya kama mjini Bunjumbura, wabelgiji walipoanza kutawala Burundi na
Rwanda walihimiza matumizi ya kifaransa kiutawala, mashuleni na maeneo ya mipakani,
kiswahili kiliendelea kutumika kama lugha ya kuunganisha waburundi na nchi jirani, hata hivyo
kiswahili chao kilitofautiana na kile cha wale wanaopakana na Zaire ambao wanazungumza
kiungwana, mpakani mwa Burundi na Tanganyika wanazungumza falsafa ya kiasi kikubwa kwa
Mrundi wa mashariki anaposema “Nitakuja jumamosi au jumapili” na yule wa mpakani mwa
Zaire anasema “Nitakuja siku ya posho au msosi”
Baada ya uhuru serikali ya Burundi iliamua na ilianzisha somo la kiswahili katika shule za
sekondari na vyuo.
5. Tatizo kubwa lilikuwa ni upatikanaji wa walimu. Hata hivyo uenezaji wa kiswahili huko Burundi
umechangia maendeleo ya Burundi kwa kuwa na redio ya idhaa ya kiswahili.
ZAIRE
Kiswahili nchini Zaire kilipelekwa na misafara ya biashara kutoka Afrika Mashariki mfalme
Leopard II alimwomba Sultani wa Zanzibar ampelekee walimu wa kiswahili katika jeshi lake,
vilevile wahamiaji kutoka sehemu nyingine za Afrika Mashariki walikwenda kufanya kazi katika
migodi mfano. Ukanda wa shaba huko walipeleka kiswahili. Hata hivyo katika maeneo ya mjini
kama vile Kinshansa, lubumbashi kiswahili kilitumika kama somo.
Baada ya uhuru serikali ya Zaire ilianzisha somo la kiswahili katika shule za sekondari na
vyuo. Tatizo kubwa likawa upatikanaji wa walimu, hata hivyo uenezaji wa kiswahili nchini Zaire
ulichangiwa na redio ambayo ilikuwa na idhaa ya kiswahili.
Baada ya uhuru kiswahili kilifanya kama idhaa mojawapo ya lugha ya Taifa na kuwa na idhaa
inayojitegemea nchini humo. Hadi sasa asilimia 25% ya wazaire wanazungumza kiswahili.
JUHUDI ZA KUKUZA NA KUENEZA KISWAHILI BAADA YA UHURU
Baada ya uhuru mwaka 1961 juhudi nyingi zilifanywa kukuza na kueneza lugha ya kiswahili,
hata hivyo juhudi hizo zilitofautiana kati ya nchi na nchi.
Tanzania baada ya kupata uhuru mwaka 1961 kiswahili kilitangazwa kuwa ni lugha ya Taifa na
mwaka 1962 Raisi wa kwanza wa Tanzania Mwl. Nyerere alihutubia bunge kwa lugha ya
kiswahili, na kufikia mwaka 1964 kiswahili kilifanywa lugha ya kufundishia shule za ufundi na
vyuo vya ualimu, vilevile kikawa ni somo katika shule za sekondari na shule za juu.
Kuanzia kipindi hicho vyombo mbalimbali viliundwa na kushughulikia ukuaji na uenezaji wa
lugha ya kiswahili vyombo hivyo vimekuwa vikishirikiana katika kueneza kiswahili hadi sasa.
1. USANIFISHAJI WA LUGHA YA KISWAHILI (UKUTA) 59
Chombo hiki kiliundwa kabla ya uhuru mwaka 1959. Kiliundwa ili kustawisha lugha ya
Kiswahili na ushairi ili kuendeleza utamaduni wa kiswahili nchini.
KAZI ZAKE
(a) Kuchochea na kuamsha hali ya matumizi fasaha ya kiswahili pamoja na kuendeleza vipaji
vya ushairi kwa vijana waliochipukia.
(b) Kukuza na kuendeleza utamaduni pamoja na michezo ya kuigiza mfano: - ngonjera n.k
(c) Kuendeleza mashindano ya kimataifa ya sanaa pamoja na uandishi na fasihi. Wamechapisha
kitabu kiitwacho ngonjera.
6. 2. BARAZA LA KISWAHILI TANZANIA (BAKITA)
Chombo hiki kilianzishwa mwaka 1967 kwa mujibu wa sheria za Bunge, na chombo hiki ndicho
chenye kauli ya mwisho kuhusu uongozi wa lugha ya chini kuonesha matumizi ya maneno
mbalimbali ya lugha ya kiswahili.
KAZI YA CHOMBO HIKI
(a) Kusimamia na kueleza maendeleo fasaha ya kiswahili nchini Tanzania mfano: -
- Kuhamasisha watu wenye nia ya kuandika lugha ya kiswahili.
(b) Kutoa ushauri juu ya matumizi sahihi ya lugha ya kiswahili
(c) Kuunda msamiati na istilahi za taaluma mbalimbali.
(d) Kupitisha msamiati na istilahi mpya katika juma
3. TAASISI ZA UCHUNGUZI WA LUGHA YA KISWAHILI
Taasisi hii ilianzishwa rasmi mwaka 1963 ilitokana na kamati ya lugha ya Afrika Mashariki
ambayo iliundwa wakati wa ukoloni kufikia mwaka 1964 taasisi hii iliundwa rasmi kwa mujibu
wa sheria ya Bunge.
Madhumuni yake makubwa ni uchunguzi katika kuendeleza kiswahili katika nyanja zake zote,
mfano ni
(a) Kuhifadhi ufasaha wa lugha.
(b) Kufanya uchunguzi wa lugha kwa madhumuni ya kukuza na kustawisha Kiswahili.
(c) Kuhamasisha watu wapendao kuwa waandishi wa vitabu kwa lugha ya Kiswahili.
(d) Kutunga na kuandaa kamusi,
(e) Kushirikiana na taasisi mbalimbali ulimwenguni kote zinazojishughulisha na utafiti wa
kiswahili.
(f) Kukusanya historia na fununu mbalimbali kuhusu kiswahili duniani kote.
(g) Kuandaa warsha na makongamano ya wataalamu na watafiti wa lugha ya kishwahili.
4. IDARA YA KISWAHILI CHUO KIKUU CHA DAR ES SALAAM (1970)
Idara hii ilianzishwa rasmi mwaka 1970, madhumuni yake ni kuanzisha na kuandaa wataalamu
wenye shahada ya masomo ya kiswahili ili kuweza kutumika katika nyanja mbalimbali.
7. Masomo yanayotolewa na idara ya kiswahili na matumizi ya miundo na nadharia za isimu. Idara
hii tangu ianzishwe imehitinisha walimu ambao wanafundisha sekondari au vyuo vikuu nchini.
Pia idara inayowadhamini wachache wanaoandika tasnifu kwa ajili ya shahada ya juu. Vilevile
idara hii imeanzisha chama cha kiswahili ambacho malengo yake ni: -
(a) Kuwasaidia wanachama, kuvumbua na kukuza vipaji vyao katika isimu na fasihi ya
kiswahili.
(b) Kuamsha ari ya mapinduzi katika kuendeleza fani za lugha ya Kiswahili katika lugha ya
maandishi.
(c) Kuandaa mashindano ya lugha na sanaa kitaifa.
(d) Kutoa misaada kwa vyombo vinavyoendeleza kiswahili.
(e) Kushirikiana na idara za lugha zifundishazo kiswahili katika vyuo vikuu mbalimbali duniani
kote.
TAASISI YA KISWAHILI NA LUGHA ZA KIGENI ZANZIBAR (TAKILUKI)
Taasisi hii ilianzishwa rasmi mwaka 1974 kwa mujibu wa sheria za bunge la 4 Baraza la
wawakilishi na baadae ikafanywa sheria.
Kazi zake ni pamoja na: -
(a) Kutoa mafunzo ya masomo ya kiswahili kwa kiwango cha juu kwa watumishi wa Serikali na
viongozi ili kukuza ujuzi wao wa lugha ya kiswahili kwa ujumla chombo hiki kinasimamia
matumizi fasaha ya lugha ya kiswahili.
(b) Kuendesha mafunzo ya kiswahili na lugha za kigeni kwa wanafunzi wenyeji wa nje.
(c) Kufanya utafiti wa lahaja na fasihi simulizi ya kisasa.
BARAZA LA MITIHANI TANZANIA
Lilianzishwa mwaka 1973 lengo lake ni kutunga mitihani mbalimbali ya shule na vyuo vya
ualimu ili kupima viwango vya uelewa kwa watahiniwa.
Baraza hili hutunga mitihani ya kiswahili ili kupima uelewa wa watahiniwa na maarifa yao
katika lugha ya kiswahili mfano: -
- Mitihani ya waalimu daraja A & B pia
- Mitihani ya shule za msingi na kiswahili kwa sekondari.
8. 1. WIZARA YA ELIMU
Kazi zake ni: -
(a) Kusimamia maendeleo ya shule zote za elimu ya msingi na sekondari.
(b) Kusimamia ufundishaji wa masomo yote pamoja na kiswahili.
2. TAASISI YA ELIMU – 1966
Ilianzishwa MWAKA 1966 NA KAZI YAKE KUBWA ni: -
(a) Kutayarisha muhtasari wa vitabu vya kufundishia masomo shule za msingi, sekondari na
vyuo vya ualimu
3. TAASISI YA ELIMU YA WATU WAZIMA
Ilianzishwa mwaka 1963 kikiwa ni chombo cha kuongoza masomo ya kujiendeleza kwa watu
wazima wasio wanafunzi shuleni
Kazi zake: -
(a) Kubaini maneno mbalimbali ya kukidhi hoja ya misamiati au istilahi za taasisi ya Elimu ya
wataalamu na wageni wanaokuja kufanya kazi nchini.
(b) Kufundisha na kueneza kiswahili kwa kutumia njia ya masomo ya jioni na kampeni za Taifa
za maendeleo.
VYOMBO VINGINE VINAVYOKUZA NA KUENEZA KISWAHILI
1. Vyombo vya habari na waandishi
Kwa muda mrefu waandishi wa vyombo vya habari wamekuwa na mchango mkubwa katika
kukuza na kueneza lugha ya kiswahili kwa mfano redio na magazeti yana uwezo wa kufikia eneo
kubwa. Na hivyo kuwezesha kuisambaza lugha katika eneo kubwa zaidi mathalani magazeti
yanafika katika maeneo mengine ambayo redio na televisheni haviwezi kufika.
Aidha vyombo vya habari vimekuwa mstari wa mbele kueneza msamiati na maneno mapya kila
siku.
2. TAASISI MBALIMBALI ZA ELIMU
Taasisi za elimu kama shule za msingi, sekondari na vyuo kwa kiasi kikubwa zimekuwa
zikichangia kukua na kuenea kwa lugha ya kiswahili kote nchini kwa takribani shule moja ya
msingi katika kila tarafa hapa nchini.
9. Taasisi hizi zimekuwa zikieneza lugha ya Kiswahili kila mwaka kwa wahitimu kadhaa
wanaomaliza katika shule hizo. Nao huwa wazungumzaji wa lugha ya kiswahili.
3. MIUNDO, MBINU NA UKUAJI WA MIJI
Ujenzi wa miundombinu ya kisasa inayorahisisha mawasiliano kati ya miji na vijiji kutoka
sehemu moja na nyingine kumesababisha ukuaji na uenezaji wa lugha ya kiswahili kote nchini.
Kwa mfano uwezekano wa usafiri kati ya eneo moja la nchi na jingine kusaidia kuhusisha
mwingiliano wa watu na maeneo tofauti tofauti. Hali hii imesaidia kukua na kuenea kwa lugha
ya kiswahili katika meneo yote ya nchi.