Volcano in environment geology
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This document summarizes information about volcanoes. It defines a volcano as a rupture in the Earth's crust that allows hot lava, ash, and gases to escape from below the surface. Volcanoes form over time as a result of magma rising through cracks and releasing pressure during volcanic eruptions, which cool to form new crust. Characteristics of volcanoes include their cone shape and the lava and ash produced during eruptions. Volcanic hazards pose risks and can include lava flows, explosions, toxic gases, ash falls, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows. Volcano forecasts rely on studying past eruptions to estimate potential hazards, and monitoring for earthquake activity and surface deformation to provide useful warnings of
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Stress in rock
Stress is the internal resistance of a material against an applied load or force. There are different types of stress that rocks can experience, including lithostatic stress from the weight of overlying rocks, and differential stress from tectonic forces like tension, compression, and shearing. Rocks deform in response to stress in different ways depending on factors like pressure, temperature, and composition. At low stresses rocks deform elastically and return to their original shape when unloaded. At higher stresses near the surface, rocks deform brittlely and fracture. Deeper underground, higher temperatures cause ductile deformation where rocks flow plastically. The stress-strain behavior of rocks is important for understanding their mechanical properties and failure under stress
Igneous rocks
This document discusses different types of igneous rocks. It begins by explaining that igneous rocks form from lava or magma and can be extrusive or intrusive. Extrusive rocks form from lava at the surface, while intrusive rocks form from magma underground. Intrusive rocks can take various forms depending on factors like the viscosity of the magma and the structure of the surrounding rock layers. Common intrusive rock forms include dykes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, and batholiths. Extrusive rocks include lava flows. The document provides detailed descriptions of these different igneous rock types and their characteristic features.
Geometric classification of folds
This document discusses the geometric classification of folds in geology. It defines what folds are and describes their key features like hinge lines, axial planes, limbs, and amplitudes. It then categorizes folds based on various criteria such as the sense of curvature (anticline, syncline), direction of younging (anticlinal, synclinal), symmetry (symmetrical, asymmetrical), nature of the hinge line (cylindrical, non-cylindrical), plunge, interlimb angle, thickness, orientation, and shape of the hinge. It provides examples of different fold types and discusses parasitic folds. The document serves as a comprehensive overview of how folds are classified geometrically in structural geology.
Unconformity
The document discusses different types of unconformities:
- Angular unconformity occurs when rock layers above and below are not parallel due to erosion and deposition over a long period of time with changes in bedding orientation.
- Nonconformity separates older crystalline rocks from overlying younger sedimentary or volcanic rocks, representing a long period of erosion.
- Disconformity has parallel bedding above and below, separated by erosion over some time.
- Local unconformity is similar to a disconformity but represents only a short period of non-deposition over a small area.
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Top and bottom criteria
This document discusses various criteria that can be used to determine the top and bottom of sedimentary beds and identify the relative age of rock layers. Some key criteria mentioned include unconformities, fossils, ripple marks, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and the position of cleavage in folded rocks. Law of superposition, which states that older beds are deposited first and therefore located lower in the stratigraphic column, is also discussed. Together, these criteria can be used to deduce the order of deposition and effects of tilting, folding, or other deformation on sedimentary beds.
Sediment transport
There are four main types of sediment transport:
1. Saltation occurs when loose material is lifted from the bed surface by wind or water and travels in ballistic trajectories before settling back onto the surface.
2. Traction involves the rolling or sliding of sand grains and larger clasts along the bed as they interact with the substrate.
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Unconformity
The document discusses different types of unconformities:
- Angular unconformity occurs when rock layers above and below are not parallel due to erosion and deposition over a long period of time with changes in bedding orientation.
- Nonconformity separates older crystalline rocks from overlying younger sedimentary or volcanic rocks, representing a long period of erosion.
- Disconformity has parallel bedding above and below, separated by erosion over some time.
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This document discusses various criteria that can be used to determine the top and bottom of sedimentary beds and identify the relative age of rock layers. Some key criteria mentioned include unconformities, fossils, ripple marks, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and the position of cleavage in folded rocks. Law of superposition, which states that older beds are deposited first and therefore located lower in the stratigraphic column, is also discussed. Together, these criteria can be used to deduce the order of deposition and effects of tilting, folding, or other deformation on sedimentary beds.
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There are four main types of sediment transport:
1. Saltation occurs when loose material is lifted from the bed surface by wind or water and travels in ballistic trajectories before settling back onto the surface.
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Igneous structure and genesis (structural geology)
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Similar to Volcano in environment geology
Volcanoes Information
Volcanoes form when magma rises from below the Earth's crust and erupts onto the surface. There are three main types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes which have gentle slopes and non-explosive eruptions, composite volcanoes which have steep slopes and more explosive eruptions, and super volcanoes which have massive eruptions over 1,000 cubic km. Volcanic eruptions can have both positive impacts such as fertilizing soils and negative impacts like killing people and damaging property. Scientists monitor volcanoes using techniques like seismometers and tilt meters to predict eruptions.
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Study of Volcanism and volcano
what are Volcanism and volcano,
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Preparing for Volcanic Emergencies
A volcano is generally a conical shaped hill or mountain built by accumulations of lava flows, tephra, and volcanic ash. About 95% of active volcanoes occur at the plate subduction zones and at the mid-oceanic ridges. The other 5% occur in areas associated with lithospheric hot spots. These hot spots have no direct relationships with areas of crustal creation or subduction zones. It is believed that hot spots are caused by plumes of rising magma that have their origin within the asthenosphere.
Over the last 2 million years, volcanoes have been depositing lava, tephra, and ash in particular areas of the globe. These areas occur at hot spots, rift zones, and along plate boundaries where tectonic subduction is taking place within the asthenosphere.
The most prevalent kinds of volcanoes on the Earth's surface are the kind which form the "Pacific Rim of Fire". Those are volcanoes which form as a result of subduction of the nearby lithosphere.
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Volcanoes and volcanic erruptions
The document provides information about different types of volcanoes and volcanic features including:
- Shield volcanoes which are built by basalt lava flows and have gentle slopes.
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- Cinder cones which are steep sided hills made of volcanic fragments blown from eruptions of stratovolcanoes.
- Stratovolcanoes which have steep sides and are formed by violent eruptions of lava flows, tephra, and pyroclastic flows from multiple vents.
- Mud volcanoes which form from eruptions of wet
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The document provides an overview of volcanism and the study of volcanoes (volcanology). It discusses the motivation for studying volcanoes, early perceptions and theories about volcanoes, how volcanoes work including the magma system and role of plate tectonics, what magma is and how it is generated, and how volcanologists study volcanoes to better understand volcanic processes and predict eruptions.
Volcano
Volcanoes form when magma rises from below the Earth's surface and erupts through openings called volcanic vents. Over time, the accumulation of erupted materials like lava, tephra, and gases builds up around the vent, creating landforms like hills, mountains, plateaus or craters known as volcanoes. There are three main types of volcanic materials - lava, tephra/pyroclastic rock fragments, and gases like steam. The type and amount of material erupted depends on the composition of the magma inside the volcano. Volcanoes come in different shapes defined by the magma makeup, eruption style, and frequency - including cinder cones, shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes, cal
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Volcanic activity is related to tectonic plate boundaries and hotspots. Eruptions can be basic, acid, fissure or composite depending on the magma composition. Primary hazards include lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall and gases. Secondary hazards arise from landslides, lahars, mudflows and acidic rain. The 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia caused lahars that killed over 20,000 people after melting the volcano's glaciers.
TYPES-OF-VOLCANOES-AND-VOLCANIC-ERUPTIOn
Volcanoes form at locations where magma reaches the Earth's surface. There are three main types of volcanoes classified based on their composition and eruption style. Composite volcanoes like Mayon Volcano are tall and steep due to explosive eruptions of thick, andesitic magma. Shield volcanoes like those in Hawaii erupt basalt quietly as low-viscosity lava flows great distances. Cinder cones are small and formed from accumulated ejecta from Strombolian eruptions. A volcano's anatomy includes features like the vent, lava domes, and pyroclastic flows that can have hazardous impacts.
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Volcanoes are openings in the Earth's crust through which magma and gases erupt. There are several types of volcanoes defined by their structure and eruptive activity. Shield volcanoes have gentle slopes and erupt non-violently, building up over time. Composite and cinder cone volcanoes have steeper slopes and more explosive eruptions. Caldera volcanoes form large depressions when the magma chamber collapses. Volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries and hot spots due to pressure buildup underground.
Type Volcanoes Composite Compilations.ppt
Volcanoes are openings in the Earth's crust through which magma and gases erupt. There are several types of volcanoes defined by their structure and eruptive activity. Shield volcanoes have gentle slopes and erupt non-violently, building up over time. Composite and cinder cone volcanoes have steeper slopes and more explosive eruptions. Caldera volcanoes form large depressions when the magma chamber collapses. Volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries and hot spots due to pressure from shifting crust and rising magma. Eruptions damage property and endanger life through lava, ash, pyroclastic flows, and toxic gases.
Volcanos
This document provides an introduction to volcanology. It defines a volcano as an opening in the Earth's surface through which lava, gases, and rock fragments erupt. It describes how magma rises from deep underground to form a magma chamber near the surface, which then erupts through a vent to form a volcano. Key parts of a volcano include the vent, crater, lava flows, and sometimes parasitic cones. Volcanoes are often located along tectonic plate boundaries like the Ring of Fire around the Pacific. Earthquakes can provide information about volcanic structures and pathways. Volcanology studies volcanoes and related phenomena, while volcanism describes the geological process of material emerging from the Earth's interior.
Volcano
Volcanoes form and shape the Earth's surface over long periods of time. More than 80% of the Earth's surface is of volcanic origin. Volcanoes are openings where molten rock and gases erupt from underground reservoirs of magma. Magma forms from melted rock in the upper mantle that rises toward the surface. When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. There are four main types of volcanoes: cinder cones, composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and lava domes, which differ based on their structure and eruption characteristics. Volcanic eruptions can range from non-explosive effusive eruptions to explosive eruptions that violently eject pyroclasts and
Volcanoes-Composite.ppt najjainvdhwiaiba
Volcanoes are openings in the Earth's crust through which magma and gases erupt. There are several types of volcanoes defined by their shape and eruptive activity. Shield volcanoes have gentle slopes and erupt non-violently, building up slowly over time. Composite volcanoes have steep slopes and erupt violently, destroying the existing cone. Caldera volcanoes form large depressions when the magma chamber collapses inward after a very large eruption. Volcanic eruptions occur when pressure from gases and magma is released, sometimes due to earthquakes shifting tectonic plates. Eruptions can have devastating impacts through lava flows, ash falls, pyroclastic flows, and lah
Volcanism
This document discusses key aspects of volcanism including:
- Volcanoes form due to movement of tectonic plates and magma rising from below Earth's surface.
- Most volcanoes occur at plate boundaries like divergent and convergent margins.
- The degree of violence in a volcanic eruption depends on factors like the gas content and viscosity of the magma as well as the silica content which determines eruption style.
- There are several types of volcanoes that differ in size and eruption type including composite, cinder cone, and shield volcanoes.
Geo @HU Notes.pptx
Geohazards are natural hazards caused by geological processes within the Earth, such as volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, and cyclones, which can cause damage and loss of life. Earthquakes occur along faults in the Earth's crust due to the sudden release of accumulated strain, generating seismic waves that can damage infrastructure and trigger other hazards like tsunamis and landslides. Volcanic eruptions result from the buildup of pressure from magma and gases below the Earth's surface, which are released through explosions or lava flows that can endanger nearby populations and environments.
Volcanic earthquakes.
There are two main types of volcanic earthquakes: 1) volcano-tectonic earthquakes, which occur due to stress changes in rock from magma movement and can cause land subsidence and cracks, but do not necessarily indicate an impending eruption. 2) long-period earthquakes, which result from pressure changes due to sustained magma injection and indicate volcanic activity is underway or an eruption may be imminent. Volcanic tremors detected prior to eruptions at Mount St. Helens and Pinatubo have successfully warned of eruptions. Structures should be earthquake-resistant and built away from unstable slopes to prevent damage from volcanic quakes.
Almazan Volcanic activity. Final.pptx
Volcanoes form when tectonic plates collide and one plate slides under another in the process of subduction. Most volcanoes occur near plate boundaries, especially around the Pacific Ocean basin known as the Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire contains over 75% of the world's active volcanoes, including 452 volcanoes dotted around the boundary. Volcanic hotspots also cause volcanism, where thermal plumes rise from the Earth's mantle and melt the overlying rock. Different types of volcanic eruptions occur depending on the viscosity of the magma and amount of dissolved gases. Explosive eruptions are violent while effusive eruptions steadily flow lava. Scientists monitor ground deformation, gas emissions, and
volcanism.pptx
Volcanism refers to the eruption of molten rock from within the earth onto its surface. Volcanoes form at boundaries between tectonic plates due to pressure from rising magma. The degree of explosiveness depends on factors like gas content and viscosity of the lava. Most volcanoes occur along plate boundaries in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Common types include composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and cinder cones, which erupt in styles ranging from gentle to extremely violent.
CAMBRIDGE GEOGRAPHY A2 REVISION - HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS RESULTING FROM TECTO...
CAMBRIDGE GEOGRAPHY A2 REVISION - HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS: HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS RESULTING FROM TECTONIC MOVEMENT. Presentation suitable for Cambridge A2 students. It contains: key terms and definitions, topic summary, additional work and suggested websites.
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CAMBRIDGE GEOGRAPHY A2 REVISION - HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS RESULTING FROM TECTO...
CAMBRIDGE GEOGRAPHY A2 REVISION - HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS RESULTING FROM TECTO...
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Methods of prospecting for oil and gas in fuel geology
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coal bed methane in fuel geology
Coal bed methane (CBM) is natural gas extracted from coal beds. CBM forms during the coalification process where plant material is transformed into coal over time and buried deeper underground. As coalification progresses, methane gas is generated and stored within the micropores of coal by adsorption. When extracted via wells, water must also be pumped out which can impact local aquifers and water supplies if not properly managed. India has significant CBM reserves that could serve as an energy resource but extraction also carries environmental risks like venting chemicals and impacting air and water quality that require mitigation.
structural traps in fuel geology
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water-pollution in environmental geology
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recycle mineral resource of energy
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Recycling and Disposal on SWM Raymond Einyu pptx
Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
Aim:
A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
Current SWM Situation in Nairobi City:
Solid waste generation – collection – dumping
Good Practices:
• Separation – recycling – marketing.
• Open dumpsite dandora dump site through public education on source separation of waste, of which the situation can be reversed.
• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
• Through the network, it should expect to benefit from expertise of the different actors in the network in terms of applicable technologies and practices in reducing the short-lived climate pollutants.
Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
Practices and activities of these actor groups are viewed as innovations with the potential to change the way solid waste is handled.
CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Overview of the Global Peatlands Assessment
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Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
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Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Peatland Management in Indonesia, Science to Policy and Knowledge Education
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Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Wildlife-AnIntroduction.pdf so that you know more about our environment
All about wildlife, if you are fond of animals and wildlife then do follow us for more content like this
ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.
This presentation is for us to know that how our Environment need Attention for protection of our natural resources which are depleted day by day that's why we need to take time and shift our attention to renewable energy sources instead of non-renewable sources which are better and Eco-friendly for our environment. these renewable energy sources are so helpful for our planet and for every living organism which depends on environment.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
Enhanced action and stakeholder engagement for sustainable peatland management
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Presented by Jan Peters at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and ActionPeatlands of Latin America and the Caribbean
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Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
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In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
Improving the Management of Peatlands and the Capacities of Stakeholders in I...
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Volcano in environment geology
- 1. Volc no BY: THOMAS CHINNAPPAN . A , M.SC.APPLIED GEOLOGY, PERIYAR UNIVERSITY, SALEM.
- 2. Contents Volcano Volcano Formation Characteristics Of Volcanoes Volcanic Hazards Volcano Forecast
- 3. Volcano A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and most are found underwater.
- 5. Volcano formation Magma rises through cracks or weaknesses in the Earth's crust. Pressure builds up inside the Earth. When this pressure is released, eg as a result of plate movement, magma explodes to the surface causing a volcanic eruption. The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust. Over time, after several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms
- 7. Characteristics of volcanoes A volcano is formed by eruptions of lava and ash. Volcanoes are usually cone shaped mountains or hills. When magma reaches the Earth's surface it is called lava. When the lava cools, it forms rock. Volcanic eruptions can happen at destructive and constructive boundaries, but not at conservative boundaries or collision zones. Some volcanoes happen underwater, along the seabed or ocean floor.
- 8. Volcanic Hazards A volcanic hazard is the probability a volcanic eruption or related geophysical event will occur in each geographic area and within a specified window of time. The risk that can be associated with a volcanic hazard depends on the proximity and vulnerability of an asset or a population of people near to where a volcanic event might occur
- 9. The list of hazards associated with volcanic eruptions is long and varied: lava flows, explosions, toxic gas clouds, ash falls, pyroclastic flows, avalanches, tsunamis, acid rain and mudflows.
- 10. Volcano Forecast The greatest hazard at potentially active volcanoes is human complacency. The physical hazards can be reliably estimated by studying past eruptive activity as recorded in history or in the prehistoric deposits around a volcano. Volcano observatories can monitor local earthquake activity and the surface deformation of a potentially active volcano and make useful, if not yet precise, forecasts of eruptions.
- 11. THANK YOU