Zapf, D., Vogt, C., Seifert, C., Mertini, H., & Isic, A. (1999). Emotion work as a source of stress: The
concept and the development of an instrument.European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 8, 371 - 400
On the Positive and Negative Effects of Emotion Work in Organizations.Solercanto
Zapf, D. & Holz, M. (2006). On the Positive and Negative Effects of Emotion Work in Organizations.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15, 1-28
Stress in my society is very prominent in both my personal as Ill as professional life. None of my occupation is free from stress. But the occupations that I consider more stressful are medical, teaching, office work, labors and police.
The aim of this paper was to identify the sources and consequences of stress. For this purpose I select sample size of 125 in which 25 Ire doc tors, 25 Ire teachers, 25 Ire employees working in office, 25 Ire labors and 25 Ire police officers.
Doctors Ire from Shifa International hospital, Teachers Ire from Educators, Comsats, Beacon house, Employees Ire from NPSL and PEPAC and also from NPB, and police officers were from Rescue 15 and police line.
Main focus of our study is on gender, hierarchy and age.
This document summarizes research on constructing a lexicon called CLex that explores associations between colors, concepts, and emotions based on crowdsourced data. The lexicon contains over 15,000 annotations linking colors to concepts and emotions. The research found cultural differences in color-emotion associations between the US and India and identified frequent color-concept pairs. The lexicon could help applications like sentiment analysis by capturing meaning conveyed through color terms.
This document discusses emotions, focusing on anger. It defines anger as a normal but sometimes dangerous emotion. It explains that anger is a secondary emotion triggered by other emotions and experiences. The document provides tips for controlling anger, such as stopping to think about one's feelings, keeping perspectives, using calm speech, and walking away if needed to avoid escalating anger.
Emotional intelligence is the foundation of sound decision making which is at the core of consistently high performance. Studies on the impact of emotional intelligence in the workplace emphasize that organizations with higher levels of emotional intelligence reap benefits on productivity and success; therefore forward thinkers continue to mine it for business tools that lead to superior performance. Business leaders who use Emotional Quotient expertise to build an emotionally intelligent culture do gain a competitive edge for their organization in the marketplace.
Emotion involves interactions between the peripheral nervous system, brainstem, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cortex. The amygdala and hypothalamus play key roles in processing fear and anxiety through their connections to the autonomic nervous system. Aggression can involve the hypothalamus, midbrain, amygdala, and serotonin systems. Current research shows that emotions emerge from activity across distributed neural circuits rather than isolated centers.
On the Positive and Negative Effects of Emotion Work in Organizations.Solercanto
Zapf, D. & Holz, M. (2006). On the Positive and Negative Effects of Emotion Work in Organizations.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15, 1-28
Stress in my society is very prominent in both my personal as Ill as professional life. None of my occupation is free from stress. But the occupations that I consider more stressful are medical, teaching, office work, labors and police.
The aim of this paper was to identify the sources and consequences of stress. For this purpose I select sample size of 125 in which 25 Ire doc tors, 25 Ire teachers, 25 Ire employees working in office, 25 Ire labors and 25 Ire police officers.
Doctors Ire from Shifa International hospital, Teachers Ire from Educators, Comsats, Beacon house, Employees Ire from NPSL and PEPAC and also from NPB, and police officers were from Rescue 15 and police line.
Main focus of our study is on gender, hierarchy and age.
This document summarizes research on constructing a lexicon called CLex that explores associations between colors, concepts, and emotions based on crowdsourced data. The lexicon contains over 15,000 annotations linking colors to concepts and emotions. The research found cultural differences in color-emotion associations between the US and India and identified frequent color-concept pairs. The lexicon could help applications like sentiment analysis by capturing meaning conveyed through color terms.
This document discusses emotions, focusing on anger. It defines anger as a normal but sometimes dangerous emotion. It explains that anger is a secondary emotion triggered by other emotions and experiences. The document provides tips for controlling anger, such as stopping to think about one's feelings, keeping perspectives, using calm speech, and walking away if needed to avoid escalating anger.
Emotional intelligence is the foundation of sound decision making which is at the core of consistently high performance. Studies on the impact of emotional intelligence in the workplace emphasize that organizations with higher levels of emotional intelligence reap benefits on productivity and success; therefore forward thinkers continue to mine it for business tools that lead to superior performance. Business leaders who use Emotional Quotient expertise to build an emotionally intelligent culture do gain a competitive edge for their organization in the marketplace.
Emotion involves interactions between the peripheral nervous system, brainstem, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cortex. The amygdala and hypothalamus play key roles in processing fear and anxiety through their connections to the autonomic nervous system. Aggression can involve the hypothalamus, midbrain, amygdala, and serotonin systems. Current research shows that emotions emerge from activity across distributed neural circuits rather than isolated centers.
The document provides tips for effective public speaking and presentation skills. It discusses controlling nervousness through preparation, maintaining eye contact with the audience for 3-5 seconds in a natural pattern to engage them, and using facial expressions and gestures to enhance the delivery. It also addresses avoiding distracting behaviors and mannerisms, handling questions from the audience confidently and concisely, and overcoming potential distractions in the environment.
Cross-Cultural Studies on Gender, Emotion and Personality. A Presentation summary based on the book from Matsumoto, D. & Juang, L. (2007). Culture and Psychology (4th Ed.). Wadsworth.
1. The physiology of emotion involves complex mental and physical components that originate from cognitive appraisals and are manifested through changes in the autonomic nervous system and body.
2. Several theories have attempted to explain the relationship between physiological arousal and emotional experience, including James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and Schachter-Singer theory.
3. Key brain regions involved in emotion include the limbic system, amygdala, hypothalamus, and pathways like the Papez circuit. Specific emotions engage distinct neural circuits and produce unique physiological responses.
The PsychFutures Research Maps provide summaries and links to resources on popular psychology topics to help with research projects and dissertations. The document discusses definitions of love from an psychological perspective, describing love as a complex emotion with various components including intimacy, commitment, passion, and more. It provides an overview of theories of love from psychologists like Sternberg, Rubin, Hatfield, and Lee, and lists relevant journals, books, experts, and other resources for further research on the psychology of love.
Psychology of Website Design - Dr. Pamela RutledgePamela Rutledge
Media Psychology uses psychological theory to assess and develop effective media applications. Successful websites benefit from an understanding of cognition, emotion, and personal meaning.
Goal setting involves establishing specific and measurable performance targets to improve skills and motivate athletes. It is beneficial to set both long-term and short-term goals that are realistic and prioritized in key areas. Goals should be monitored and evaluated regularly to assess progress and allow for adjustments if needed. Maintaining self-confidence through effective self-talk, relaxation, and mental imagery can help athletes work towards their goals and improve performance.
Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout.Solercanto
This document summarizes a research article that studied the relationship between emotion work, organizational job stressors, and burnout. The study defined emotion work as the psychological processes required to regulate and display organizationally desired emotions during interactions with clients. It measured different aspects of emotion work, such as displaying positive emotions, displaying and handling negative emotions, sensitivity to clients' emotions, ability to influence clients, and emotional dissonance. The study examined how these emotion work variables related to organizational stressors and resources, their unique contribution to predicting burnout, and potential interaction effects between emotion work and job stressors on burnout. The results provided initial evidence that emotion work is uniquely associated with burnout even when accounting for other job factors.
Emotional labor – an empirical analysis of the correlations of its variablesAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the correlations between variables of emotional labor. The study analyzed data from 50 employees in the services sector using a 10-item emotional labor scale. Key findings include:
1) There were positive correlations found between the variables of "carry home - anger & excitement", "emotional variety - emotional suppression", and "emotional privacy - positive emotions".
2) These variables are sub-variables of the overall concept of emotional labor and influence the psychological experiences of employees.
3) The study aims to establish baseline correlations between emotional labor variables as a preliminary study before larger research on how emotional labor impacts employee outcomes like stress and job satisfaction.
Emotional Intelligence as a Predictor of Conflict Resolution Style in Public ...inventionjournals
In today’s dynamic work environment people are more emotionally troubled. They feel lonely depressed, nervous, aggressive and stressful and this results in absenteeism, passivity, less productivity and attrition. This can also lead to conflicts but all conflicts are not destructive. Conflicts can be constructive if a person knows how to manage it well. Emotional intelligence is a personal attribute in employees which can help them to deal with conflicts. This exploratory as well as descriptive study is undertaken in public sector Delhi/NCR to find out and analyze the conflict resolution style adopted by the employees and to study the role emotional intelligence plays in choosing of conflict resolution style. Quantitative data was collected from 85 employees using conflict management style questionnaire by Johnson (1990) and emotional intelligence instrument by Emily A. Sterrett (2000). The data analysis using SPSS and MS Excel showed that employees of public sector have a very high or a high emotional intelligence and they mostly use collaborating style of conflict resolution. Emotional Intelligence (EI) and conflict resolution styles (CRS) are 75% related with each other
The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EQ) and Adversity Quotient (AQ)IOSRJBM
The purpose of this research is to determine a relationship between Emotional Quotient (EQ) and Adversity Quotient (AQ). This research is qualitative in nature and based on the previous studies done on emotional intelligence (EQ) and adversity quotient (AQ). Adversity quotient is the ability of a person to manage high stress levels and ability to work efficiently in the adversity. Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability of the person to understand their own and other people’s emotions and feelings. After conducting the review, a brainstorming session was done to conclude a critical review.
A Journey Into the Emotions of Software DevelopersNicole Novielli
Emotions are part of our everyday life and are known to impact cognitive skills, thus influencing job performance. This is true also for software development, an intellectual activity requiring creativity and problem-solving skills that are known to be influenced by affective states. In particular, early recognition of negative emotions, such as stress or frustration can enable just-in-time intervention for developers and team managers, in order to prevent burnout and undesired turnover. In this talk, I will provide an overview of recent research findings on developers’ emotions and their relationship with self-assessed productivity. Next, I will argue in favor of the emergence of tools to support developers’ emotion awareness at the individual and team level to improve productivity, resilience to failures and wellbeing.
Interrelationship between emotional intelligence, organizational commitment, ...Dr. Krishnanand Tripathi
The document discusses a study that examined the relationship between emotional intelligence, organizational commitment, and employee performance among employees in the supply chain department of textile manufacturing companies in India. A survey was administered to 145 employees. The results found a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational commitment, with emotional intelligence accounting for 34.6% of the variability in organizational commitment. Emotional intelligence was also found to account for 34.6% of the variability in employee performance. Therefore, the study concluded that emotional intelligence positively impacts both organizational commitment and employee performance.
Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion_revised.docxAzraAhmed10
This chapter discusses the results of a study examining the factors of emotional intelligence (EI) among IT employees. Statistical tests found the data was normally distributed. The study found moderate to high levels of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship management, and overall EI. Strong positive correlations were observed between all EI factors. Self-awareness and relationship management had the strongest association with overall EI. The chapter discusses the implications of these findings and suggestions for further research.
9 2007-effectiveness of smet programme with respect to emotional well being o...Elsa von Licy
This document discusses a study that examined the effectiveness of a Self Management of Excessive Tension (SMET) program on the emotional well-being of managers. 170 managers participated in the study, with some dropping out, leaving a sample of 158. The sample was divided into a yoga group and control group. The yoga group received a one month SMET intervention daily while the control group did not receive any intervention. Emotional Quotient questionnaires were used to measure emotional well-being before and after the intervention. The results showed a significant difference between the yoga and control groups, indicating that the SMET program contributed to better emotional well-being of the managers.
Examining the Relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Effec...Waqas Tariq
This document examines the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational effectiveness. It analyzes surveys completed by 240 managers, assistants, and executives from the Rasht municipality in Iran. The surveys measured emotional intelligence using a 5-factor model and organizational effectiveness using factors like goals, responsibilities, and client relationships. The results revealed a meaningful relationship between overall emotional intelligence and organizational effectiveness. Specifically, the motivation factor of emotional intelligence had the most influence on organizational effectiveness.
This document describes a research methodology project that compares the emotional intelligence of doctors working in private and government hospitals in Indore, India. The objectives are to compare the emotional intelligence of doctors in private vs government hospitals, identify contributing factors, gain experience with research methods and statistical tools, and fulfill requirements for an MBA degree. The study aims to determine if and how emotional intelligence affects job performance and identify ways to increase emotional intelligence levels. The research methodology will involve collecting data, analyzing it using statistical tools, and drawing conclusions.
Reduction of executive stress by development of emotional intelligence a stu...prjpublications
- The study examined the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in reducing stress and improving emotional intelligence among executives.
- Executives were divided into an experimental group that received 8 weeks of behavioral interventions and a control group. Interventions included relaxation techniques, yoga, and breathing exercises.
- Post-intervention testing found the experimental group had significantly lower stress levels and higher emotional intelligence scores than the control group. Dimensions like stress management, adaptability, and mood all saw marked improvements in the experimental group.
- The results indicate behavioral interventions were effective in enhancing emotional intelligence and reducing stress among the executives who received the targeted training techniques over the 8-week period.
Analysis of Emotional Intelligence as a Competition for Effective ProductivityIJAEMSJORNAL
Background. Emotional intelligence is an essential competence that must be evaluated within a personnel selection process. The level of IE influences the results of a company favorably. In this research, the dependence that exists between the effective productivity of the workers in specific of the commercial area and the emotional intelligence was analyzed. Methodology. The studied population was 88 active workers in the area as mentioned earlier; 40% were male and 60% female. Those evaluated were aged 25 to 40 years, with experience in the average sales area of 3 years. To validate the questions that were handled as an instrument, the Pearson correlation was used; Chi-square to calculate the dependence of variables. Results and discussion. As a result, we obtained ten dependent variables with which we can conclude that there is a relationship between the level of emotional intelligence with the effective productivity that collaborates with the commercial area within an organization. Conclusion. Based on the results we conclude that people with a high level of Emotional Self-understanding (AE) can control their emotions to act correctly in each situation.
Improving Interpersonal Relationship in Workplacesiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSRJRME) is an open access journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of research & method in education. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced research & method in education concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
Improving Interpersonal Relationship in Workplacesiosrjce
1) Positive interpersonal relationships in the workplace foster beneficial outcomes for both individuals and organizations. Improving relationships can increase job satisfaction, commitment, and perceived organizational support while decreasing intent to leave.
2) Factors like employee demographics, work environment, and dispositional differences can impact workplace relationships if not properly managed. Compatibility, communication, and interaction settings between coworkers also influence relationships.
3) Management can promote friendships and positive relationships by initiating social activities inside and outside of work. Individuals must also get along with coworkers to create a positive work environment and healthy relationships.
Currently, organizations must face, in addition to increased competition, also to exponential technological development and innovation, and to change processes that affect all emotional states of employees. All these challenges, along with the imposed changes and the complexity of organizational and managerial tasks, involve new emotional demands and more effective actions at the corporate level, including by managing emotions in most circumstances. Thus, emotions represent valuable "resources" for innovation and added value in an economic process. Emotions were thus given an important role in provoking, moderating or mediating events and interactions in organizations.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13409.74080
The document provides tips for effective public speaking and presentation skills. It discusses controlling nervousness through preparation, maintaining eye contact with the audience for 3-5 seconds in a natural pattern to engage them, and using facial expressions and gestures to enhance the delivery. It also addresses avoiding distracting behaviors and mannerisms, handling questions from the audience confidently and concisely, and overcoming potential distractions in the environment.
Cross-Cultural Studies on Gender, Emotion and Personality. A Presentation summary based on the book from Matsumoto, D. & Juang, L. (2007). Culture and Psychology (4th Ed.). Wadsworth.
1. The physiology of emotion involves complex mental and physical components that originate from cognitive appraisals and are manifested through changes in the autonomic nervous system and body.
2. Several theories have attempted to explain the relationship between physiological arousal and emotional experience, including James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and Schachter-Singer theory.
3. Key brain regions involved in emotion include the limbic system, amygdala, hypothalamus, and pathways like the Papez circuit. Specific emotions engage distinct neural circuits and produce unique physiological responses.
The PsychFutures Research Maps provide summaries and links to resources on popular psychology topics to help with research projects and dissertations. The document discusses definitions of love from an psychological perspective, describing love as a complex emotion with various components including intimacy, commitment, passion, and more. It provides an overview of theories of love from psychologists like Sternberg, Rubin, Hatfield, and Lee, and lists relevant journals, books, experts, and other resources for further research on the psychology of love.
Psychology of Website Design - Dr. Pamela RutledgePamela Rutledge
Media Psychology uses psychological theory to assess and develop effective media applications. Successful websites benefit from an understanding of cognition, emotion, and personal meaning.
Goal setting involves establishing specific and measurable performance targets to improve skills and motivate athletes. It is beneficial to set both long-term and short-term goals that are realistic and prioritized in key areas. Goals should be monitored and evaluated regularly to assess progress and allow for adjustments if needed. Maintaining self-confidence through effective self-talk, relaxation, and mental imagery can help athletes work towards their goals and improve performance.
Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout.Solercanto
This document summarizes a research article that studied the relationship between emotion work, organizational job stressors, and burnout. The study defined emotion work as the psychological processes required to regulate and display organizationally desired emotions during interactions with clients. It measured different aspects of emotion work, such as displaying positive emotions, displaying and handling negative emotions, sensitivity to clients' emotions, ability to influence clients, and emotional dissonance. The study examined how these emotion work variables related to organizational stressors and resources, their unique contribution to predicting burnout, and potential interaction effects between emotion work and job stressors on burnout. The results provided initial evidence that emotion work is uniquely associated with burnout even when accounting for other job factors.
Emotional labor – an empirical analysis of the correlations of its variablesAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the correlations between variables of emotional labor. The study analyzed data from 50 employees in the services sector using a 10-item emotional labor scale. Key findings include:
1) There were positive correlations found between the variables of "carry home - anger & excitement", "emotional variety - emotional suppression", and "emotional privacy - positive emotions".
2) These variables are sub-variables of the overall concept of emotional labor and influence the psychological experiences of employees.
3) The study aims to establish baseline correlations between emotional labor variables as a preliminary study before larger research on how emotional labor impacts employee outcomes like stress and job satisfaction.
Emotional Intelligence as a Predictor of Conflict Resolution Style in Public ...inventionjournals
In today’s dynamic work environment people are more emotionally troubled. They feel lonely depressed, nervous, aggressive and stressful and this results in absenteeism, passivity, less productivity and attrition. This can also lead to conflicts but all conflicts are not destructive. Conflicts can be constructive if a person knows how to manage it well. Emotional intelligence is a personal attribute in employees which can help them to deal with conflicts. This exploratory as well as descriptive study is undertaken in public sector Delhi/NCR to find out and analyze the conflict resolution style adopted by the employees and to study the role emotional intelligence plays in choosing of conflict resolution style. Quantitative data was collected from 85 employees using conflict management style questionnaire by Johnson (1990) and emotional intelligence instrument by Emily A. Sterrett (2000). The data analysis using SPSS and MS Excel showed that employees of public sector have a very high or a high emotional intelligence and they mostly use collaborating style of conflict resolution. Emotional Intelligence (EI) and conflict resolution styles (CRS) are 75% related with each other
The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EQ) and Adversity Quotient (AQ)IOSRJBM
The purpose of this research is to determine a relationship between Emotional Quotient (EQ) and Adversity Quotient (AQ). This research is qualitative in nature and based on the previous studies done on emotional intelligence (EQ) and adversity quotient (AQ). Adversity quotient is the ability of a person to manage high stress levels and ability to work efficiently in the adversity. Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability of the person to understand their own and other people’s emotions and feelings. After conducting the review, a brainstorming session was done to conclude a critical review.
A Journey Into the Emotions of Software DevelopersNicole Novielli
Emotions are part of our everyday life and are known to impact cognitive skills, thus influencing job performance. This is true also for software development, an intellectual activity requiring creativity and problem-solving skills that are known to be influenced by affective states. In particular, early recognition of negative emotions, such as stress or frustration can enable just-in-time intervention for developers and team managers, in order to prevent burnout and undesired turnover. In this talk, I will provide an overview of recent research findings on developers’ emotions and their relationship with self-assessed productivity. Next, I will argue in favor of the emergence of tools to support developers’ emotion awareness at the individual and team level to improve productivity, resilience to failures and wellbeing.
Interrelationship between emotional intelligence, organizational commitment, ...Dr. Krishnanand Tripathi
The document discusses a study that examined the relationship between emotional intelligence, organizational commitment, and employee performance among employees in the supply chain department of textile manufacturing companies in India. A survey was administered to 145 employees. The results found a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational commitment, with emotional intelligence accounting for 34.6% of the variability in organizational commitment. Emotional intelligence was also found to account for 34.6% of the variability in employee performance. Therefore, the study concluded that emotional intelligence positively impacts both organizational commitment and employee performance.
Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion_revised.docxAzraAhmed10
This chapter discusses the results of a study examining the factors of emotional intelligence (EI) among IT employees. Statistical tests found the data was normally distributed. The study found moderate to high levels of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship management, and overall EI. Strong positive correlations were observed between all EI factors. Self-awareness and relationship management had the strongest association with overall EI. The chapter discusses the implications of these findings and suggestions for further research.
9 2007-effectiveness of smet programme with respect to emotional well being o...Elsa von Licy
This document discusses a study that examined the effectiveness of a Self Management of Excessive Tension (SMET) program on the emotional well-being of managers. 170 managers participated in the study, with some dropping out, leaving a sample of 158. The sample was divided into a yoga group and control group. The yoga group received a one month SMET intervention daily while the control group did not receive any intervention. Emotional Quotient questionnaires were used to measure emotional well-being before and after the intervention. The results showed a significant difference between the yoga and control groups, indicating that the SMET program contributed to better emotional well-being of the managers.
Examining the Relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Effec...Waqas Tariq
This document examines the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational effectiveness. It analyzes surveys completed by 240 managers, assistants, and executives from the Rasht municipality in Iran. The surveys measured emotional intelligence using a 5-factor model and organizational effectiveness using factors like goals, responsibilities, and client relationships. The results revealed a meaningful relationship between overall emotional intelligence and organizational effectiveness. Specifically, the motivation factor of emotional intelligence had the most influence on organizational effectiveness.
This document describes a research methodology project that compares the emotional intelligence of doctors working in private and government hospitals in Indore, India. The objectives are to compare the emotional intelligence of doctors in private vs government hospitals, identify contributing factors, gain experience with research methods and statistical tools, and fulfill requirements for an MBA degree. The study aims to determine if and how emotional intelligence affects job performance and identify ways to increase emotional intelligence levels. The research methodology will involve collecting data, analyzing it using statistical tools, and drawing conclusions.
Reduction of executive stress by development of emotional intelligence a stu...prjpublications
- The study examined the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in reducing stress and improving emotional intelligence among executives.
- Executives were divided into an experimental group that received 8 weeks of behavioral interventions and a control group. Interventions included relaxation techniques, yoga, and breathing exercises.
- Post-intervention testing found the experimental group had significantly lower stress levels and higher emotional intelligence scores than the control group. Dimensions like stress management, adaptability, and mood all saw marked improvements in the experimental group.
- The results indicate behavioral interventions were effective in enhancing emotional intelligence and reducing stress among the executives who received the targeted training techniques over the 8-week period.
Analysis of Emotional Intelligence as a Competition for Effective ProductivityIJAEMSJORNAL
Background. Emotional intelligence is an essential competence that must be evaluated within a personnel selection process. The level of IE influences the results of a company favorably. In this research, the dependence that exists between the effective productivity of the workers in specific of the commercial area and the emotional intelligence was analyzed. Methodology. The studied population was 88 active workers in the area as mentioned earlier; 40% were male and 60% female. Those evaluated were aged 25 to 40 years, with experience in the average sales area of 3 years. To validate the questions that were handled as an instrument, the Pearson correlation was used; Chi-square to calculate the dependence of variables. Results and discussion. As a result, we obtained ten dependent variables with which we can conclude that there is a relationship between the level of emotional intelligence with the effective productivity that collaborates with the commercial area within an organization. Conclusion. Based on the results we conclude that people with a high level of Emotional Self-understanding (AE) can control their emotions to act correctly in each situation.
Improving Interpersonal Relationship in Workplacesiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSRJRME) is an open access journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of research & method in education. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced research & method in education concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
Improving Interpersonal Relationship in Workplacesiosrjce
1) Positive interpersonal relationships in the workplace foster beneficial outcomes for both individuals and organizations. Improving relationships can increase job satisfaction, commitment, and perceived organizational support while decreasing intent to leave.
2) Factors like employee demographics, work environment, and dispositional differences can impact workplace relationships if not properly managed. Compatibility, communication, and interaction settings between coworkers also influence relationships.
3) Management can promote friendships and positive relationships by initiating social activities inside and outside of work. Individuals must also get along with coworkers to create a positive work environment and healthy relationships.
Currently, organizations must face, in addition to increased competition, also to exponential technological development and innovation, and to change processes that affect all emotional states of employees. All these challenges, along with the imposed changes and the complexity of organizational and managerial tasks, involve new emotional demands and more effective actions at the corporate level, including by managing emotions in most circumstances. Thus, emotions represent valuable "resources" for innovation and added value in an economic process. Emotions were thus given an important role in provoking, moderating or mediating events and interactions in organizations.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13409.74080
Job Insecurity and Emotional Stability of Professionals at Their Work Placeinventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Emotions, according to Greenberg and Baron (2003), can be defined .docxSALU18
Emotions, according to Greenberg and Baron (2003), can be defined as “overt reactions that express feelings about events.” The same researchers differentiate emotions from moods, claiming that moods are less reactive than emotions, existing in the background instead. Emotions arise due to a variety of reasons, such as needs, ambition, personal development, or the orientation of attention (Andries, 2011). Examples of such emotions include fear, anger, joy and pride among others, and are widely believed to be the antithesis of rational thought (Greenspan, 2002, as cited in Kirman, Livet and Teschl, 2010). This belief has led many to claim that within the workplace, the presence of emotions is problematic for organizations, as it may lead employees to think irrationally and perform erratic or unpredictable actions. However, it should be noted that emotions are an unavoidable aspect of dealing with human employees, therefore, the emotions felt by these individuals should be acknowledged by the organization and controlled or redirected to avoid an undesirable outcome, or in some cases, result in increased profitability through the use of emotional labor. Therefore, this paper will firstly use existing research to present how and why emotions are viewed negatively in organizations and discuss the consequences of such a view. Secondly, the impact of emotions on various aspects of employee performance will be considered, with a focus on the affective events theory. These effects will be further explored, with a focus on the positive effects through the broaden-and-build theory. Moreover, the regulation of emotions in the workplace through display rules and other mechanisms will be analyzed. Finally, the use of emotional labor will be examined to show that in some industries, especially service sectors, emotions can be used to boost customer satisfaction and therefore profits.
To begin with, modern workplaces are often thought to be places devoid of emotions, with an emphasis on rational thought which does not allow for any emotional expression or experiences. However, as claimed by Ashkanasy et al. (2002), workplaces are as emotional as any other aspect of an individual’s social life. As mentioned previously, emotions may arise due to a variety of causes, many of which are unavoidable in a workplace. Organizations often fall under various economic or market pressures and have hierarchical power structures, with an uneven distribution of resources and privilege (Fineman, 2010). Fineman (2010) continues, claiming that such pressures may lead to the rise of negative emotions such as fear or anger. When these negative emotions such are left unchecked, they may escalate and lead to detrimental behaviors through a process known as “spinning” (Mitchell and Noakes-Fry, 2013). These detrimental behaviors, according to Fineman (2010), include resistance to executive instructions, lack of motivation, absenteeism, and in some extreme cases, a bullying culture w ...
The document discusses several models of counselling including Susan Gilmore's eclectic model, psychodynamic approach, social influence model, Bordin's working alliance model, psychodrama, transactional analysis, eclectic model, existential model, and gestalt model. Susan Gilmore's eclectic model focuses on the content, purpose, and process of therapy using three sub-triangles to explain each. The psychodynamic approach views personality as consisting of the id, ego, and superego and that unconscious motives influence behavior. The social influence model is based on the idea that counselling is a social interaction that involves mutual influence between counsellor and client.
This document provides an overview of organizational behavior concepts including:
1. Definitions of organizational behavior focusing on understanding individual and group behavior to improve organizational effectiveness.
2. Frederick Taylor's scientific management approach which studied work efficiency and developed techniques like standardized jobs and piece-rate pay.
3. The contingency approach which recognizes there is no universal solution and behaviors depend on situational factors like culture and technology.
4. Key aspects of communication including encoding messages, decoding, potential for distortion, and the importance of feedback.
Similar to Emotion work as a source of stress: The concept and the development of an instrument. (20)
Flow experiences at work: for high need achievers alone?Solercanto
Two studies examined how the relationship between employees' perceived skills and challenges at work interacted with their need for achievement to influence positive mood, intrinsic task interest, and performance. The studies found that among highly achievement-oriented employees, experiencing high skills and challenges at work was associated with greater positive mood, task interest, and performance than other skill-challenge combinations. Positive mood also mediated the interactive relationship between skill-challenge levels and achievement needs on performance. The findings suggest that matching skills and challenges optimally may benefit employees and organizations by enhancing motivation and outcomes, particularly for those with high achievement needs.
Pràcticum II
"En el Prácticum II se llevarán a cabo las últimas fases del proceso de investigación,entendidas como la selección de estrategias de análisis de datos, ejecución de la investigación y la comunicación de los resultados."Beatriz Sora Miana, El papael y la importancia de la investigación
Este documento presenta una encuesta de 17 preguntas sobre los sentimientos de las personas en el trabajo. La encuesta mide tres dimensiones principales del bienestar laboral: la vigor, la dedicación y la absorción. Los participantes deben indicar con qué frecuencia han experimentado cada sentimiento usando una escala de 0 a 6.
The document provides a scale for respondents to rate their level of agreement with 5 statements about satisfaction with their life and conditions of their life. Respondents are asked to rate their agreement with each statement using a 7 point scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. They are then asked to add up their total scores to determine their overall life satisfaction, which is categorized into levels from extremely satisfied to extremely dissatisfied.
The document describes the Perception of Success Questionnaire (PSQ), which contains questions to assess an individual's perceptions of success in sports. It includes two versions - one for children and one for adults. Both versions contain 12 statements about feelings of success in sports and ask participants to indicate their level of agreement on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The statements focus on themes like competitiveness, improvement, goal achievement, and demonstrating superior ability.
1) The study tested a model from self-determination theory in which employees' intrinsic need satisfaction mediated the relationship between perceptions of manager autonomy support and individual autonomy orientation on job performance and well-being.
2) The model posits that satisfying the innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness leads to better performance and adjustment, while need thwarting undermines motivation.
3) Autonomy supportive management that acknowledges employees' perspectives and provides choice is expected to enhance intrinsic need satisfaction and thus positively impact outcomes.
The researchers developed a new scale called the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) to measure psychological well-being and happiness. The OHQ is a more compact version of the original Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI) with single statement items rated on a 6-point scale, rather than multiple choice. Tests of the OHQ showed high reliability, strong correlation with the OHI, and associations with other validated well-being measures. Factor analysis identified a single dimension of well-being measured by the OHQ, suggesting it effectively captures an individual's overall level of happiness in a brief format. The researchers conclude the OHQ is a valid alternative to the OHI for measuring subjective psychological well-being.
The document describes efforts to develop and validate a brief 155-item form of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). The MPQ comprehensively assesses personality at the trait and structural levels and maps onto constructs of emotion and temperament with psychobiological underpinnings. The brief form was developed to enhance the MPQ's utility in research by making it less time-consuming. Validation studies found high correlations between brief- and full-form trait scales and consistency in the higher order factor structures, supporting the brief form as a valid tool for investigating personality's biological, psychological, and genetic bases.
1. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed in the 1930s-1940s by researchers Hathaway and McKinley to assess personality traits.
2. They used the method of contrasted groups, comparing responses of clinical groups (e.g. neurotics) to normal controls, to identify items that best distinguished the groups.
3. The original MMPI consisted of 550 true/false questions assessing various clinical scales. It became widely popular and established the foundation for modern personality assessment.
Tushar is an entrepreneur who tries to implement time management techniques by creating a to-do list, but he is unable to stick to his plan due to unforeseen events and distractions that cause him to miss important meetings and delay other tasks, demonstrating the challenges of effective time management in real-world situations with competing priorities and demands on one's attention. By the end of the day, Tushar is unable to complete most of the items on his original to-do list.
This article introduces the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) as a tool for assessing psychosocial job characteristics. Part I describes the development and theoretical basis of the JCQ scales, which measure job demands, decision latitude, social support, physical demands, and job insecurity. These scales assess the job strain model and its predictions about stress risk and behavioral responses under conditions of high psychological demands and low decision control. Part II reports on the cross-national validity of the JCQ scales based on studies of over 10,000 men and 6,000 women across multiple countries. Part III reviews comparisons of intercountry and interoccupation differences in JCQ scale scores.
This document is the introduction and instructions for the Imaginal Processes Inventory, a questionnaire about inner experiences like images, dreams, and daydreams. It was created by Jerome L. Singer and John S. Antrobus of the Center for Research in Cognition and Affect. The inventory consists of two parts, with Part I containing 24 questions about daydreaming and dream habits, and Part II containing 320 additional questions to indicate how well statements apply to the respondent. Respondents are assured their anonymity will be protected in using and analyzing the results of the inventory.
This document provides original psychological surveys in Spanish on basic need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. It includes:
1. A survey measuring satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs in general life and in specific relationships.
2. Instructions for constructing and scoring an Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) by selecting relevant subscales and items to assess interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, effort, pressure, choice, value, and relatedness.
3. Notes on relating need satisfaction in relationships to relationship quality and attachment security.
Este estudio exploratorio evaluó las características del estado de "flow", ansiedad y estado emocional en relación con el rendimiento en 10 nadadores de élite. Se entrevistó individualmente a los nadadores para evaluar su motivación, orientación a la meta y habilidad percibida. Después de pedirles que narraran sus mejores y peores experiencias de rendimiento, se evaluaron los estados de "flow", ansiedad y emocional correspondientes. Los resultados mostraron que durante las mejores experiencias de rendimiento hubo mayores niveles de
The document describes the development of a Spanish language version of the Worn Out scale of the General Well-Being Questionnaire (GWBQ). Researchers developed a 12-item Spanish version of the Worn Out scale based on prior research showing its sensitivity to aspects of work design and management. The Spanish version was administered to 229 Spanish workers along with other measures. Confirmatory factor analysis showed the Spanish version had adequate factorial validity, reliability, and concurrent validity. Scores on the Spanish version also correlated significantly with safety behaviors and accident reporting, demonstrating its sensitivity and usefulness for occupational health research in Spanish.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
La escala general de satisfacción laboral mide la satisfacción general, intrínseca y extrínseca de los trabajadores en 3 subescalas de 15 ítems. Los trabajadores indican su grado de satisfacción en cada ítem en una escala de 7 puntos. Las puntuaciones permiten evaluar la satisfacción general de los trabajadores y detectar posibles problemas en áreas específicas. Estudios muestran que niveles más altos de satisfacción se asocian con mejores condiciones psicosociales en el trabajo.
This study examines the mediating role of perceived personal competence in the development of burnout syndrome and stress symptoms among university professors facing potentially stressful work conditions. The study validated a structural model showing that perceived personal competence has a mediating effect on depersonalization and personal fulfillment dimensions of burnout, as well as stress symptoms. Emotional exhaustion was not found to be mediated by perceived competence. Emotional exhaustion also acted as a mediating variable, facilitating the negative impact of stressors on burnout dimensions and stress symptoms.
Este documento presenta el Cuestionario Breve de Burnout (CBB), un instrumento de evaluación del síndrome de burnout que consta de 21 ítems agrupados en 3 subescalas: factores de burnout, síndrome de burnout y consecuencias del burnout. Se proporcionan instrucciones para la administración, codificación e interpretación del cuestionario, así como puntos de corte para determinar niveles bajos, medios y altos en cada subescala.
Northern Engraving | Modern Metal Trim, Nameplates and Appliance PanelsNorthern Engraving
What began over 115 years ago as a supplier of precision gauges to the automotive industry has evolved into being an industry leader in the manufacture of product branding, automotive cockpit trim and decorative appliance trim. Value-added services include in-house Design, Engineering, Program Management, Test Lab and Tool Shops.
"Choosing proper type of scaling", Olena SyrotaFwdays
Imagine an IoT processing system that is already quite mature and production-ready and for which client coverage is growing and scaling and performance aspects are life and death questions. The system has Redis, MongoDB, and stream processing based on ksqldb. In this talk, firstly, we will analyze scaling approaches and then select the proper ones for our system.
"Scaling RAG Applications to serve millions of users", Kevin GoedeckeFwdays
How we managed to grow and scale a RAG application from zero to thousands of users in 7 months. Lessons from technical challenges around managing high load for LLMs, RAGs and Vector databases.
What is an RPA CoE? Session 1 – CoE VisionDianaGray10
In the first session, we will review the organization's vision and how this has an impact on the COE Structure.
Topics covered:
• The role of a steering committee
• How do the organization’s priorities determine CoE Structure?
Speaker:
Chris Bolin, Senior Intelligent Automation Architect Anika Systems
Essentials of Automations: Exploring Attributes & Automation ParametersSafe Software
Building automations in FME Flow can save time, money, and help businesses scale by eliminating data silos and providing data to stakeholders in real-time. One essential component to orchestrating complex automations is the use of attributes & automation parameters (both formerly known as “keys”). In fact, it’s unlikely you’ll ever build an Automation without using these components, but what exactly are they?
Attributes & automation parameters enable the automation author to pass data values from one automation component to the next. During this webinar, our FME Flow Specialists will cover leveraging the three types of these output attributes & parameters in FME Flow: Event, Custom, and Automation. As a bonus, they’ll also be making use of the Split-Merge Block functionality.
You’ll leave this webinar with a better understanding of how to maximize the potential of automations by making use of attributes & automation parameters, with the ultimate goal of setting your enterprise integration workflows up on autopilot.
"NATO Hackathon Winner: AI-Powered Drug Search", Taras KlobaFwdays
This is a session that details how PostgreSQL's features and Azure AI Services can be effectively used to significantly enhance the search functionality in any application.
In this session, we'll share insights on how we used PostgreSQL to facilitate precise searches across multiple fields in our mobile application. The techniques include using LIKE and ILIKE operators and integrating a trigram-based search to handle potential misspellings, thereby increasing the search accuracy.
We'll also discuss how the azure_ai extension on PostgreSQL databases in Azure and Azure AI Services were utilized to create vectors from user input, a feature beneficial when users wish to find specific items based on text prompts. While our application's case study involves a drug search, the techniques and principles shared in this session can be adapted to improve search functionality in a wide range of applications. Join us to learn how PostgreSQL and Azure AI can be harnessed to enhance your application's search capability.
[OReilly Superstream] Occupy the Space: A grassroots guide to engineering (an...Jason Yip
The typical problem in product engineering is not bad strategy, so much as “no strategy”. This leads to confusion, lack of motivation, and incoherent action. The next time you look for a strategy and find an empty space, instead of waiting for it to be filled, I will show you how to fill it in yourself. If you’re wrong, it forces a correction. If you’re right, it helps create focus. I’ll share how I’ve approached this in the past, both what works and lessons for what didn’t work so well.
LF Energy Webinar: Carbon Data Specifications: Mechanisms to Improve Data Acc...DanBrown980551
This LF Energy webinar took place June 20, 2024. It featured:
-Alex Thornton, LF Energy
-Hallie Cramer, Google
-Daniel Roesler, UtilityAPI
-Henry Richardson, WattTime
In response to the urgency and scale required to effectively address climate change, open source solutions offer significant potential for driving innovation and progress. Currently, there is a growing demand for standardization and interoperability in energy data and modeling. Open source standards and specifications within the energy sector can also alleviate challenges associated with data fragmentation, transparency, and accessibility. At the same time, it is crucial to consider privacy and security concerns throughout the development of open source platforms.
This webinar will delve into the motivations behind establishing LF Energy’s Carbon Data Specification Consortium. It will provide an overview of the draft specifications and the ongoing progress made by the respective working groups.
Three primary specifications will be discussed:
-Discovery and client registration, emphasizing transparent processes and secure and private access
-Customer data, centering around customer tariffs, bills, energy usage, and full consumption disclosure
-Power systems data, focusing on grid data, inclusive of transmission and distribution networks, generation, intergrid power flows, and market settlement data
In the realm of cybersecurity, offensive security practices act as a critical shield. By simulating real-world attacks in a controlled environment, these techniques expose vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. This proactive approach allows manufacturers to identify and fix weaknesses, significantly enhancing system security.
This presentation delves into the development of a system designed to mimic Galileo's Open Service signal using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. We'll begin with a foundational overview of both Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and the intricacies of digital signal processing.
The presentation culminates in a live demonstration. We'll showcase the manipulation of Galileo's Open Service pilot signal, simulating an attack on various software and hardware systems. This practical demonstration serves to highlight the potential consequences of unaddressed vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of offensive security practices in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
"What does it really mean for your system to be available, or how to define w...Fwdays
We will talk about system monitoring from a few different angles. We will start by covering the basics, then discuss SLOs, how to define them, and why understanding the business well is crucial for success in this exercise.
AppSec PNW: Android and iOS Application Security with MobSFAjin Abraham
Mobile Security Framework - MobSF is a free and open source automated mobile application security testing environment designed to help security engineers, researchers, developers, and penetration testers to identify security vulnerabilities, malicious behaviours and privacy concerns in mobile applications using static and dynamic analysis. It supports all the popular mobile application binaries and source code formats built for Android and iOS devices. In addition to automated security assessment, it also offers an interactive testing environment to build and execute scenario based test/fuzz cases against the application.
This talk covers:
Using MobSF for static analysis of mobile applications.
Interactive dynamic security assessment of Android and iOS applications.
Solving Mobile app CTF challenges.
Reverse engineering and runtime analysis of Mobile malware.
How to shift left and integrate MobSF/mobsfscan SAST and DAST in your build pipeline.
ScyllaDB is making a major architecture shift. We’re moving from vNode replication to tablets – fragments of tables that are distributed independently, enabling dynamic data distribution and extreme elasticity. In this keynote, ScyllaDB co-founder and CTO Avi Kivity explains the reason for this shift, provides a look at the implementation and roadmap, and shares how this shift benefits ScyllaDB users.
The Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) invited Taylor Paschal, Knowledge & Information Management Consultant at Enterprise Knowledge, to speak at a Knowledge Management Lunch and Learn hosted on June 12, 2024. All Office of Administration staff were invited to attend and received professional development credit for participating in the voluntary event.
The objectives of the Lunch and Learn presentation were to:
- Review what KM ‘is’ and ‘isn’t’
- Understand the value of KM and the benefits of engaging
- Define and reflect on your “what’s in it for me?”
- Share actionable ways you can participate in Knowledge - - Capture & Transfer
Demystifying Knowledge Management through Storytelling
Emotion work as a source of stress: The concept and the development of an instrument.
1. This article was downloaded by: [University of Barcelona]
On: 19 February 2012, At: 06:13
Publisher: Psychology Press
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered
Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41
Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
European Journal
of Work and
Organizational
Psychology
Publication details, including
instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/
pewo20
Emotion Work as a
Source of Stress:
The Concept and
Development of an
Instrument
Dieter Zapf, Christoph Vogt, Claudia
Seifert, Heidrun Mertini & Amela Isic
Available online: 10 Sep 2010
To cite this article: Dieter Zapf, Christoph Vogt, Claudia Seifert,
Heidrun Mertini & Amela Isic (1999): Emotion Work as a Source of
Stress: The Concept and Development of an Instrument, European
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8:3, 371-400
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/135943299398230
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
2. Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/
page/terms-and-conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private
study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,
redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply,
or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied
or make any representation that the contents will be complete
or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions,
formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages
whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
4. 372 ZAPF ET AL.
psychological stressors. Although the former were explicitly mentioned, the
aspects these psychological stressors should comprise were not. Most studies on
psychological stressors at work measure stressors that are related to the work
tasks and to the organization of work (cf. Kahn & Byosiere, 1992; Zapf,
Dormann, & Frese, 1996). Typical examples are quantitative and qualitative
overload or time pressure. There are only a few approaches that try to systematize
psychological job stressors based on a general framework. The most prominent
approaches use role theory to link different role demands such as role conflict,
role ambiguity and role overload to psychological stress (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn,
Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). Another approach is the differentiation of job
stressors according to their effect on action regulation (Frese & Zapf, 1994;
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
Greiner & Leitner, 1989; Semmer, 1984; Semmer, Zapf, & Dunckel, 1995, 1999;
Zapf, 1993). Basically, these stressors are of a cognitive nature, that is, working
conditions are considered to be stressful because they negatively affect various
aspects of information processing during task execution and because they require
mental effort. Examples are time pressure, interruptions, concentration
necessities or uncertainty at work. Another perspective examines psychological
stressors associated with social relations at work. Scales addressing social
stressors (Frese & Zapf, 1987) or interpersonal conflict scales (Spector, 1987)
measure conflicts, animosities, verbal aggression and unjust behaviour at work.
The theories underlying these kinds of stressors typically relate to conflict and
aggression.
Burnout is yet another research area that points to job requirements not
included in the concepts of psychological job stressors mentioned so far. Burnout
was first investigated in the helping professions (Maslach, 1982; Maslach &
Leiter, 1997; Schaufeli & Buunk, 1996; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Schaufeli,
Maslach, & Marek, 1993). It is argued that the personal relationships with
patients, clients, or children are very demanding and require a high amount of
empathy and emotional involvement. This is usually combined with a high
aspiration level to build up personal relationships and avoid treating other people
like objects. In these professions, the management of emotions is considered a
central part of work. Burnout is then an indication that employees are no longer
able to adequately manage their emotions when interacting with clients. It is a
syndrome consisting of three aspects: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,
and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). It is argued
that, in the long run, burnout leads to psychosomatic complaints, depression, and
other long-term stress effects. A recent meta-analysis (Lee & Ashforth, 1996) of
the existing literature found role stress to be one of the best predictors of burnout
variables. Interestingly, studies on burnout did not try to directly measure the
emotional aspects at work. Rather, these aspects were taken as a given by doing
research with samples where emotional job requirements could be taken for
granted. Instead, various job stressors, such as role conflict, role ambiguity, time
pressure, and lack of job control were measured.
5. EMOTION WORK 373
It is only recently that authors tried to investigate the relationships between
more direct measures of emotional aspects at work and psychological strain (e.g.
Abraham, 1998; Adelmann, 1995; Brotheridge & Lee, 1998; Grandey, 1998;
Morris & Feldman, 1997). These authors referred to the concept of emotional
labour introduced by Arlie Russell Hochschild (1983). This concept refers to the
quality of interactions between employees and clients. The term “clients” is used
to refer to any person who interacts with an employee, for example, clients,
patients, children, customers, or guests. During face-to-face interactions with
clients many employees are required to express appropriate emotions as a job
requirement, for example, waiters or flight attendants are required to be friendly
even to arrogant or aggressive customers. Hochschild drew upon the work of
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
Goffman (1959) to argue that people in social interactions tend to play roles and
try to create certain impressions. Impressions include the display of normatively
appropriate emotions following certain display rules. In this respect, Morris and
Feldman (1996, p. 987) defined emotional labour as the “effort, planning, and
control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal
transactions”.
It was our intention to investigate whether job requirements that refer to the
regulation of emotions could supplement the concepts of psychological job
stressors mentioned previously that refer to the regulation of cognition or
information processing. Hochschild, as a sociologist, differentiated between
emotional labour as the exchange value of work and emotional work as the use
value. In the present context, the psychological processes, for example, the
regulation processes of work actions rather than societal and economic aspects of
labour are considered. In psychology, the term “labour” is used to describe the
division of labour, labour–management relations, conflict resolution, and
collective bargaining. The term is not used when individual behaviour and
intrapsychic concepts are involved as in the concepts of physical and mental
work demands, work motivation, work involvement, work design, etc. To be
compatible with these research areas, the term “emotion work” is preferred. In
sum, emotion work possesses the following characteristics (Hochschild, 1983;
Morris & Feldman, 1997): (1) It is a significant component of jobs that require
either face-to-face or voice-to voice interactions with clients. This refers to the
service sector, in particular human services, but also to teachers, police,
correctional workers, debt collectors, and others. It should be noted that not all
jobs that require face-to-face interactions with clients belong to the service sector
and that defining service is problematic (Nerdinger, 1994). We will use the term
“person-related work” as an umbrella term for all jobs that require face-to-face or
voice-to-voice interactions with clients. (2) Emotions in these jobs are displayed
to influence other people’s attitudes and behaviours, usually by influencing their
emotional state. For example, a child nurse may show sympathy and talk to a hurt
child in a soft calming voice to make the child stop crying and cheer her up.
(3) The display of emotions has to follow certain rules. At present, many
6. 374 ZAPF ET AL.
companies do not have explicit display rules as a part of the organizational
culture or as part of their job descriptions, in particular not in Continental Europe.
However, mission statements of companies sometimes incorporate display rules
and there may be implicit display rules taught in one’s occupational education or
as part of one’s professional ethos, for example, in the case of a nurse (Briner,
1995). In other cases, it may be the professional experience that you can’t sell
anything if you are not polite, friendly, and helpful. Employers differ in their
attempts to control and direct how employees display emotions to clients. In
some cases, it is part of the supervisors’ jobs to take care that display rules are
observed. Increasingly, companies ask customers to evaluate whether they were
treated in a friendly manner.
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
A number of studies operationalized emotion work as a dichotomous variable
indicating the presence or absence of emotion work in an occupation
(Hochschild, 1983; Wharton, 1993). Hochschild suggested that emotion work
depends on the frequency of interpersonal contact between employee and client,
thus conceiving emotion work as an unidimensional construct negatively
correlated with employees’ health. Accordingly, some authors (e.g. Adelmann,
1995) operationalized one scale for emotion work. However, these studies could
not find the expected negative relations between emotion work and psychological
strain, suggesting that more differentiated concepts should be used.
Other authors have worked on the differentiation of various aspects of
emotion work, many of them referring to the seminal work of Morris and
Feldman (1996). Some started with Hochschild’s (1983) concept of emotion
management to differentiate various dimensions of emotion work (e.g. Grandy,
1998; Kruml & Geddes, 1998). Other authors focused on determinants of
emotion work in the sense of “objective” job requirements: This emphasizes that
it is not in the discretion of the employee whether or not to express certain
emotions in a job. Rather, independent of a particular worker, it is required by the
organization and may be an explicit or implicit rule.
Approaches referring to the concept of emotion management differentiated it
based on how emotion work is done. One aspect differentiates between surface
acting and deep acting. Based on Goffman (1959), Hochschild (1983) argued that
individuals permanently manage their outer demeanour to conform with
situational requirements. Most emotion theorists propose that emotions consist
of several sub-systems (see Scherer, 1997): subjective feeling, physiological
reaction patterns, and expressive behaviour, the latter including facial
expression, voice and gesture. With reference to these concepts, surface acting
means that employees try to manage the visible aspects of emotions that appear
on the “surface” to bring them in line with the organizational display rules, while
the inner feelings remain unchanged. Another concept of Hochschild is “active
deep acting” when individuals try to influence what they feel in order to
“become” the role they are asked to display. In this case, not only the expressive
behaviour but also the inner feelings are regulated. Active deep acting refers to
7. EMOTION WORK 375
the case where an employee has to spend effort to regulate emotions. In other
cases, an employee may automatically feel the emotion required in a particular
situation. Hochschild called such forms “passive deep acting”.
Most studies of emotion work include the concept of emotional dissonance
(e.g. Abraham, 1998; Brotheridge & Lee, 1998; Grandey, 1998; Morris &
Feldman, 1996, 1997). Emotional dissonance occurs when an employee is
required to express emotions that are not genuinely felt in the particular situation.
A person may feel nothing when a certain emotion display is required, or the
display rule may require the suppression of undesired emotions and the
expression of neutrality or a positive emotion instead of a negative one.
Emotional dissonance may originate from “faking in good faith” when the
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
employee accepts the underlying display rule or from “faking in bad faith” when
the feeling rule is not accepted (Hochschild. 1983; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987).
Various authors (e.g. Abraham, 1998; Adelmann, 1995) propose that faking in
bad faith has the most negative consequences.
Based on this, Grandey (1998) and Kruml and Geddes (1998) identified two
dimensions: emotional dissonance and emotional effort. Emotional dissonance
refers to Hochschild’s concept of surface acting and passive deep acting
(automatic emotion regulation), which are considered to be the opposite ends of a
continuum. If an employee spontaneously feels the emotion, emotional
dissonance is low; if he or she feels nothing or the opposite emotion, emotional
dissonance is high. Emotional effort refers to the degree to which employees
actively try to change their inner feelings to match the feelings they are expected
to express. According to Kruml and Geddes, this dimension incorporates
Hochschild’s (1983) active deep acting. Both dimensions showed a high
correlation in the studies of Grandey.
In conceptualizing emotion work as the behavioural response to variations in
the frequency, variety, intensity, and duration of interactions, Brotheridge and
Lee (1998, p. 7) used the term “emotional labour” to refer to “actions undertaken
as a means of addressing role demands”. In this sense, operationalizations of
emotion work come close to the concept of coping in stress research (Lazarus &
Folkman,1984; Semmer, 1996). The authors operationalized surface acting and
deep acting as the key constructs for emotion work. Deep acting refers to the
active attempts to align one’s felt and displayed emotion, which means that the
inner feelings have to be adapted to the emotions that have to be displayed. In
contrast, surface acting means pretending to have the emotions expected to be
displayed. In this case, employees do not try to feel the emotions they have to
display. Brotheridge and Lee considered surface acting as the manifestation and
even a proxy for emotional dissonance.
Morris and Feldman (1996) concentrated on what they called dimensions of
emotion work: the frequency of emotion display, the attentiveness to display
rules required (referring to the intensity and duration of emotion display), the
variety of emotions to be expressed, and emotional dissonance. They argued that
8. 376 ZAPF ET AL.
all these dimensions of emotion work would increase emotional exhaustion, the
core variable of burnout.
To conclude: Most authors consider the frequency, variety, duration, and
attentiveness of emotions as dimensions of emotion work. Emotional dissonance
is viewed somewhat differently. Several authors consider it to be a result of the
determinants of emotion work (e.g. Adelmann, 1995); some authors even place it
close to the dependent variables (e.g. Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). However,
there is some agreement to define emotional dissonance as the discrepancy
between displayed and felt emotions (Brotheridge & Lee, 1998; Morris &
Feldman, 1996, 1997) and to consider it as one of the key predictors of emotional
exhaustion. Brotheridge and Lee (1998) proposed that the emotional
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
requirements at work do not directly lead to emotional exhaustion but may do so
through their relation with emotional dissonance.
Several attempts have been made to operationalize aspects of emotion work.
Morris and Feldman (1997) operationalized three aspects of emotion work: the
frequency of emotion work, the duration of emotion work, and emotional
dissonance. For the frequency and duration scales they did not directly refer to
emotion display but referred to the frequency and time interacting with clients,
whereas emotional dissonance items directly referred to the match between
displayed behaviour and felt emotions. Brotheridge and Lee (1998) and Grandey
(1998) followed the model proposed by Morris and Feldman (1996) and
operationalized scales for the dimensions of emotion work as frequency, variety,
attentiveness, and duration (single item), and emotional dissonance, surface
acting, and deep acting as the core variables of emotion work. In the first study of
Brotheridge and Lee (1998), a factor analysis produced four factors collapsing
emotional dissonance and surface acting into one factor, and intensity, variety,
and duration into another. The two other factors were deep acting and frequency
of emotional display. In a second study, the authors were able to distinguish
frequency, variety, intensity, and duration, and surface acting and deep acting.
Best, Downey, and Jones (1997) measured how often different emotions were
expected on the job. Using factor analyses, they found three factors representing
the expression of positive emotions, suppressing negative emotions and
expressing negative emotions, whereby the latter showed a low reliability and a
low response frequency. Abraham (1998) operationalized emotional dissonance
using items from Adelmann (1995) that referred to display rules in the
organization. She then developed identical items rephrased to reflect the degree
to which the respondents would actually show the corresponding emotions.
Difference scores of the respective items were then computed to reflect
emotional dissonance.
For the present studies we combined the literature on emotion work described
previously with action theory-based approaches in stress research (Frese & Zapf,
1994; Greiner & Leitner, 1989; Zapf, 1993). “Work” or “labour” is a
multidisciplinary concept. Hacker (1973, 1998) and Volpert (1974) argued that
9. EMOTION WORK 377
the psychological component of work is the work activity and from the
perspective of action theory it is the psychic regulation of work actions. Through
various cognitive processes, action theory links the objective work environment
to behaviour. To describe job requirements, three aspects are distinguished: the
regulation requirements of a task, regulation possibilities, and regulation
problems (for details, see Frese & Zapf, 1994; Zapf, 1993).
From an action-oriented perspective, regulation requirements are related to
properties of the hierarchic-sequential organization of action and comprise the
complexity of decisions, the number and connectedness of goals and sub-goals,
and the extent of conscious vs. automatic regulation processes. Regulation
possibilities refer to the concept of control. Control means having an impact on
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
one’s conditions and on one’s activities in correspondence with some goal.
Decision possibilities exist with regard to the sequence of the action steps, the
timeframe, and the content of goals and plans (Frese, 1987). Several authors have
operationalized various aspects of control, such as task control referring to
decision possibilities regarding the goals to be carried out, the sequence of plans
to be performed, and the sequence of feedback information processing. Time
control, for example, refers to both when and for how long a certain task is
performed (e.g. Frese & Zapf, 1994, Semmer, et al. 1995; Wall, Jackson,
Mullarkey, & Parker, 1996; Zapf, 1993). Regulation problems are an action
theory conceptualization of work stressors. The stressors are differentiated
according to how they disturb the regulation of actions (Frese & Zapf, 1994;
Greiner & Leitner, 1989; Semmer, 1984).
There is evidence that regulation requirements, regulation possibilities, and
regulation problems are differentially related to health and well-being and that
this differentiation helps to overcome a stimulus-response framework where
every characteristic of the job has negative consequences and where “doing
nothing” would be the best concept to avoid stress at work. In contrast, action
theory proposes that human beings usually try to actively cope with their
environment. In this sense, job design should support this active approach by
providing challenging (i.e. sufficiently complex) tasks (regulation requirements)
and control (regulation possibilities), but at the same time, reducing the stressors
(regulation problems). Regulation requirements are relevant to the concept of
personality enhancement (Hacker, 1973, 1998; see also Frese & Zapf, 1994).
This means that they enable one to develop cognitive and social skills, and further
satisfaction and self-esteem. They follow the person–environment fit model
(Edwards & van Harrison, 1993): They are positive as long as they are matched
by personal prerequisites and they become negative when they exceed them.
Research shows that regulation possibilities (control) typically show a direct
positive effect as well as a moderating effect between stressors and strains (e.g.
Kahn & Byosiere, 1992). In contrast, regulation problems (stressors) have
negative health effects. Stressors are in a sense independent of the person–
environment fit, because people want challenging tasks, but they do not need a
10. 378 ZAPF ET AL.
minimal amount of conflicts, time pressure or superfluous organizational
problems to feel happy.
Using an action theory framework, the psychological focus of the present
study was on the regulation of emotion display according to a goal given by the
organization. In this sense, emotion work is part of intentional and goal-directed
behaviour. From the organization, an employee receives an order to carry out a
certain task in a certain way. This includes behaving according to the emotional
display rules of the organization. The order is then redefined into a subjective
goal (Hackman, 1970). Emotion work usually refers to a sub-goal of a higher
order goal and requires certain emotion display during an interaction with a
client. Ideally, emotion work is done in the automatic mode, that is, the emotion
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
is automatically shown in the social interaction as required (cf. Scherer &
Wallbott, 1990). In this sense, the concept of emotion work differs from
approaches that investigate emotions as a response to a variety of organizational
conditions (e.g. Basch & Fisher, 1998).
Emotion work poses various demands on the worker. This view considers the
job requirement aspects of emotion work and is congruent with the idea that
objective job characteristics or job stressors created by the organization affect the
workers in various ways (Frese & Zapf, 1988, 1994; Spector, 1992). This
approach conforms to the behaviour requirement approach in job analysis
research (Hackman, 1970). Because our goal was to develop an instrument that
should be used in addition to other instruments in the analysis of stress at work,
we did not intend to operationalize all aspects of emotion work separately, but we
used these concepts for the development of items. However, because of the
empirical findings of Best et al. (1997), Brotheridge and Lee (1998), and
Grandey (1998) we expected that the items of emotional requirements would
represent at least two factors, namely the frequency and the variety/intensity of
emotion work. We did not model the duration aspect. The reason is that the
emotion work components were developed in the context of stress research
where the frequency of emotion work seems to be most relevant. If intensity only
is measured there should not necessarily be a strong relation with variables such
as burnout, because the more intense emotions could be more seldom. Similarly,
if variety of emotions is measured, the problem occurs that a high variety in
general might be more stressful than a low variety but it may not occur very often.
In the present study we partly tried to circumvent this problem by asking, for
example, how often both positive and negative emotions have to be displayed.
In addition to the work of Hochschild (1983), we drew upon concepts of
emotion work that put the influence and management of clients’ emotions into
the foreground (e.g. Brucks, 1998; Strauss, Farahaugh, Suczek, & Wiener, 1980;
Strazdins, 1998). To be able to manage clients emotions, the accurate perception
of the clients’ emotions is an important prerequisite. This is also in accord with
communication psychology (Riggio, 1986) and the literature on emotional
intelligence (Goleman, 1995, 1998). Riggio operationalized basic social skills
11. EMOTION WORK 379
that are related to the regulation of emotions and differentiated sensitivity,
expression, and control of emotions. Expression and control refer to the
emotional requirements described previously. In addition, we operationalized
“sensitivity requirements” as the necessity to be sensitive and consider the
emotions of clients. It can be expected that sensitivity requirements are positively
correlated with emotional requirements because the expression of an emotion
during an interaction usually is dependent on the emotion of the interaction
partner. Only in short script-like interactions might a person express emotions
without trying to sense the emotion of others.
In his qualitative study on supermarket clerks’ performance, Tolich (1993)
argued that the presence or absence of control over one’s emotion display is one
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
of the important issues of emotion work. He differentiated regulated emotion
management from autonomous emotion management. Referring to the dif-
ferentiation of various aspects of job control (regulation possibilities) mentioned
earlier, emotion work control was operationalized as a special case of job control
with regard to the display of emotions (in the sense of Tolich’s autonomous
emotion management) and interaction control as a special case with regard to the
underlying social interactions where emotions have to be displayed. Emotion
work control refers to the extent to which an employee can decide whether or not
to show a desired emotion. Emotion work control is probably lower when display
rules have been made explicit in an organization, but this should not be
necessarily so. Waitresses in restaurants may have to follow certain display rules,
but there may be differences in how often and in what cases the waitresses are
empowered to deviate from the rules. As described previously, some authors
have operationalized emotion work by operationalizing aspects of the underlying
social situation (e.g Adelmann, 1995; Morris & Feldman, 1997). In a similar way
we operationalized the control of the social interaction, that is the degree of
influence an employee has in social interactions with clients. An example is
whether an employee can decide when to stop an interaction with a client. There
are several reasons why we included the concepts of emotion work control and
interaction control. First, they are part of the action theory framework we applied
to emotion work. Second, qualitative research done by Hochschild (1983),
Rafaeli (1989) and Tolich (1993) pointed to the importance of this concept.
Third, the study of Erickson (1991, cited in Abraham, 1998) showed some
evidence that the moderating effect of job control applied when emotional
dissonance is involved and that this effect might be even stronger when the
control concept is matched to the stressor (cf. the analogy of the match-
hypothesis of stressors and social support of Cohen & Wills, 1985).
Finally, emotional dissonance was considered as an emotion regulation
problem. As in most of the other approaches, it is defined as the mismatch
between felt emotions and the organizationally desired expression of these
emotions. We considered emotional dissonance as an external demand rather
than a reaction to emotion display or a behavioural strategy. One could argue
12. 380 ZAPF ET AL.
that, given a certain requirement for frequency and content (positive or negative
emotion), it should then depend on the employee and his or her personality to
what extent he or she feels in line with the required emotions. In this sense,
emotional dissonance would be a stress reaction and a first sign of emotional
exhaustion. However, there are qualitative differences in social situations that are
not sufficiently described by the parameters for display rules. This is because the
display rules describe the desired state of emotion display, but they do not
comprise anything about how often individuals are exposed to situations where
they have to show the required emotions. Moreover, they do not reflect other
factors, namely how positive or negative the social interaction is, which may
influence what people feel and whether this fits to the emotion required by the
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
display rule for this particular situation. Compare, for example, a nurse in a
children’s hospital and a nurse in a retirement home. The display rules of
showing friendliness and empathy may be the same, and frequency and duration
of interactions may be similar, leading to similar required display rates of
positive emotions, but the nurse in the retirement home may encounter many
more situations where an average person feels disgust or anger. Similarly,
cashiers of a supermarket chain may all have the same requirements to display
positive emotions to customers, and the number of customers determining the
frequency of emotional requirements may be similar. However, depending on
where a supermarket is located, there may be differing frequencies of encounters
with complaining or otherwise negatively behaving customers, which is a good
predictor of negative emotions of the employee (Doucet, 1998). Consequently,
the number of situations where gaps between felt and desired emotions appear
may differ considerably. The discrepancy between what an average person is
likely to feel and what the respective display rule is, varies from situation to
situation. Therefore, the aspects covered by the concept of emotional dissonance
are not covered by the frequency and other parameters of emotional requirements
because they all refer to the display rules and to more formal characteristics of
social interaction, such as frequency and duration, and not to the quality of the
actual situations and the resulting differing discrepancies between display rules
and average emotions in a given situation.
Two more issues should be mentioned with regard to emotional dissonance.
First, some authors focus on the display of emotions required by the organization,
no matter what a person feels (e.g. Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). Display of
emotion refers to facial expression, bodily behaviour, and voice. These are the
visible aspects of the emotional system (Scherer, 1997; Scherer & Wallbott,
1990). If this is so, could then the display of emotions not be described by
sensorimotor processes? The regulation of sensorimotor processes is, for
example, a part of the action theory approach mentioned previously (Frese &
Zapf, 1994; Hacker, 1998). According to action theory, sensorimotor processes
are highly automatized. They are usually carried out in the automatic mode, that
13. EMOTION WORK 381
is, without conscious attention. This is also so with respect to the sensorimotor
processes in the expression of emotion (Ekman, 1984; Izard, 1977; Scherer &
Wallbott, 1990). If a certain emotion is felt, then the expression of this emotion
automatically occurs whereby social competence may play a moderator role. If
an emotion that has to be displayed, is not felt, then problems occur. In highly
standardized situations it may be easy to fake. If this is not the case, then the true
feelings may show through and may be recognized by other people (cf. Ekman &
Friesen, 1982 who investigated the differences between true and faked smiling).
In some cases, authenticity, that is not faking, may even be a key variable, for
example, for therapists in encounter therapy (Rogers, 1951). Hochschild (1983)
also raised the problems of surface acting and discussed that even in services
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
such as airlines deep acting is required. Employees are required to feel the
emotions they should feel because otherwise there is the danger that it would not
work. Findings in social psychology showed that people can sometimes tell when
someone is faking a friendly face (Ekman & Friesen, 1982). Therefore,
emotional dissonance as a job stressor should lead to both surface acting and deep
acting as a reaction, implying that emotion work cannot be reduced to the
sensorimotor regulation of emotional expression. This also shows the difference
between emotional dissonance as a stressor and as a reaction. If deep acting was
successful there is no internal state of emotional dissonance (emotional
dissonance as a reaction or dimension of emotion work). However, deep acting
can be a strategy to deal with the job stressor of emotional dissonance.
Finally, emotional dissonance has to be discussed with reference to the
differentiation of use value and exchange value of work (Hochschild, 1983;
Marx, 1867/1977; Nerdinger, 1994). Hochschild (1983), who coined the term
“emotional labour”, pointed out that “emotional labour is sold for a wage and
therefore has exchange value” (p. 7). Nerdinger discussed in detail that, from the
economic point of view, the work of the service provider is exchanged for
money. However, in many cases the full service requires an interaction as if there
were not an economic but a family-like relation. A therapist is expected to be
truly interested in the client and not just because he or she is paid for it. Similarly,
parents know that child nursing is a job and that the nurses work for money.
Nevertheless they wish that the nurses really love their children. Nerdinger
pointed out that the social interaction is not only a means to deliver the service but
is part of the service product. Thus, a service employee may face contradictory
expectations given by the personal interaction with the client (who, for example,
may want advice) and the economic interests of his or her employer (who may
insist on high sales). Moreover, the requirements of the organization itself may
be ambiguous. A computer hot-liner may be required to be customer friendly,
but, at the same time limit talks with customers to 5 minutes. One can
hypothesize that such contradictory job requirements are a source of emotional
dissonance in any kind of person-related work.
14. 382 ZAPF ET AL.
In sum, applying the concept of action theory to emotion work first leads to
integrating the special control concepts described earlier. Second, it helps to
understand that emotion work is not necessarily negative but has also positive
implications. To explore the construct validity of the instruments developed for
the present studies, we developed several hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1: Emotion work is a multidimensional
construct
Within emotion work, emotional requirements, emotion control, and emotional
dissonance can be distinguished. The differences in these concepts have been
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
described previously. Empirically, this hypothesis is supported by most findings
in the literature so far with regard to emotional requirements and emotional
dissonance (e.g. Brotheridge & Lee, 1998; Grandey, 1998; Morris & Feldman,
1997). We are not aware of studies that operationalized a concept equivalent to
emotion work control or interaction control. Also, the fact that studies that did
not differentiate between various aspects of emotion work did not find the
expected results (Adelmann, 1995), supports the view that emotion work is not a
homogeneous construct.
Hypothesis 2(a): Emotional requirement scales are positively
correlated
It is expected that the various aspects of emotional requirements are highly
correlated, whereas emotional requirements and emotional dissonance should
show a positive but lower correlation. The reason is that all emotional
requirements are a function of the interaction time with clients and the existence
of display rules. In contrast to Morris and Feldman (1996), most of the items of
the present study have a frequency component. The more interactions a person
has with a client, the more this person is supposed to show positive and negative
emotions. In addition, the sensitivity requirements should also be high.
Sensitivity requirements should be positively correlated with the other scales
because the expression of emotion should in most cases be dependent on the
emotions of the interaction partner,which have to be adequately perceived.
Hypothesis 2(b): Emotional requirement scales are also
positively correlated with emotional dissonance
The frequency of emotional dissonance also depends on the frequency of
interactions. Therefore, emotional dissonance should be positively correlated
with the emotional requirement scales. However, because emotional dissonance
is also a function of how pleasant or unpleasant the social interactions are, the
correlations are expected to be lower than the correlations amongst the emotional
requirement scales, which all mainly depend on the interaction frequency. In
15. EMOTION WORK 383
addition, Morris and Feldman (1996) proposed that the higher the frequency of
emotion display, the higher is the chance that emotions have to be displayed that
do not fit the emotions felt. A similar argument applies for the variety of
emotions. For variety of emotions it can be added that it is more likely that
employees have problems with negative emotions compared to positive
emotions. With regard to the correlation between emotional requirement
variables and emotional dissonance, the empirical findings are mixed. Grandey
(1998) found a correlation between suppressing negative emotions and
emotional dissonance, but not between expressing positive emotions and
emotional dissonance. Also, Brotheridge and Lee (1998) found a correlation
between frequency of emotion display and emotional dissonance.
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
Hypothesis 2(c): Emotion control is negatively related with
emotional dissonance
There is evidence in the stress literature that control is negatively related to job
stressors. Abraham (1998) was able to demonstrate such a relationship for job
autonomy and emotional dissonance. This negative relation should also occur for
specific control measures such as emotion work control and interaction control,
especially if the specific control variables match the specific kinds of stressors,
which should be the case in the present study.
Hypothesis 3: There are both positive and negative
relations between emotional requirements and strain
and well-being
Much of the literature addressed the negative effects of emotion work (e.g
Adelmann, 1995; Hochschild, 1983). Most often scholars cited the negative
relations with burnout, hypothesizing that emotion work would increase
emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and would reduce personal
accomplishment. Some authors discussed relationships with poor self-esteem
and depression. Hochschild, in particular, referred to the problem of alienation
from one’s true feelings. A few authors, however, also referred to potential
positive effects such as job satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-efficacy (e.g.
Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Morris & Feldman, 1997; Stenross & Kleinman,
1989; Tolich, 1993; Wharton, 1993).
Drawing parallels with action theory-based concepts of work characteristics
(Frese & Zapf, 1994; Hacker, 1998), it can be assumed that work in general is not
either positive or negative. Rather, a challenging job may comprise positive job
content variables such as job control, complexity, or variety at work, but
challenging jobs often go along with high quantitative workload and uncertainty
at work. Similarly, it is not assumed that emotion work is generally either
negative or positive. On the one hand, emotion work is laborious and effortful.
Therefore, if a high frequency of emotional display and a variety of emotions are
16. 384 ZAPF ET AL.
required this should lead to psychological strain, especially to emotional
exhaustion (Morris & Feldman, 1996). When emotional requirements exceed
certain limits the likelihood increases that the emotions that have to be expressed
do not match the emotions that are felt at that moment. That is, in line with the
person–environment fit model (e.g. Edwards & van Harrison, 1993), if emotional
requirements are frequent and last for a long time, their effects on well-being
should be negative. This assumption is supported by findings in the burnout
literature. Maslach (1982) stated that frequent, intense, and charging face-to-face
interactions were associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion. Cordes
and Dougherty (1993) in their review reported that longer interactions with
clients were associated with higher levels of burnout. Morris and Feldman (1997)
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
considered emotional exhaustion as the key consequence of emotion work.
Reviewing the empirical literature, however, shows that the expected correla-
tions between emotional requirements and emotional exhaustion were often not
(Adelmann, 1995; Morris & Feldman, 1997) or only occasionally found
(Brotheridge & Lee, 1998; Grandey, 1998). For Morris and Feldman, this may be
due to the fact that they did not directly refer to the frequency or duration of
emotional display but to the underlying social interaction. Although empirical
findings are mixed here, it is assumed that variables representing emotional
requirements are positively correlated with emotional exhaustion and other
variables of psychological strain.
Based on the literature on the affiliation motive it can be assumed that dealing
with other people and expressing emotions when interacting with these people
satisfies affiliation, status, and recognition needs, for example, by showing
altruistic behaviour (e.g. Bierhoff, 1990; Hill, 1987). In many cases, the
expression of emotion can be thought of as a spontaneous process experienced
not to be effortful at all (cf. Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Scherer & Wallbott,
1990), but contributing to a social situation with positive consequences for the
employee concerned. The intentional expression of positive emotions usually
increases the probability of the interaction partner to show reciprocal positive
emotions in return (Wiemann & Giles, 1997). This can be perceived as positive
feedback contributing to the employee’s satisfaction and self-esteem. Adelmann
(1995) referred to the facial feedback hypothesis to argue for positive effects of
emotion work. There is at least some evidence for the weak form of this
hypothesis: In an experiment, Strack, Stepper, and Martin (1988) showed that
participants whose muscle groups necessary for laughing were stimulated found
a movie more funny in comparison to a group whose laughing muscles were
inhibited.
There is, indeed, some evidence of the positive implications of emotion work.
On a qualitative level, Tolich (1993) described supermarket clerks who enjoyed
showing prescribed emotions in the form of jokes or entertainment of customers
who chose their checkout lines. Stenross and Kleinman (1989) reported that
detectives positively assessed interrogations with criminal suspects because this
17. EMOTION WORK 385
played a central role for goal achievement, namely, solving a case. Wharton
(1993) found a positive relation with job satisfaction and Grandey (1998)
reported a positive correlation between expressing positive emotions and job
satisfaction. Based on these considerations and empirical findings it was
expected that emotional requirement variables are positively correlated with
personal accomplishment, self-esteem, and job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 4: Emotion work control and
interaction control have a positive effect on health
Emotion work-related control is conceptualized as a special case of job
Downloaded by [University of Barcelona] at 06:13 19 February 2012
control concerning the possibility to decide whether or not one likes to express
emotions in a certain situation. In many studies on job stress (e.g. Kahn &
Byiosiere, 1992) it has been shown that job control is typically positively related
to well-being. Therefore, it can be expected that this is also true for the special
cases of emotion work control and interaction control. There is no direct
empirical evidence so far. However, on a qualitative level, it has been shown that
the exertion of control in social interactions was perceived to be positive and that
employees struggled for control in interactions with clients (Rafaeli, 1989;
Tolich, 1993).
Hypothesis 5: Emotional dissonance is negatively
related with health
Hochschild (1983) was the first who described the negative effects when positive
emotions have to be displayed when either nothing is felt or if the felt emotions
are even in contrast to the displayed emotions. Hochschild asserted that if
employees do not feel what they ought to feel, they may blame themselves and
feel phony and hypocritical. This may result in low self-esteem (Kruml &
Geddes, 1998). In such cases, they may also start to blame the company, which is
likely to go along with decreased job satisfaction. Rafaeli and Sutton (1987)
argued that emotional dissonance is a form of person–role conflict (Kahn et al.,
1964), which means that one has to do things that are against one’s better
judgement. Because role conflict is a strong predictor of emotional exhaustion
(cf. the meta-analysis of Lee & Ashforth, 1996), it was hypothesized that
emotional dissonance is also a strong predictor of exhaustion. All in all, the
clearest empirical relation between emotion work variables and psychological
strain occurred for emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion (Abraham,
1998; Brotheridge & Lee, 1998; Grandey, 1998; Morris & Feldman, 1997) and
depersonalization (Grandey, 1998). Mostly, no relationship was found for
relations with personal accomplishment (Grandey, 1998). Empirical evidence on
the relation between emotional dissonance and job satisfaction is mixed. Morris
and Feldman found a negative relation between emotional dissonance and job
satisfaction, whereas Grandey (1998) did not.