1) The study tested a model from self-determination theory in which employees' intrinsic need satisfaction mediated the relationship between perceptions of manager autonomy support and individual autonomy orientation on job performance and well-being.
2) The model posits that satisfying the innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness leads to better performance and adjustment, while need thwarting undermines motivation.
3) Autonomy supportive management that acknowledges employees' perspectives and provides choice is expected to enhance intrinsic need satisfaction and thus positively impact outcomes.
Presenting about stress and work well-being
The presentation is about stress and how to reduce and manage properly, also talking about the strategies to prevent bullying and other types of violence that occur in the workplace, including the topic about some hypotheses about frustration-aggression and justice.
Ud44132 bhu52973 173174_essay on motivation and employee performance - aiu(fi...Donasian Mbonea
The majority of organizations are competing to survive in this volatile and fierce market environment. Motivation and performance of the employees are essential tools for the success of any organization in the long run. On the one hand, measuring performance is critical to organization’s management, as it highlights the evolution and achievement of the organization. On the other hand, there is a positive relationship between employee motivation and organizational effectiveness, reflected in numerous studies (Dobre, 2013).
All organizations want to be successful, even in current environment which is highly competitive. Therefore, companies irrespective of size and market strive to retain their best employees, acknowledging their important role and influence on organizational effectiveness. In order to overcome these challenges, companies should create a strong and positive relationship with its employees and direct them towards task fulfillment. Motivation is important in the organization to boost morale among employees in order to achieve their goals. Motivated employees help the organization to become more success because motivated employees are consistently looking forward to improve their work performance (Ali & Ahmed, 2009). The outcome from a motivated employee will produce high level of productivity since they are enjoying their work. Therefore, they feel satisfied in the workplace which resulted in lower absenteeism and reducing turnover rate. It is not an easy task especially for the managers to retain highly motivated employees within the organization as they are the valuable assets of the organization to achieve success in the future (Kreisman, 2002). Employees are the human capital to the organizations, and performance of them within an organization which can lead to organizational prosperity or failure (Salleh, 2011).Motivation is considered as a predictor of job performance. In other words, the determinants of employee job performance were motivation, aptitudes and skill. Thus, motivated employees with high levels of job involvement are considered as important elements to an organization. In this essay, it attempts to measure the effect of employee motivation towards job performance. Motivation is crucial for organizations to functions; without motivation employees will not put up their best and the company’s performance would be less efficient.
“Exploring the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance” "New App...inventionjournals
This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance of the fivefactor model with job performance. Personality psychology is concerned with the analysis and theories surrounded by the personality are related to the five factors. Conscientiousness and extraversion appear to be positively correlated with productivity and performance. Neuroticism and agreeableness are negatively correlated with leadership capabilities. Individuals make high performance on conscientiousness, while individuals missing conscientiousness and having neuroticism tend to perform poorly at work.
This is the Topic: performance management Subject : Business Research Method .. please read the file i upload and read it very well before do the work..
Relationship of Demographic Variables and Job Satisfaction among Married WomenIJLT EMAS
The purpose of this study was to study the relationship
between job satisfaction and demographic variables among
married women who are working in academics. The research
was descriptive and survey study. In this study, women working
in technical educational Institutes, from Indore were studied. for
this 300 working women(N=300) were chosen as per their work
in the Institutes, teaching or Non-teaching. A socio- demographic
questionnaire were used for the purpose. The findings revealed
that on the basis of the age and qualification , there is no relation
between factors studied (work environment, job security, roles &
responsibility etc.) and job satisfaction and on the basis of
designation, income and experience, researcher found the
relation between factors studied (work environment, job
security, roles & responsibility etc.) and job satisfaction.
Integrative Approach to Work Psychology and The Integration of Multi Criteria...H.Tezcan Uysal
Abstract
The purpose of this study is analysing the work psychology through a holistic view, so
determining the right choice to designate a strategic management move through multi criteria
decision making method, by performing positive and negative work psychology analysis. In the
study, 221 the positive and negative work psychologies perception oriented to employees were
determined through survey method. The data were processed through correlation and regression
methods and a new set of information was obtained for ELECTRE analysis, a multi criteria
decision making method. Thus, the cycle of ELECTRE analysis was provided by using positive
work psychology outputs as alternative, and negative psychology outputs as criteria. In the result
of the analyses related to the work psychologies of employees, a reasonably significant relation
was determined between the outputs of positive and negative work psychologies. However, this
could not set forth which was the action plan to be implemented by managers. This problem was
solved through ELECTRE analysis. In the result of the ELECTRE analysis performed, it was
determined that, among the outputs of positive work psychology, “job satisfaction” was the most
dominant output to enhance the work psychology.
Emotion work as a source of stress: The concept and the development of an ins...Solercanto
Zapf, D., Vogt, C., Seifert, C., Mertini, H., & Isic, A. (1999). Emotion work as a source of stress: The
concept and the development of an instrument.European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 8, 371 - 400
Presenting about stress and work well-being
The presentation is about stress and how to reduce and manage properly, also talking about the strategies to prevent bullying and other types of violence that occur in the workplace, including the topic about some hypotheses about frustration-aggression and justice.
Ud44132 bhu52973 173174_essay on motivation and employee performance - aiu(fi...Donasian Mbonea
The majority of organizations are competing to survive in this volatile and fierce market environment. Motivation and performance of the employees are essential tools for the success of any organization in the long run. On the one hand, measuring performance is critical to organization’s management, as it highlights the evolution and achievement of the organization. On the other hand, there is a positive relationship between employee motivation and organizational effectiveness, reflected in numerous studies (Dobre, 2013).
All organizations want to be successful, even in current environment which is highly competitive. Therefore, companies irrespective of size and market strive to retain their best employees, acknowledging their important role and influence on organizational effectiveness. In order to overcome these challenges, companies should create a strong and positive relationship with its employees and direct them towards task fulfillment. Motivation is important in the organization to boost morale among employees in order to achieve their goals. Motivated employees help the organization to become more success because motivated employees are consistently looking forward to improve their work performance (Ali & Ahmed, 2009). The outcome from a motivated employee will produce high level of productivity since they are enjoying their work. Therefore, they feel satisfied in the workplace which resulted in lower absenteeism and reducing turnover rate. It is not an easy task especially for the managers to retain highly motivated employees within the organization as they are the valuable assets of the organization to achieve success in the future (Kreisman, 2002). Employees are the human capital to the organizations, and performance of them within an organization which can lead to organizational prosperity or failure (Salleh, 2011).Motivation is considered as a predictor of job performance. In other words, the determinants of employee job performance were motivation, aptitudes and skill. Thus, motivated employees with high levels of job involvement are considered as important elements to an organization. In this essay, it attempts to measure the effect of employee motivation towards job performance. Motivation is crucial for organizations to functions; without motivation employees will not put up their best and the company’s performance would be less efficient.
“Exploring the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance” "New App...inventionjournals
This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance of the fivefactor model with job performance. Personality psychology is concerned with the analysis and theories surrounded by the personality are related to the five factors. Conscientiousness and extraversion appear to be positively correlated with productivity and performance. Neuroticism and agreeableness are negatively correlated with leadership capabilities. Individuals make high performance on conscientiousness, while individuals missing conscientiousness and having neuroticism tend to perform poorly at work.
This is the Topic: performance management Subject : Business Research Method .. please read the file i upload and read it very well before do the work..
Relationship of Demographic Variables and Job Satisfaction among Married WomenIJLT EMAS
The purpose of this study was to study the relationship
between job satisfaction and demographic variables among
married women who are working in academics. The research
was descriptive and survey study. In this study, women working
in technical educational Institutes, from Indore were studied. for
this 300 working women(N=300) were chosen as per their work
in the Institutes, teaching or Non-teaching. A socio- demographic
questionnaire were used for the purpose. The findings revealed
that on the basis of the age and qualification , there is no relation
between factors studied (work environment, job security, roles &
responsibility etc.) and job satisfaction and on the basis of
designation, income and experience, researcher found the
relation between factors studied (work environment, job
security, roles & responsibility etc.) and job satisfaction.
Integrative Approach to Work Psychology and The Integration of Multi Criteria...H.Tezcan Uysal
Abstract
The purpose of this study is analysing the work psychology through a holistic view, so
determining the right choice to designate a strategic management move through multi criteria
decision making method, by performing positive and negative work psychology analysis. In the
study, 221 the positive and negative work psychologies perception oriented to employees were
determined through survey method. The data were processed through correlation and regression
methods and a new set of information was obtained for ELECTRE analysis, a multi criteria
decision making method. Thus, the cycle of ELECTRE analysis was provided by using positive
work psychology outputs as alternative, and negative psychology outputs as criteria. In the result
of the analyses related to the work psychologies of employees, a reasonably significant relation
was determined between the outputs of positive and negative work psychologies. However, this
could not set forth which was the action plan to be implemented by managers. This problem was
solved through ELECTRE analysis. In the result of the ELECTRE analysis performed, it was
determined that, among the outputs of positive work psychology, “job satisfaction” was the most
dominant output to enhance the work psychology.
Emotion work as a source of stress: The concept and the development of an ins...Solercanto
Zapf, D., Vogt, C., Seifert, C., Mertini, H., & Isic, A. (1999). Emotion work as a source of stress: The
concept and the development of an instrument.European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 8, 371 - 400
On the Positive and Negative Effects of Emotion Work in Organizations.Solercanto
Zapf, D. & Holz, M. (2006). On the Positive and Negative Effects of Emotion Work in Organizations.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15, 1-28
Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout.Solercanto
Zapf, D., Seifert, C., Schmutte, B., Mertini, H. & Holz, M. (2001). Emotion work and job stressors and their
effects on burnout. Psychology & Health, 16, 527-545
Each answer 250 words minimumQuestion 1What assumptions and.docxjacksnathalie
Each answer 250 words minimum
Question 1:
What assumptions and implications can be drawn from the information gathered from the exit interviews?
Question 2:
Recommend a solution to the turnover problem based on evidence and information presented on job satisfaction.
Motivation and Job Performance in Public Safety
Problem:
The local police department in Somewhere USA has been losing officers at an alarming rate. This medium sized city offers a competitive salary and funds recruits to train at the local community college. The total cost of recruiting and training a new hire was estimated to be $12,000. The leadership was alarmed and conducted exit interviews to determine the reasons for such high turnover. The major issues cited were lack of support for personal issues, no recognition for good performance, no punishment for those violating rules, poor communication, favoritism, lack of opportunity for advancement, and inflexible scheduling. The leadership desperately wanted to turn this around.
Motivation and Job Satisfaction related to Job Performance
Job performance has been portrayed as a combination of ability and motivation. Because motivation is a personal force, the level of motivation of others cannot be readily measured. Scholars recognize that employees’ attitudes and perceptions toward their jobs strongly affect their job performance. However, motivation may be difficult to measure and may not be directly linked to an increase in performance. One fact research has uncovered is that the organizational environment in which people work has a significant influence on their attitudes. Without a positive, supporting environment dissatisfaction will occur. Performance has been linked to motivation, ability, and working conditions. Satisfaction has been positively related to job performance. The Hawthorne studies at Western Electric was a major contribution to the field because it discovered evidence that productive worker are satisfied worker, not that happy workers were productive workers. Thus, organizational attitudes and cultures were seen as a more important aspect than individual workers.
Many motivational and job satisfaction theories have emerged in organizational research. Work motivation has internal and external forces that affect behaviors at work to determine intensity and duration. It deals merely with events associated with attitudes while at work. There are numerous definitions for job satisfaction including an individual’s positive or negative attitude toward their job, positive feelings about one’s job based on their evaluation of the job characteristics, or the collection of feelings and beliefs that individuals have about their jobs. Job satisfaction is defined from the employee’s standpoint as a positive emotional state that results from appraising one’s job.
There are different approaches to study motivation. Because motivation is a phenomenon that cannot be directly measured, researchers must measure attitudes ...
TheIncubatorAttribution theory in the organizational.docxssusera34210
The
Incubator
Attribution theory in the organizational
sciences: A case of unrealized potential
MARK J. MARTINKO
1*, PAUL HARVEY
2* AND
MARIE T. DASBOROUGH
3*
1
College of Business, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, U.S.A.
2
Whittemore School of Business and Economics, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New
Hampshire, U.S.A.
3
School of Business, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A.
Summary We argue that although attributional processes appear to affect virtually all goal and reward
oriented behavior in organizations, they have not received adequate attention in the organ-
izational sciences. In this Incubator, we encourage scholars to unlock the potential
of attribution theory to develop more complete explanations of organizational behavior.
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
Attribution processes have been underutilized in the organizational sciences, yet have tremendous
potential to explain a wide range of workplace behaviors. The validity of attribution theory and the
tools to measure attributional processes are well-documented and frequently used by social
psychologists (Martinko, Douglas, & Harvey, 2006). We suspect that the underutilization of attribution
theory in the organizational sciences may have originated from concerns raised in the early-1980s that
cast attribution theory in an overly negative light. In this Incubator, we address those concerns and
demonstrate that attributions are relevant to many organizational phenomena, with a particular
emphasis on attribution styles, which are stable and reliable predictors of human behavior (e.g.,
Martinko, Harvey, & Douglas, 2007).
Definition, Role, and Function of Attributions
When we refer to attribution theory we are referring to the work of Heider (1958), Kelley (1973), and
Weiner (1986), which defines attributions as individuals’ explanations for the causes of their successes
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 32, 144–149 (2011)
Published online 25 August 2010 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.690
*Please address correspondence via email to any or all of the above authors at [email protected]; [email protected];
and [email protected]
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 22 January 2010
Accepted 25 January 2010
and failures. The basic premise is that people have an innate desire to understand the causes of
important outcomes in their lives and that their attributions influence their responses to these outcomes
(Heider, 1958). Typical attributional explanations for outcomes are ability, effort, the nature of the task,
and luck.
Attributions are individuals’ beliefs about the causes of their successes and failures (i.e., rewards
and punishments) and influence expectancies, emotions, and behaviors (Martinko et al., 2007).
Recognizing that behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments, as almost all organizational
scholars would agree, ...
TheIncubatorAttribution theory in the organizational.docxchristalgrieg
The
Incubator
Attribution theory in the organizational
sciences: A case of unrealized potential
MARK J. MARTINKO
1*, PAUL HARVEY
2* AND
MARIE T. DASBOROUGH
3*
1
College of Business, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, U.S.A.
2
Whittemore School of Business and Economics, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New
Hampshire, U.S.A.
3
School of Business, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A.
Summary We argue that although attributional processes appear to affect virtually all goal and reward
oriented behavior in organizations, they have not received adequate attention in the organ-
izational sciences. In this Incubator, we encourage scholars to unlock the potential
of attribution theory to develop more complete explanations of organizational behavior.
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
Attribution processes have been underutilized in the organizational sciences, yet have tremendous
potential to explain a wide range of workplace behaviors. The validity of attribution theory and the
tools to measure attributional processes are well-documented and frequently used by social
psychologists (Martinko, Douglas, & Harvey, 2006). We suspect that the underutilization of attribution
theory in the organizational sciences may have originated from concerns raised in the early-1980s that
cast attribution theory in an overly negative light. In this Incubator, we address those concerns and
demonstrate that attributions are relevant to many organizational phenomena, with a particular
emphasis on attribution styles, which are stable and reliable predictors of human behavior (e.g.,
Martinko, Harvey, & Douglas, 2007).
Definition, Role, and Function of Attributions
When we refer to attribution theory we are referring to the work of Heider (1958), Kelley (1973), and
Weiner (1986), which defines attributions as individuals’ explanations for the causes of their successes
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 32, 144–149 (2011)
Published online 25 August 2010 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.690
*Please address correspondence via email to any or all of the above authors at [email protected]; [email protected];
and [email protected]
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 22 January 2010
Accepted 25 January 2010
and failures. The basic premise is that people have an innate desire to understand the causes of
important outcomes in their lives and that their attributions influence their responses to these outcomes
(Heider, 1958). Typical attributional explanations for outcomes are ability, effort, the nature of the task,
and luck.
Attributions are individuals’ beliefs about the causes of their successes and failures (i.e., rewards
and punishments) and influence expectancies, emotions, and behaviors (Martinko et al., 2007).
Recognizing that behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments, as almost all organizational
scholars would agree, ...
Managerial psychology is a sub-discipline of industrial and organizational psychology, which focuses on the efficacy of individuals, groups and organizations in the workplace. It's purpose is to specifically aid managers in gaining a better understanding of the psychological patterns common among individuals and groups within any given organisation. Managerial psychology can be used to predict and prevent harmful psychological patterns within the workplace and can also be implemented to control psychological patterns among individuals and groups in a way that will benefit the organisation long term.
Running head PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1PROB.docxjeanettehully
Running head: PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1
PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 2
Problem Statement and Research Questions
Professor’s Name:
Student’s Name:
Institution:
Course Title:
Date:
Problem Statement and Research Questions
Problem Statement
This research paper aims at demonstrating how the Maslow hierarchy of needs increase employees motivation, promote job satisfaction, and improve the performance of workforce. The theory identifies five distinct levels of needs which inspire employees to work. In this theory, Maslow redefine human resource management by developing a comprehensive framework of understandings each employee need. People work for various reasons and would be motivated based on the desire to achieve certain ends. Thus, Maslow defines those ends and categorizing them into distinctive classes.
Work is a means to achieve various ends desired by people. The income generated by work act a source of livelihood to many families. Meeting one needs attracts the desire to satisfy others. For instance, psychological and security needs forms the categories referred to as basic needs in life. Thus, this became the primary tool used by employers to motivate employees therefore, fulfilling these needs attracts the need to move higher in the ladder. A study conducted to understand how the working conditions affect employees motivation found that; the conditions of the working operation of the employees, the training that the employees were exposed to as well as the personal development of the employees represents the most essential factors (Wofford, 1971).
Therefore, understanding the approach to human resource management would help employers to enhance job satisfaction. People are motivated to work to meet specific needs in life. However, the theory demonstrates that needs changes over time. Therefore, this research study would help employers may integrate other motivational factors to enhance performance (Taormina & Gao, 2013). Therefore, the findings of this research paper would help the human resource managers to develop a framework to develop strategies that enhance motivation and inspire work.
Purpose statement
The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that motivate and inspire employee’s performance using the Maslow hierarchy of needs theory. People derive the energy to work from different inspirations thus, becoming an essential framework of influencing workers performance.
The research study would adopt a mixed approach by incorporating qualitative and quantitative studies to explain different concepts and answer research questions. This approach intents to describe the factors that inspire explore the numerous motivational factors and describes how they affect performance (McLaughlin & Butler, 1973). The information would help in developing strategies that could help increase motivation.
Research Questions
1. What factors increase the employee’s motivation to work and perform their duty? ...
Demographic Factors and Job Satisfaction: A Case of Teachers in Public Primar...Reuben Chirchir
Abstract
The success of any school depends among others on the social capital including teachers, students, parents and
other stakeholders who support the business of imparting knowledge. Satisfied and committed teachers impacts
both on individual student performance and general academic standards of the school. The study explored job
satisfaction among primary school teachers in relation to certain demographic variables. The objective of this
study was therefore to examine the influence of demographic factors on job satisfaction of teachers in public
primary schools in Bomet County, Kenya. This was done by conducting a survey using a self-administered
questionnaire. A total of 848 teachers in 129 primary schools participated in the study. Descriptive and
Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The overall finding was that teachers were ambivalent on job
satisfaction, meaning that they were not sure whether they are satisfied with their jobs. However, teachers were
satisfied with their colleague co-teachers and happy when assigned administrative duties. Teachers were more
satisfied when authority is delegated to them. It is evident that school leadership need to improve on in ways of
supervision, systems of reward, ways of communication and working conditions. It was further established that
there was significant differences in the level satisfaction of male and female teachers for satisfaction with
administrative duties (t = 2.645) and satisfaction with teaching (t= 2.448). It was also found that male teachers
are more satisfied with administrative duties (m=3.2; s.d. = 1.05) than female teachers (m=2.91; s.d.= 1.18).
Similarly, male teaches are more satisfied with teaching (m= 2.6; s.d.= 0.70) than female teachers (m= 2.5; s.d. =
0.79). This implies that female teachers are not keen on taking up additional administrative duties in the school.
Overall, there was no significant difference between the levels of job satisfaction between male and female
teachers. On the other hand, it was found that job satisfaction was positively correlated with the ‘age of
respondent’ (r= 0.092; p<0.01)><0.05).
Perception of civil servants on performance : An Emperical Analysis of Indone...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
16Personal Consequences of Employee CommitmentUniversity o.docxdrennanmicah
1
6
Personal Consequences of Employee Commitment
University of Maryland Eastern Shore
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Course #xxxx
Title
Professor
Date
Journal:
Personal consequences of employee commitment. Academy of
Management Journal, 32(3), 649-661.
Date:
1989
Author(s):
Romzek, B., S.
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to examine the positive or negative consequences of employee commitment on nonwork and career satisfactions with the central hypotheses as positive. The study analyses used panel data that tested the effects of employee commitment on satisfaction with nonwork and career progress. Findings support that organizational involvement has positive consequences for individuals.
Hypothesis and Research Question:
The author submitted two hypotheses that tested for positive or negative consequences of employee commitment on nonwork and career satisfactions. Controlling for family involvement and age, the author’s first hypotheses tested to determine if employee commitment would have positive consequences for individuals’ nonwork satisfaction. The second hypotheses tested to determine if employee commitment would have positive consequences for individuals’ satisfaction with their career progress and future prospects.
Method/Type of Study
Research Design
The research design was a quantitative cross-sectional two-wave panel study conducted in 1982 and 1984 respectively.
Research Participants
The study surveyed a random sample of 484 respondents in the first wave of the survey which took place in 1982. The same respondents were contacted for the second wave in 1984 and resulted in 368 of the original individuals responding. The original sample was drawn from personnel listings solicited through nine public agencies; three federal offices, three state offices, and three local governments based in the states of Kansas and Missouri. The author noted that the “agencies represented diversity in the level of government, scope of services provided, and size and constituted an availability sample.” Other than collecting data on age as a control variable, the author did not indicate additional demographic information as being collected for study purposes. Without the data, it is very difficult to determine if the findings can be generalized to the population.
Instrumentation
Organizational involvement was the concept used to measure employee commitment. The author employed a customized measurement instrument adapted from separate scales developed by Etzioni (1975) for organizational involvement; Romzek (1985) for organizational alienation; and Hall, Schneider and Nygren (1970) and Buchanan (1974) for positive psychological attachment. The resultant organizational involvement scale had a Cronbach alpha of .77. Nonwork satisfaction was adapted from a scale developed by the National Opinion Research Center. The five-item Likert format measured the extent o which individuals report being satisfied wi.
Pràcticum II
"En el Prácticum II se llevarán a cabo las últimas fases del proceso de investigación,entendidas como la selección de estrategias de análisis de datos, ejecución de la investigación y la comunicación de los resultados."Beatriz Sora Miana, El papael y la importancia de la investigación
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
2. 2046 BAARD ET AL.
Needs as Desires
The term needs has been used most commonly to refer to a person’s con-
scious wants, desires, or motives. Viewed in this way, needs are treated as indi-
vidual-difference variables, with the strength of a person’s needs (i.e., desires)
being assessed and then used to predict work-related outcomes either directly, as
was done by McClelland and Burnham (1976) in exploring managerial effective-
ness, or in interaction with characteristics of the job or job environment, as was
done by Hackman and Lawler (1971) in predicting job satisfaction, motivation,
absenteeism, and supervisory ratings of work quality.
Hackman and Lawler (1971), who were attempting to clarify why enriched
jobs had been found to enhance job attitudes for some employees but not for
others (Blood & Hulin, 1967; Turner & Lawrence, 1965), proposed that workers
differ in the strength of their desire for higher-order need satisfaction and that
there should be a strong positive relation between enriched jobs and job attitudes
for those with a strong desire for higher-order need satisfaction but not for those
with a weak desire. In that and similar studies, need satisfaction was not measured
but was assumed. In other words, it was assumed that the positive work outcomes
resulting from enriched jobs was a function of higher-order need satisfaction.
Needs as Essential Nutriments
An alternative view defines needs in terms of the nutriments (whether physio-
logical or psychological) that are essential for survival, growth, and integrity of
the individual (Ryan, Sheldon, Kasser, & Deci, 1996). This view of needs
assumes that needs are innate rather than learned, and it provides a basis for veri-
fying empirically whether something is actually a need (e.g., Baumeister &
Leary, 1995; Ryan, 1995). If its satisfaction is shown empirically to be associated
with people’s growth and health, it is a need; if its satisfaction is not associated
with such outcomes, it is merely a desire. This is an important point because
some of people’s desires (which would be considered needs by the previous defi-
nition) have been found to be harmful or counterproductive (e.g., Kasser & Ryan,
1996). In our view, it is illogical and inappropriate to consider something a
human need if it has harmful consequences for humans.
Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985b; Ryan & Deci, 2000) has pro-
posed that individuals have three innate, psychological needs. These are the need
for competence, which concerns succeeding at optimally challenging tasks and
being able to attain desired outcomes (e.g., Skinner, 1995; White, 1959); the need
for autonomy, which concerns experiencing choice and feeling like the initiator
of one’s own actions (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975); and the need for relatedness,
which concerns establishing a sense of mutual respect and reliance with others
(Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Harlow, 1958).
3. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2047
This latter definition of needs leads not to the assessment of need strength,
but instead to the assessment of need satisfaction. Everyone is assumed to have
these innate needs (regardless of the strength of their reported desires for those
outcomes), so the degree of a person’s need satisfaction is hypothesized to pre-
dict positive work-related outcomes. When need satisfaction is assessed, deter-
mining which aspects of the work context allow need satisfaction becomes a
matter for empirical exploration, rather than for assumption.
Use of this approach to defining needs and assessing need satisfaction could
shed new light on the long-standing debate concerning the satisfaction–
performance relation. Typically, satisfaction has been studied as job satisfaction,
and the aggregated mixed results indicate a low positive correlation between sat-
isfaction and performance in the workplace (Brayfield & Crockett, 1955; Schwab
& Cummings, 1970; Vroom, 1964). Our approach maintains that when job satis-
faction results from attainment of basic need satisfaction, it would be associated
with effective performance, but when job satisfaction results from attainment of
desired outcomes that do not satisfy the basic needs, it would tend not to be
related to effective performance.
Self-Determination Theory
According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985b; Ryan & Deci,
2000), opportunities to satisfy the three intrinsic needs will facilitate self-
motivation and effective functioning because they facilitate internalization of
extant values and regulatory processes, and they facilitate adjustment because
need satisfaction provides the necessary nutriments for human growth and devel-
opment (Ryan, 1995). In contrast, thwarted satisfaction of the needs will under-
mine motivation and have maladaptive consequences (Baard, 1994; Ryan et al.,
1996; Sheldon, Ryan, & Reis, 1996).
This general hypothesis is expected to apply across domains, and research in
other domains has provided some support for the hypothesis. For example,
research on relationships has found that satisfaction of the three intrinsic needs
predicted security of attachment (La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci, 2000),
and work in church organizations has shown that satisfaction of these needs was
related to attendance, contributions, volunteerism, and spiritual vitality (Baard &
Aridas, 2001).
In the present studies, we examine hypothesized relations in the work
domain. Thus, we expect that intrinsic need satisfaction on the job will predict
both performance ratings and psychological well-being of employees, in line
with cross-cultural findings by Deci et al. (2001).
Autonomy Supportive Contexts
The theory further proposes that both social contexts and enduring individ-
ual differences influence people’s intrinsic need satisfaction and thus their
4. 2048 BAARD ET AL.
motivation, performance, and adjustment. One social-contextual factor that has
been researched extensively is autonomy support (Deci & Ryan, 1987), which in
work organizations concerns the general interpersonal orientation used by one’s
manager or work-group supervisor (Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989). More con-
cretely, autonomy support involves the supervisor understanding and acknowl-
edging the subordinate’s perspective, providing meaningful information in a
nonmanipulative manner, offering opportunities for choice, and encouraging self-
initiation (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, & Leone, 1994).
Numerous studies have shown that autonomy-supportive contexts promote
self-motivation (Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman, & Ryan, 1981; Grolnick & Ryan,
1989), satisfaction (Deci et al., 1989), and performance in various settings
(Benware & Deci, 1984; Koestner, Ryan, Bernieri, & Holt, 1984). For example,
Deci et al. (1989) found that when managers were more autonomy-supportive,
their work-group members reported a higher level of trust in the corporation and
more overall job satisfaction. Blais and Brière (1992) found similarly that when
managers were perceived by their subordinates as more autonomy-supportive,
the subordinates displayed greater job satisfaction, less absenteeism, and better
physical and psychological well-being. Because we theorize that the positive out-
comes in these two studies would have resulted from employees feeling greater
satisfaction of their intrinsic needs, the present studies directly investigate the
relation between employees’ experience of their managers being autonomy-
supportive and the employees’ intrinsic need satisfaction.
It is worth noting that autonomy support refers not so much to a characteristic
of the job itself as to an interpersonal climate created by the manager in relating
to subordinates and carrying out managerial functions, such as goal setting, deci-
sion making, and work planning. Because autonomy support begins with the
manager taking the employees’ perspective in carrying out these functions, we
expect that autonomy-supportive managers will facilitate satisfaction of all three
intrinsic needs; for example, through worker empowerment (Champy, 1995),
removing the obstacles of excessive work rules (Deming, 1986), promoting high
involvement (Lawler, 1986), and providing the elements specified by the KEYS
instrument to be necessary for creative engagement (Amabile, Conti, Coon,
Lazenby, & Herron, 1996).
Autonomous Causality Orientation
An individual difference within self-determination theory that has received
considerable empirical attention is the autonomous causality orientation (Deci &
Ryan, 1985a). Causality orientations concern individual differences in the
initiation and regulation of behavior and in the contextual elements toward
which individuals orient when initiating and regulating their behavior. The
autonomy orientation refers to people’s tendency to be self-regulating and to
5. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2049
orient toward the interest value of the environment and the contextual supports
for self-initiation. In past studies, the autonomy orientation has been associated
positively with enhanced self-regulation, higher self-esteem and self-
actualization, and greater integration in personality (Deci & Ryan, 1985a;
Koestner, Bernieri, & Zuckerman, 1992; Williams & Deci, 1996).
In the present studies, we hypothesize that people high in autonomy
orientation—because they are theorized to be more self-initiating, more likely to
experience authorities as supportive, and more oriented toward aspects of the
environment that support their self-regulation—will experience greater intrinsic
need satisfaction on the job. Stated differently, they should feel more self-
determining, more competent, and more related to their managers and coworkers
because of their tendency toward active engagement with the social context.
The full need-satisfaction model, which was derived from self-determination
theory and tested in this research, states that employees’ autonomy orientation
and their perceptions of their managers’ autonomy support will predict satisfac-
tion of their intrinsic needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, and in
turn will predict work performance and adjustment. Several recent studies have
tested aspects of this model. For example, Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, and Ryan (1993)
found that factory workers who experienced greater overall satisfaction of their
needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness on the job displayed more
positive work attitudes, higher self-esteem, and better well-being as indexed by
the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979). In another study
(Kasser, Davey, & Ryan, 1992), psychiatric patients in a supervised work setting
who reported greater satisfaction of their needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness on the job spent more time at work than did those who reported less
need satisfaction. Studies in other domains (e.g., health care) also have shown
that autonomous orientation and perceived autonomy support lead to maintained
behavior change (Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan, & Deci, 1996).
The current studies extend earlier ones in three important ways. First, they
are the first studies in any domain to predict need satisfaction from both the
autonomous causality orientation and perception of autonomy support in the
social context. Second, they are the first studies to predict performance evalua-
tion from satisfaction of the basic psychological needs. And third, the primary
study is the first to test the fit of this overall path model.
Pilot Study
Method
Participants
Participants for this study were 59 employees from the operations center of a
major U.S. banking corporation. They completed a packet of four questionnaires
at a group meeting. The packet asked respondents to report their most recent
6. 2050 BAARD ET AL.
annual overall performance ratings. Of the 59 participants, 35 provided their per-
formance evaluations.
Measures
Autonomy orientation. The General Causality Orientations Scale (GCOS) is a
36-item questionnaire (Deci & Ryan, 1985a) that presents 12 different vignettes
about problems or situations that arise in life (e.g., opportunity to take a new job,
doing poorly on an examination). Three ways of responding to the occurrence are
presented—one of which reflects being autonomously oriented—and participants
indicate on a 7-point Likert-type scale the extent to which each response is char-
acteristic of them. Responses on the 12 autonomy orientation items are summed
to form the autonomy orientation subscale score. The subscales of this frequently
used scale have good reliability and strong external validity (e.g., Deci & Ryan,
1985a; Koestner et al., 1992; Koestner & Zuckerman, 1994; Williams & Deci,
1996).
Perceived managerial autonomy support. The Problems at Work (PAW; Deci
et al., 1989) questionnaire also uses a vignette format. Eight problem situations
that are typical for managers are described, such as a difficulty in motivating a
subordinate. Each vignette is followed by four responses that describe different
ways a manager could handle the problem. These responses fall along a contin-
uum ranging from highly autonomy-supportive to highly controlling.
The highly controlling responses involve prescribing a solution and demanding
that it be followed, often with the promise of reward or the threat of punishment.
The moderately controlling responses involve the manager telling the subordinate
what he or she should do to solve the problem, implying that it is in his or her best
interest to carry through on the solution. The moderately autonomy-supportive
responses involve the manager encouraging the subordinate to figure out how to
handle the problem by observing how others deal with such situations or occur-
rences. This approach allows the subordinate some freedom because it does not
prescribe and demand, but it is not highly autonomy-supportive because it encour-
ages complying with norms rather than developing creative solutions to problems.
Finally, highly autonomy-supportive responses involve the manager listening to
subordinates’ viewpoints, acknowledging their feelings, and encouraging them to
devise their own plans for handling the problem. When a manager is autonomy-
supportive, he or she might provide relevant information or feedback if it seems
useful, but would do it in a supportive, nonjudgmental way.
Participants respond to PAW (Deci et al., 1989) items on 7-point scales,
indicating the extent to which each responses is characteristic of them. Responses
of each type are summed across the eight vignettes, and then the four sums are
combined algebraically, using weightings of -2, -1, 1, and 2 for highly con-
trolling, moderately controlling, moderately autonomy-supportive, and highly
7. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2051
autonomy-supportive, respectively, to form an overall score. Higher scores indi-
cate that the manager is more autonomy-supportive.
In research by Deci et al. (1989), managers in a major office-machine corpo-
ration completed the PAW questionnaire, describing themselves. Alpha coeffi-
cients were in excess of .70, indicating good internal consistency; and the test–
retest reliability over a 4-month period was .80, indicating good temporal
stability. Evidence of validity was provide by the managers’ composite score
being significantly correlated with their subordinates’ level of trust in the organi-
zation, feeling nonpressured, and being satisfied with their jobs. Furthermore, in
the longitudinal component of that project, changes in managers’ level of auton-
omy support following an intervention predicted changes in their subordinates’
trust in the organization and satisfaction with various aspects of their jobs.
The PAW (Deci et al., 1989) was designed for managers to complete describ-
ing themselves. However, in the current study, we adapted it so that subordinates
would complete it providing their perceptions of their own managers. Alpha
coefficients for the four subscales using this method were as follows: highly
autonomous = .80; moderately autonomous = .74; moderately controlling = .71;
and highly controlling = .66.
Intrinsic need satisfaction (INS scale). A 23-item questionnaire was used to
assess the extent to which employees experience satisfaction of their three intrin-
sic needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—on their job. Participants
responded to items such as “I enjoy the challenge my work provides” and “I get
along with people at work” on 5-point scales. The three subscales emerged from
a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation, yielding seven
items for autonomy, eight items for competence, and eight items for relatedness.
Subscale scores can be used separately to test specific hypotheses or averaged to
yield an overall, intrinsic needs satisfaction score.
Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was reported to be .90 (Leone, 1995); and
in the present data set, overall alpha was .87. Leone found intrinsic need satisfac-
tion to be correlated positively with work engagement, overall job satisfaction,
and psychological adjustment, thus confirming its validity.
Anxiety/depression. The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ; Goldberg &
Hillier, 1979) is a 28-item questionnaire that assesses the extent to which par-
ticipants experience the presence of four types of psychiatric or adjustment
symptoms: depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms, and social dysfunction.
Respondents report on 4-point scales how frequently they have experienced these
difficulties over the past few weeks.
In the present study, only the 14 items related to anxiety and depression were
used, and a total score was formed by adding the responses to the 14 items.
Numerous studies have shown the scale to be both reliable and valid (e.g.,
Goldberg, Cooper, Eastwood, Kedward, & Shepherd, 1970). In the present data
set, alpha was .91 for the total score.
8. 2052 BAARD ET AL.
Table 1
Means and Sample Sizes for Variables in the Pilot Study
Variable M SD N
Autonomous causality orientation 70.13 6.67 59
Managerial autonomy support 15.47 21.38 56
Intrinsic need satisfaction 44.67 7.23 59
Need satisfaction, autonomy 15.17 2.60 59
Need satisfaction, competence 15.44 3.45 59
Need satisfaction, relatedness 14.61 3.56 59
Performance evaluation 2.14 0.65 35
Anxiety–depression 28.66 8.71 59
Work performance. The corporation has a standard performance evaluation
process in which employees are rated by their supervisor on a 4-point scale
ranging from excellent to below standard. There are no forced distributions, so a
manager can rate subordinates in accord with his or her actual appraisal of sub-
ordinates’ performance.
Participants in the present study were asked to report their most recent
performance evaluation. The timing of these evaluations varied for different par-
ticipants, but could have been up to several months prior to the data collection.
Because the questionnaires were anonymous, we expected that the reports would
be veridical.
Results
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and sample sizes for each of
the variables in the study. Table 2 presents the intercorrelations among these vari-
ables. The number of participants included in each correlation varied in accor-
dance with the number who provided both sets of relevant data.
The first issue that was investigated concerns the relationship of intrinsic
need satisfaction to the outcome variables of work performance and psycho-
logical well-being. As predicted, work performance, as assessed by evaluation
ratings, was correlated with the summary score for intrinsic need satisfaction (r =
.34, p < .05). People who experienced greater need satisfaction on the job were
rated by their managers as performing better.
Table 2 indicates further that the specific need satisfaction most strongly
related to performance evaluation ratings was relatedness (r = .34, p < .05). How-
ever, because of the very small sample of performance ratings, a simultaneous
regression analysis in which performance ratings were regressed onto each of the
three separate need satisfactions failed to yield any significant relations.
9. Table 2
Correlations Among the Main Variables of the Pilot Study
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Autonomous causality orientation —
2. Manager autonomy support .12 (55) —
3. Intrinsic need satisfaction .33** (59) .42*** (56) —
4. Need satisfaction autonomy .30* (59) .32* (56) .81*** (59) —
5. Need satisfaction competence .23† (59) .24† (56) .85*** (59) .57*** (59) —
6. Need satisfaction relatedness .29* (59) .47*** (56) .85*** (59) .54*** (59) .54** (59) —
7. Performance evaluation .19 (34) .07 (30) .34* (35) .27 (35) .19 (35) .34* (35) —
8. Anxiety–depression -.20 (57) -.09 (55) -.26† (59) -.26† (59) -.33* (59) -.07 (59) -.08 (34)
Note. The number of cases used in each correlation is in parentheses.
†p < .08. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION
2053
10. 2054 BAARD ET AL.
Depression/anxiety, as an inverse indicator of well-being, was marginally
negatively correlated with intrinsic need satisfaction (r = -.26, p < .06), suggest-
ing that there may be a relation between intrinsic need satisfaction and psycho-
logical adjustment. Table 2 also indicates that the specific need satisfaction most
strongly (and negatively) related to anxiety/depression was competence (r = -.33,
p < .05) and that satisfaction of the need for autonomy was marginally negatively
related to anxiety/depression (r = -.26, p < .06). A simultaneous regression in
which anxiety/depression was regressed onto each of the three separate need
satisfactions reveals that satisfaction of the need for competence did account for
significant variance in adjustment (β = -.34, p < .05).
The next issue that was investigated concerns whether intrinsic need satisfac-
tion can be predicted by perceptions of managers’ autonomy support and by
employees’ autonomy orientation. Correlational results reveal that composite
intrinsic need satisfaction was related both to employees’ perceptions of their
managers’ autonomy support from the PAW (Deci et al., 1989; r = .42, p < .001)
and to employees’ own autonomy orientation from the GCOS (Deci & Ryan,
1985a; r = .33, p < .01). Because it was hypothesized that both managerial auton-
omy support and employees’ autonomy orientation would influence the experi-
ence of need satisfaction independently, the summary need satisfaction score was
regressed simultaneously onto those two variables. Results show that significant,
independent variance in overall intrinsic need satisfaction was explained by both
perceived autonomy support (β = .34, p < .01) and autonomous causality orienta-
tion (β = .28, p < .00).
When the three need satisfactions are considered separately, Table 2
shows that satisfaction of the need for autonomy was significantly correlated
with both perceived autonomy support (r = .32, p < .05) and autonomous causal-
ity orientation (r = .30, p < .05). A simultaneous regression of satisfaction of
the autonomy need onto perceived autonomy support and autonomous causality
orientation shows that perceived autonomy support was significant (β = .26,
p < .05) and that autonomy orientation was marginally significant (β = .25,
p < .07).
Satisfaction of the need for competence was marginally correlated both with
perceived autonomy support (r = .23, p < .08) and with autonomous causality ori-
entation (r = .24, p < .08). In a simultaneous regression analysis, neither variable
explained a significant amount of independent variance in satisfaction of the need
for competence.
Satisfaction of the need for relatedness was significantly correlated with both-
perceived autonomy support (r = .47, p < .001) and the autonomous causality
orientation (r = .29, p < .05). Simultaneous regression indicates that perceived
autonomy support accounted for a significant amount of variance in satisfaction
of the relatedness need (β = .41, p < .01) and that autonomous causality orienta-
tion was marginally related (β = .23, p < .07).
11. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2055
Discussion
This pilot study provides weak though encouraging support for the model.
Both perceptions of managers’ autonomy support and subordinates’ autonomous
causality orientations did relate to composite intrinsic need satisfaction. The fact
that subordinates’ individual differences in the general autonomy orientation and
subordinates’ perceptions of their managers’ autonomy support contributed
independent variance is particularly important because it suggests that subordi-
nates’ experience of their managers’ autonomy support was not just a reflection
of individual differences in their own tendency to be autonomous. Further, the
results indicate that intrinsic need satisfaction related to work performance and
marginally to adjustment.
Although these preliminary results are encouraging, the study is greatly
limited by the small overall sample size and especially by the small number who
provided performance evaluation data. Thus, it is important to replicate the study
with a larger sample and more complete performance data so the encouraging
relations from the pilot study may be confirmed and extended. A larger sample
would also allow the fit of the overall path model to be tested using Structural
Equation Modeling.
The results of this first study also suggest that two of the measures may not
have been optimal. The fact that adjustment was only marginally related to need
satisfaction in this sample when other studies have yielded strong significant
relations between intrinsic need satisfaction and various indicators of adjustment
suggests that the adjustment measure may not be the most appropriate for this
setting. Although the dimension of anxiety seems to be quite relevant for the
workplace, depression may not be as relevant. Consequently, in the second study,
we substituted the somatization subscale for the depression subscale reasoning
that lack of need satisfaction might be more likely to show up as somatization
than depression in a demanding, high-paced corporate setting. Further, although
the PAW (Deci et al., 1989) measure did relate to intrinsic need satisfaction, it
was designed to measure managers’ self-perceptions rather than subordinates’
perceptions of them. Thus, we included the PAW in the second study for con-
sistency, but the primary measure was recently designed specifically to assess
subordinates’ perceptions of autonomy support.
Primary Study
Method
Participants
We invited 698 associates (first-line employees) from a major investment
banking firm to participate in this study. They were asked to attend departmental
12. 2056 BAARD ET AL.
meetings to complete a professionally designed and printed packet of question-
naires and to report the most recent, annual overall performance rating they had
received. Of the 698 employees, 71 had been on the job for too short a time to
have performance evaluations. We received complete data from 528 of the 627
relevant employees, for a response rate of about 84%. Of those responding, 38%
were female, which closely reflects the overall percentage of women employed
in the firm.
Measures
The GCOS (Deci & Ryan, 1985a) was again used to assess the individual-
difference variable of workers’ autonomy orientation. The PAW (Deci et al.,
1989) questionnaire was used in this study as a supplemental measure of percep-
tions of managers’ autonomy support. The INS scale was again used to assess
satisfaction of the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness; and two
subscales from the GHQ (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979) were again used to index
adjustment, although in this study anxiety and somatization were used instead of
anxiety and depression.
We changed from 5-point to 7-point scales on the INS and the GHQ for con-
sistency so that responses on all items in the study would be on 7-point scales. In
addition, we used the following measures.
Work Climate Questionnaire (WCQ). This 15-item scale assesses partici-
pants’ perceptions of the degree of autonomy supportiveness of their managers. It
includes items such as “My manager provides me with choices and options about
my work.” Responses are made on a 7-point scales ranging from 1 (not at all
true) to 7 (very true).
The WCQ was adapted from two comparable questionnaires: one used to
assess patients’ perceptions of the degree of autonomy support from their health
care providers (Williams et al., 1996; Cronbach’s α = .92), and the other to assess
students’ perceptions of the degree of autonomy support from their college or
medical-school instructors (Williams & Deci, 1996; α = .96). The only differ-
ences among the scales are the target person (manager, doctor, and instructor).
Vitality (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). A seven-item questionnaire assessed feel-
ings of physical and mental vitality, aliveness, and vigor. Cronbach’s alpha for
the scale was .84 in a sample of 151 undergraduates, and construct validity was
demonstrated in several studies. For example, the trait of psychological vitality
correlated positively with global self-esteem (r = .52, p < .01) and negatively
with total scores on the Rand Psychopathology Index (r = -.60, p < .01).
Adjustment. The indicator of adjustment consisted of the combination of
anxiety and somatization (each reverse scored) and of vitality after each had
been converted to z scores. In this study, the correlation between anxiety and
somatization was .73 (p < .001). When anxiety and somatization were combined,
13. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2057
Table 3
Means and Sample Sizes for Variables in the Primary Study
Variable M SD N
Autonomous causality orientation 65.82 8.04 558
Managerial autonomy support (PAW) 22.64 21.08 542
Managerial autonomy support (WCQ) 60.48 20.57 568
Intrinsic need satisfaction 109.21 18.37 564
Need satisfaction, autonomy 29.99 7.08 564
Need satisfaction, competence 39.09 8.14 564
Need satisfaction, relatedness 40.13 7.63 564
Performance evaluation 2.37 0.56 574
Adjustment 60.93 19.97 564
Note. PAW = Problems at Work questionnaire (Deci et al., 1989); WCQ = Work
Climate Questionnaire.
the correlation between the composite of those two negative indicators of well-
being and vitality (the positive indicator) was -.43 (p < .001). This suggests that
use of the composite indicator was reasonable.
Performance. The corporation uses a 3-point evaluation scale, ranging from
1 (poor performance) to 3 (superior performance). Participants were asked to
report their most recent performance evaluation ratings, which they might have
received up to several months prior to the data collection.
As can be seen in Table 3, about the same number of people reported their
performance evaluations as provided each of the other types of data, thus over-
coming one problem in the pilot study. Still, there is the question of whether the
reports were veridical. Although we were not able to obtain the actual ratings for
the participants from the company records, we were provided the percentages of
people within the largest work group included in our study (n = 322) who
received each of the three performance level ratings. Those percentages were
virtually identical to the percentages of people in our sample who reported each
of the three levels. Specifically, 33% of our participants reported receiving the
highest rating while the records indicate that 34% of the employees received that
rating; 63% of our participants reported receiving the middle rating, while the
records indicate that 61% of the employees received that rating; and 4% of our
participants reported receiving the lowest rating, while the records indicate that
5% of the employees received that rating. Thus, the reports were fully commen-
surate with what would be expected, and therefore are likely to be veridical.
14. 2058 BAARD ET AL.
Results
Means, standard deviations, and sample sizes are presented in Table 3. The
means for males and females on each variable were compared. Males were
higher on performance evaluations (2.42 vs. 2.31), t(526) = 2.39, p < .02; and
adjustment (0.12 vs. -0.62), t(526) = 3.04, p < .01; and they perceived the work
climate to be more autonomy-supportive (as measured by the WCQ; 62.43 vs.
58.07), t(526) = 2.75, p < .01. Further, males reported marginally higher satisfac-
tion of the need for relatedness than did females (40.51 vs. 39.40), t(526) = 1.82,
p < .07. No other significant gender differences emerged. Thus, gender was
entered into regressions involving one of the variables for which there was a gen-
der difference.
The intercorrelations among the variables appear in Table 4. One can see
from the table that the two important work outcomes were related to need satis-
faction. As predicted, work performance correlated significantly with overall
intrinsic need satisfaction (r = .24, p < .001) and with satisfaction of each of the
three separate needs. When performance was regressed onto intrinsic need satis-
faction and gender, both were significant (need satisfaction, β = .25, p < .0001;
gender, β = .10, p < .02). When performance was simultaneously regressed onto
the three separate need satisfactions and gender, satisfaction of relatedness was
significantly related to performance (β = .12, p < .01), as was gender (β = .10, p <
.05), and satisfaction of competence was marginal (β = .09, p < .08).
Adjustment also correlated significantly with intrinsic need satisfaction, as
predicted (r = .46, p < .001), and with satisfaction of the three separate needs.
When adjustment was regressed onto intrinsic need satisfaction and gender, both
were significant (need satisfaction, β = .46, p < .0001; gender, β = .15, p < .001).
Then, when adjustment was simultaneously regressed onto the three need satis-
factions and gender, satisfaction of each of the three needs accounted for signifi-
cant independent variance (competence, β = .20, p < .0001; autonomy, β = .27,
p < .0001; relatedness, β = .10, p < .05). Gender was also a significant predictor
of adjustment (β = .15, p < .001).
Intrinsic need satisfaction was related both to individual differences in
workers’ autonomy orientation and to workers’ perceptions of their managers’
autonomy support, but it was not related to gender. Autonomy orientation corre-
lated significantly with intrinsic need satisfaction (r = .21, p < .001), and also
with satisfaction of each of the three separate needs. Both measures of perceived
autonomy support also correlated significantly with intrinsic need satisfaction
(WCQ, r = .58, p < .001; PAW [Deci et al., 1989], r = .24, p < .001).
Both measures of perceived autonomy support also correlated significantly
with satisfaction of each of the three separate needs. The fact that PAW (Deci
et al., 1989) related to intrinsic need satisfaction replicated the finding of the pilot
study. However, the current analyses indicate that the WCQ measure related
15. Table 4
Correlations Among the Main Variables of the Primary Study
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Autonomous causality orientation —
2. Manager autonomy support (PAW) .31*** —
3. Manager autonomy support (WCQ) .12** .16*** —
4. Intrinsic need satisfaction .21*** .24*** .58*** —
5. Need satisfaction autonomy .12** .18*** .61*** .82*** —
6. Need satisfaction competence .16*** .26*** .44*** .83*** .56*** —
7. Need satisfaction relatedness .21*** .15*** .38*** .76*** .44*** .40*** —
8. Performance evaluation .10* .15*** .15*** .24*** .20*** .17*** .20*** —
9. Adjustment .05 .17*** .28*** .46*** .43*** .38*** .31*** .09*
Note. PAW = Problems at Work questionnaire (Deci et al., 1989); WCQ = Work Climate Questionnaire.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION
2059
16. 2060 BAARD ET AL.
considerably more strongly to the need-satisfaction variables. Accordingly,
because of the differential strength of the relations and because the WCQ was
specifically designed to assess workers’ perceptions of managers’ autonomy sup-
port, the WCQ, rather than the PAW, was used in all further analyses.
Because both autonomy orientation and perceived autonomy support were
expected to predict intrinsic need satisfaction, the summary need satisfaction
score was regressed simultaneously onto those two variables. Results show that
significant, independent variance in overall intrinsic need satisfaction was
explained by both perceived autonomy support (β = .58, p < .001) and autono-
mous causality orientation (β = .14, p < .001).
Simultaneous regressions were then performed with each of the separate need
satisfactions being regressed onto the two predictor variables. When satisfaction
of the competence need was regressed onto perceived autonomy support and
autonomous causality orientation, both were significant predictors (perceived
autonomy support, β = .43, p < .001; autonomy orientation, β = .11, p < .01). A
simultaneous regression of satisfaction of the autonomy need onto perceived
autonomy support and autonomous causality orientation shows that perceived
autonomy support predicted significant variance (β = .59, p < .001). Finally, a
simultaneous regression of satisfaction of the relatedness need onto perceived
autonomy support, autonomous causality orientation, and gender shows that per-
ceived autonomy support was significant (β = .35, p < .001), autonomy orientation
was significant (β = .18, p < .001), and gender was marginal (β = .08, p < .07).
All relations that were hypothesized as part of the path model did emerge
as significant, indicating that it would be appropriate to test whether self-
determination theory’s need-satisfaction models of performance and adjustment
at work would fit the data. We examined the path model, and the results are
shown in Figure 1. All of the hypothesized paths in the model were significant
(all ps < .01). The overall fit of the model to the data was excellent, as indicated
by these goodness-of-fit statistics: χ2(6, N = 528) = 10.18, p = .12; normed fit
index (NFI) = .97; comparative fit index (CFI) = .99; and root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA) = .04.
Because the performance evaluations were done before the need satisfaction
data were obtained, it is possible that performance evaluations influenced need
satisfaction rather than the other way around, as hypothesized. Thus, we tested a
second model identical to the one in Figure 1, except that the arrow went from
performance to need satisfaction rather than from need satisfaction to perfor-
mance. The fit of this model was significantly worse than the fit of the model in
Figure 1, χ2 difference = 14.3, p < .05, suggesting that the direction of influence
was from need satisfaction to performance, as we hypothesized.
Of course, with the cross-sectional data, we cannot conclude directional influ-
ence, but the fits of the models are consistent with the hypothesized relations.
Finally, we tested a model in which causality was assumed to be bidirectional
17. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2061
Figure 1. Parameter estimates for path analysis of the intrinsic need satisfaction model of
work performance and adjustment.
between need satisfaction and performance. The fit of this model did not differ
from that of the model in Figure 1. However, the standardized regression weight
of the path from performance to need satisfaction was nonsignificant (-.04).
Thus, the hypothesized model appears to be a more reasonable one.
Finally, we noted in the Method section that the three indicators of adjustment
were quite highly correlated. However, because vitality is a positive indicator of
adjustment, whereas anxiety and somatization are negative indicators, we tested
an additional model that was similar to the model in Figure 1 except that there
were two adjustment outcomes; namely, vitality and the composite of anxiety and
somatization. The fit indexes for this model were worse than those for the model
in Figure 1, although the fit of the two models did not differ significantly. Fur-
ther, the standardized estimates for the paths from need satisfaction to vitality and
anxiety–somatization were nearly identical (0.42 to vitality and -0.38 to anxiety–
somatization). Thus, there appears to be no advantage to this model, so it seems
reasonable to conclude that the hypothesized model is the best fitting model.
General Discussion
Results of these studies provide additional support for the relevance of
self-determination theory to motivation in the workplace. The proposed model
suggests that performance on the job and psychological adjustment are influ-
enced by satisfaction of people’s intrinsic needs for competence, autonomy, and
relatedness on the job, and that these opportunities for intrinsic need satisfaction
are influenced by managers being perceived as autonomy-supportive and by sub-
ordinates’ autonomous causality orientation.
18. 2062 BAARD ET AL.
Results of the two studies were quite similar, although because of the small
sample size in the pilot study, many of the relations that were significant in the
primary study were not in the pilot study. Correlation and regression analyses
indicate that managers being perceived as more autonomy-supportive and
subordinates having a stronger autonomous causality orientation were related to
subordinates’ experience of greater intrinsic need satisfaction. There was also
indication that intrinsic need satisfaction was related to work outcomes, in that
intrinsic need satisfaction significantly predicted both work performance and
adjustment.
The primary study allowed an overall test of self-determination theory’s
need-satisfaction model of performance and adjustment at work. The study pro-
vides excellent support for the model. Each hypothesized path was significant,
and the overall model fit the data very well.
Additional analyses with the three individual need satisfactions show that
each was involved in various motivational processes, although again the relations
were weaker in the pilot study. In the primary study, perceived autonomy support
was significantly related to experienced satisfaction of each of the three needs,
and the autonomous causality orientation was significantly related to satisfaction
of two of the three needs. Further, satisfaction of all three needs significantly pre-
dicted independent variance in adjustment, and satisfaction of the need for relat-
edness significantly predicted performance evaluations.
There was a very interesting and internally consistent pattern of gender differ-
ences in the primary study. Women tended to perceive their managers as less
autonomy-supportive, to feel marginally less satisfaction of their relatedness
need, to receive lower performance evaluations, and to display less well-being.
There are various ways of explaining this pattern of results. One possibility is
that managers were actually less autonomy-supportive of women than of men,
which could have led the women to feel less related, and in turn to perform less
well and to be less well-adjusted. This set of effects also could have been supple-
mented by women being given somewhat poorer evaluations, even if they actu-
ally performed as well as men did. An alternative possibility—in line with the
literature suggesting that women tend to be more concerned with relatedness than
do men (e.g., Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974) and that women tend to perceive ambig-
uous messages as less autonomy-supportive than do men (Deci, Cascio, &
Krusell, 1975; Kast & Connor, 1988)—is that women could have perceived less
autonomy support and felt less relatedness than did men, even if there had been
the same amount.
In this organization, women made up one third of the employees, but there
was a disproportionately lower percentage of women in managerial roles. In
fact, although 38% of our sample was female, only 18% of the managers about
whom participants were reporting their perceptions were women. This, of course,
adds complexity because it is possible that male and female managers were
19. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2063
differentially autonomy-supportive. Additional research will be required to deter-
mine what factors account for the pattern of gender differences we obtained.
The current studies add to previous investigations of self-determination in the
workplace both by relating intrinsic need satisfaction to performance and by con-
sidering the individual need satisfactions as well as total intrinsic need satisfac-
tion. The fact that both total need satisfaction and satisfaction of the need for
relatedness predicted performance suggests that it is indeed useful to continue
using the concept of need satisfaction in research on organizational performance,
but that it is important to be specific about the needs being addressed and to focus
on need satisfaction, rather than just need strength. The study was also the first to
examine autonomous causality orientation and perceived autonomy support
together as predictors of need satisfaction. The finding that the two variables—an
individual-difference variable and a social-context variable—account for inde-
pendent variance in need satisfaction is an important new finding.
Further, the fact that intrinsic need satisfaction related to performance is use-
ful in sorting out the inconsistent relations that have been found between satisfac-
tion and performance at work. It may be the case that intrinsic need satisfaction is
related to work performance, but that job satisfaction is not related to perfor-
mance if job satisfaction does not derive from satisfaction of the basic psycholog-
ical needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Limitations to the present research are worth noting. First, participants
reported their own performance ratings. Although this is clearly a limitation,
comparison of the percentages of our participants who reported each perfor-
mance level to the actual percentages of employees at each level within the
largest work group of our sample indicates that the reports were likely to have
been veridical. Second, the performance evaluations were done prior to the data
collection of need satisfaction, raising the possibility that performance evalua-
tions influenced need satisfaction rather than the other way around. Although
the model in which performance influenced need satisfaction fit the data signifi-
cantly less well than the model in which need satisfaction influenced perfor-
mance, a longitudinal study in which need satisfaction data were collected prior
to performance evaluations would be useful.
Third, our measure of the degree to which managers were autonomy-
supportive was provided by the subordinates, so a study that assesses managerial
autonomy support independently (as was done by Deci et al., 1989) and then
relates it to intrinsic need satisfaction would be an important addition to the
present research. The fact that we removed variance attributable to employees’
own autonomy orientation, which is an individual-difference variable likely to
affect employees’ perceptions of their managers’ autonomy support, suggests
that the effect of perceived managerial autonomy support could not be explained
as a function of employees’ individual differences. Nonetheless, the fact that
women reported less autonomy support than did men highlights the importance
20. 2064 BAARD ET AL.
of having an independent measure of managerial autonomy support in order to
disentangle the factors that contributed to the pattern of gender differences that
we found.
The present studies provide evidence that the concept of intrinsic needs,
defined as the nutriments necessary for human survival and growth, is useful for
studying performance and adjustment in the workplace. Intrinsic need satisfac-
tion, when assessed rather than assumed, was found to relate to performance and
adjustment across the entire sample, whereas it had been found to relate to these
work outcomes only for subsamples in previous studies where it had been
assumed (e.g., Hackman & Lawler, 1971).
The focus on need satisfaction provides a framework for empirical explor-
ation of the contextual factors that allow intrinsic need satisfaction and thus
facilitate performance and adjustment. However, the precise concepts of satisfac-
tion of the intrinsic needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness also allow a
priori predictions of the conditions that are likely to promote satisfaction, perfor-
mance, and adjustment. Thus, when managers keep in mind the needs of their
subordinates, the managers ought to be able to provide the conditions that will
allow need satisfaction and lead to positive work outcomes (Baard, 2002).
Work in church organizations also has supported the view that leaders’ atten-
tiveness to the need satisfaction of members is essential for promoting active
engagement in the organization’s mission. In fact, Baard and Aridas (2001)
introduced the idea of an ACRE approach to leadership, suggesting that the most
effective leaders will be ones who provide autonomy, competence, and related-
ness supporting environments.
In the present studies, we explored the self-determination theory concept of
autonomy support, which is an interpersonal style that can be used by managers
in performing any of the managerial functions. At the core of the concept is the
idea of understanding subordinates’ perspectives and then providing choice,
reflecting feelings, providing rationales for requested behaviors, and encouraging
self-regulation. By taking a subordinate’s perspective, managers are more able to
understand the specific elements that are needed in a particular situation to
facilitate the desired work outcomes of effective performance and employee
well-being. Clearly, the use of performance evaluations as the behavioral out-
come makes the results important for the success of work organizations. Further-
more, the use of anxiety and somatization as (negative) indicators of adjustment
makes the results similarly relevant for the organization’s bottom line. Although
not assessed in our study, it seems clear that absenteeism would be directly
related to these indicators, and the indicators are also likely to be related to health
care costs that are becoming increasingly burdensome for work organizations.
Like previous studies exploring self-determination theory in work organiza-
tions (Deci et al., 1989) and exploring related theoretical perspectives (e.g.,
Amabile et al., 1996), the present studies indicate that the work environment is
21. INTRINSIC NEED SATISFACTION 2065
extremely important for effective performance. These studies show, in particular,
that the concept of intrinsic need satisfaction can provide a useful way for
organizing and interpreting a variety of studies that relate contextual supports to
performance and adjustment at work.
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