Vol 11 No 2 - May 2015

International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN:1694-2493
e-ISSN:1694-2116IJLTER.ORG
Vol.11 No.2

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
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VOLUME 11 NUMBER 2 May 2015
Table of Contents
From Cave Prisoners to Future Educators: from an Ancient Text to New Interpretation. Decoding Thinking
Processes through On-line Dialogue....................................................................................................................................1
Yonit Nissim and Iris Pinto
Learning by Going Social: Do We Really Learn from Social Media? ............................................................................ 14
Minakshi Lahiri and James L. Moseley j
A Pedagogical Synergy of Visualization Pictures and Scenarios to Teach the Concept of Parallelograms.............. 26
Marie-Thérèse Saliba
Self-Efficacy in Career Planning: A New Approach to Career Exploration .................................................................40
Despina Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Kostas Mylonas and Katerina Argyropoulou
The Civic Education in Greek Kindergartens. The Views and the Practices of Greek Kindergarten Teachers
Concerning Civic Education ............................................................................................................................................... 55
Kostis Tsioumis, Argyris Kyridis, Despina Papageridou and Elena Sotiropoulou
Applying the Theory of Simplexity in Home Economics Education for the Acquisition of Transversal
Competencies to Face Complexity...................................................................................................................................... 71
Erika Marie Pace, Paola Aiello, Maurizio Sibilio and Suzanne Piscopo
Student-Centered Learning in a First Year Undergraduate Course .............................................................................. 88
Saras Krishnan
Hispanic Doctoral Students Challenges: Qualitative Results ........................................................................................ 96
Bobbette M. Morgan, Ed. D. and Luis F. Alcocer, M.A.M

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@2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 1-13, May 2015
From Cave Prisoners to Future Educators: from
an Ancient Text to New Interpretation.
Decoding Thinking Processes through On-line
Dialogue
When depth gives way to surface, under-standing becomes inter-
standing. To comprehend is no longer to grasp what lies beneath but to
grasp what lies between.
(Taylor & Saarinen, 1994, p. 2)
Yonit Nissim and Iris Pinto
Ohalo Academic College of Education,
Sciences and Sport,
Katzrin, Israel
Abstract. This article is based on thorough observation of forum
discussions of an on-line course that took place during the 2013
academic year. The research observes the thinking processes of students
when interpreting and providing augmented analogies for “The
Allegory of the Cave” in Plato‟s Politeia (Republic). These processes are
found to enable students: to reach insights concerning the
characteristics of the optimal educator that are necessary to meet the
challenges of the 21st century; to develop a narrative through the
appropriation the allegoric tale to create meaning associated with the
modern education system and their own future professional role; and
finally, to mediate through on-line discourse to bring about
collaborative learning and constructivist dialogue within the axis of
tension between the old and the new. In other words, learning within
this framework appears to be a direct process of knowledge
construction.
Research Background
As part of the “Introduction to the Philosophy of Education” course, a virtual
forum was set up to enable on-line dialogue with the aim of sharing knowledge
and insights (collaboration). A virtual “community of learners” was formed
(Pringle, 2002), and together they created layer upon layer of new knowledge.

2
Levi (2006) defined the process as the creation of a world of shared meaning,
suitable for daily existence.
Contemporary research in the field of on-line learning is concerned with a
variety of means, including forums that enable on-line communication and
support collaborative discussion (Karacapilidis & Papadias, 2001). It was found
that a virtual environment is seen as less “threatening” and “controlled by
routine conventions” than face-to-face discussion. Moreover, this environment
seems to encourage constructivist creation of knowledge through the creation of
high level cognitive products. Some scholars see student participation in on-line
courses as the expression of over-involvement and commitment in the context of
the course contents (Dorman & Fraser, 2009).
Online asynchronous discussions may create opportunities for students to
construct meaning together and to integrate new knowledge into their prior
experience. As shown in a recent study, the effectiveness of a discussion forum
in teaching and learning depends on several factors, including the students‟
engagement, the quality of discussion, and the interaction. Without the full
involvement of students, however, the advantages of the discussion forum will
not be achieved (Durairaj & Umar, 2015).
According to Birenbaum (2002), forums provide an advantageous environment
for dialogue and discussion, an environment that is appropriate to Socratic
discourse. Tredway (1995) explained that Socratic discourse is a discussion of
moral ideas and dilemmas through working on and analyzing certain texts. The
quality of discourse depends on the speakers‟ consideration for each other, and
discussion components include: expression of ideas, posing of questions, and
expression of doubt. This leads to understanding and learning of another “truth”
or alternative knowledge. Discourse of this kind leads the participants to: the
creation of meaning, deep thinking, doubt, and a new and different
consideration of ideas. The results of the discussion include the development of
knowledge through cooperation as well as the creation of ideas. In this way, the
advantages of Socratic discourse appear to be suitably illustrated in on-line
forums.
Literature Review
Decoding and interpretation of texts through dialogue has been the subject of
consideration in various research studies: Tadmor (1997) defined dialogical
education as an influential, shaping event that occurs between teacher and
student who jointly foster a community of autonomous subjects, equal in value,
and liberated. The learners observe, think, and search for meaning together, as
they conduct discussions and communicate through intellectual and emotional
human contact.
The cultural-literacy model suggests that individuals wishing to understand a
text should have knowledge of the background that influenced the author.
Valsiner (2007) suggested that personal systems of terminology develop from
socio-cultural systems of meanings adapted for the individual, allowing
individuals to create meanings for their lives, for their world, and for their

3
connection with it. In other words, dealing with texts supports the process of
personal identity development.
Hirsch (1987) claimed that, for individuals to understand written texts, they
need to be familiar with the underlying core of cultural knowledge: individuals
who communicate with their peers in a particular culture assume the existence
of a common background and culture. As this information is considered by
authors to be „obvious‟, it is not included in their texts. Thus, in order to
understand and communicate in an effective manner, the individual in any
culture is required to share access to knowledge and meanings that stem from
that culture. Banks (2004) claimed that teachers can help learners to develop
their identities through identification with, empathy with, and critical reading of
the text; or through integration of the contents with their own situation. Texts
that represent the knowledge that influences the cultural identity of learners can
support the confirmation of their cultural identities and thus encourage
dialogue. Readers identify the arguments that are meaningful for them in the
text at the level of their personal or professional identity, and locate themselves
as allies or opponents relative to the text.
Miller and Schulz (in press) pointed out that: "students need the critical
capacities necessary to engage with sophisticated topic content and complex
social and cultural practices” (as cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A23). Wadham,
Pudsey and Boyd (2007, p. 266) argued that “this means reading assessment
tasks, topic readings, research data, and lecture materials with a critical eye; it
also means reading people and social contexts with a critical eye. The capacity to
read and unpack texts to discover their many and varied meanings and
strategies is referred to as „critical literacy‟. Critical literacies go beyond literary
criticism and critical comprehension, to questions about how texts defend
and/or disguise positions of power, prejudice, exclusion, and vested interest”
(cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A23). The Tasmanian Department of Education
(2013) suggested that, as a multi-literacies framework for university teaching
practices, critical literacy “shows us ways of looking at written, visual, spoken,
multimedia and performance texts to question and challenge the attitudes,
values and beliefs that lie beneath the surface” (cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A24).
Miller (2015, p. A24) goes on to clarify that “critical literacy is more than just
reading texts closely; it has a socially critical edge and involves complex
interactions and social practices”, and Miller and Schulz (in press) suggested
that “
We are also expanding our understanding of „text‟ to include the un-spoken, un-
written, and in-visible forms of communication circulating at different levels
(cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A24).
Côté and Levine (2002), who designed a complex understanding of identity in
the Western world, claim that students‟ qualities and virtues allow them to think
about issues of identity through their consideration of meanings in texts with
cultural value. They note that humans have a natural narcissistic tendency to
focus on themselves and to see themselves as the center of the world. Thus, it is
important to develop a sense of belonging to a moral code, to a society, to a
culture and to a nation; and if appropriate, to encourage students‟ ability to

4
change and forgo their preconceived personal, historical, cultural and social
identities.
Content analysis of student statements identified several categories of images
and metaphors that characterize the following subjects:
Figure 1 : Summary of prominent images and metaphors derived from
analysis of the propositional content of the forum.
Research Design
The purpose of the present research is to examine how the decoding of Plato‟s
“Allegory of the Cave” contributes to the construction of thinking processes
amongst student-teachers, at the inception of their career, through the
acquisition of meanings, values, perceptions, and modern ideals or analysis.

5
Research Questions:
1. How does the decoding of an ancient text contribute to the construction of
thinking processes amongst student-teachers?
2. What are the thinking processes that occur in the study and discussion of an
analogical text?
Research Methods:
 Mixed methods research.
 A combination of qualitative content analysis, and quantitative analysis of
the responses written in answer to the questions posed in the course forum.
Research Procedure: Analysis of dialogue and examination of the contribution of
metaphors in consideration of the allegory along the axis of time (from past to
future), while also identifying the role of metaphors in constructing the student-
teachers‟ identities.
Research Tools:
 Presenting an open question on the on-line forum.
 Statistically analyzing the statements and numerical mapping of the
statistics in Atlas software.
 Content analysis according to categories.
 Use of models of thinking processes.
Research Population:
A multicultural group of sixty-nine 1st year students (a cross-stream course) of a
B.Ed. course in Education and Teaching at the Ohalo Academic College.
Hypothesis:
 Learning the “Allegory of the Cave” contributes to the development of
critical, creative thinking.
 The decoding of the text through the use of augmented metaphors enables
the clarification of professional attitudes and moral perceptions in the
teaching of future educators.
“The Allegory of the Cave”: a trigger for thinking about past, present and future:
Plato‟s “Allegory of the Cave” is recognized as a text that inspires discourse and
thinking in many fields of knowledge. Within the framework of studies
concerning the “principles of education according to the great philosophers of
ancient Greece”, this text was chosen as the first one to be analyzed in the on-
line forum. A Hebrew translation of the text was uploaded to the on-line course
site and the students were asked to read the text, interpret it, link it to
contemporary education, and to examine the extent of its relevance in our post-
modern era.
In order to motivate the process of on-line dialogue in the spirit of the 21st
century, the following question was asked: „in your opinion, is the “Allegory of
the Cave” still important in the modern era or is it no longer relevant? Explain
your opinion.”

6
This question, one of many to be presented on the forum during the semester,
received a lot of interest: the highest number of reactions (46 responses), with a
large gap between it and other questions presented for debate. The discussion
that arose amongst the students illustrated reflective thinking about the
question, and this process played an important role in helping students to
construct an optimal image of the 21st century teacher within the teacher training
process.
The dialogue that evolved, along with student answers, exactly as written and
word for word, served as units of content - some of the analysis and meanings
are presented in Figure 1 above. The insights derived from the analysis of
student statements were examined through communication models, data
processing and augmented allegories.
Following Fiske‟s (1990) semiotic model, we examined cultural influences on the
deciphering of the text. According to Fiske, “decoding is a sort of recreation of
the text” conducted against the background of the complex cultural baggage of
the decoder. The method used to decode communication is derived from the
data-processing procedure; it relates to both the acquisition of knowledge and
the behavioral results that follow the processing of this new knowledge. This
procedure provides standards that help to evaluate, process, and integrate the
information received from the outside world with internal information.
In the present context, the data processing procedure described in Figure 3
explains how the students integrate the information they have drawn from the
ancient text with their own internal
knowledge, especially in such an
unconventional environment as the
class virtual forum. The process is
performed in the “black box”, i.e. the
human brain, and results are expressed
in the student statements.
Kaniel and Arazi‟s data processing
model (Kaniel, 2003) enables us to
present a visual picture of the data-
processing procedures carried out by
the students: from reading the allegory
to their final deduction of conclusions
expressed in their definition of the
present-day role of the teacher. The
proposed model (see Figure 4) suggests the reason for the choice of particular
parts of the allegory and not others. For example: the consideration of the
teacher‟s role, but not of the danger overshadowing their life during the
teaching/ exposure of the reality.
Moreover, the student interpretation of the allegory facilitated understanding
concerning the way in which the text is seen by students today.
Meanings
Message
Text
External
reality
Creates
Reads
Figure 2 : Fiske’s Model of semiotic
communication.

7
Figure 3 : The brain as a “black box” during the data-processing procedure.
The covert and overt messages in the “Allegory of the Cave” arouse student
response and personal interpretation, along with the desire to share their
thoughts and insights with the forum. The ancient text gives rise to interesting
intrapersonal and interpersonal interactions, revolving mainly around the
perception of the teacher‟s role within the education system in the modern era. It
leads students to make associations that create a context for the delineation of
present-day needs in technology assisted teaching.
A large part of the
interpretation revolves
around the teacher-student
relations axis, so that each
component of the ancient
text is associated with a
parallel in the reality of their
professional lives.
Furthermore, they took the
moral of the story one step
further by identifying
perceptions, insights and
responses in order to reduce
existing gaps in the
education system and to
modify educational activity.
As a result of their reflective
thinking processes, students
were inspired to propose
solutions and to crystallize a
declarative statement. This
can be defined as a
cognitive-conscious process,
as the students, who will be the teachers of the future, work through the
decoding of the allegory. Working together, they constructed insights regarding
Figure 4 : The processing procedure and personal
decoding sequence.

8
the desirable professional method for work in their classes, alongside
suggestions for suitable solutions to issues of teaching and learning posed by the
21st century, although at present this remains solely at the conscious declarative
level.
Findings: analysis of responses and statements
The significance of the allegory: Statistical analysis of answers to the question “is
the allegory important even in our modern era” indicates that most students
recognized the significant
importance of the text and its
relevance today. This is
despite the fact that the
allegory relates to a group of
prisoners shackled since
childhood in a gloomy cave,
unaware of the outside world.
The teacher-student
interaction interpretation of
the allegory: was perceived by
most students to be very
meaningful and was repeated
with different nuances during
the discussion, for example:
…the ideal teacher is a teacher who
acts to create constructive
teaching, for whom each day is a
new day and this is also so for his teaching method … so that students will learn to think
further, learning much from discussions, developing skills such as the culture of
speaking, and dialogue between students.
From the metaphor of the chains – to an interpretation of fixation:
…The allegory clarifies the view of those teachers who are stuck in their thinking and are
unwilling or afraid to liberate themselves from their old teaching methods, and to
recognize that there are new, better methods, more effective, that see the child at the
center and that are open to responding to the students‟ opinions and feelings.
…the cave‟s boundaries limit the thoughts of the „fixated‟ teacher, who is not willing to
escape beyond those boundaries and prefers to teach in the traditional manner, while the
teacher who sees the light is the teacher who allows them self to break through the
boundaries, to arouse the child‟s curiosity and to be open to new aids that are effective
and good for today.
…the cave represents the thoughts of the “fixated stagnant” teacher, and the continued
use of the old teaching method, despite the fact that technology and the modern era have
many advantages.
In contrast to the word “chains” that appears in the text, students more often
used the term “fixation” in the on-line dialogue. The question therefore arose as
to why the word chains was given almost no attention, while the word fixation
Very
important
54%
Important
13%
May be
appropriat
e 8.7%
Relevant
8.7%
No
response
24%
Figure 5 : Distribution of responses concerning
the relevance of the allegory in the present day.

9
became the dominant metaphor. One possible interpretation is that the words
“cave” and “chains” were seen as representing a sense of “stagnated thinking”
in the education system, and the teachers assumed that this feeling of stagnation
was projected onto the students and consequently affected their motivation. The
following are some of the responses on the forum relating to chains and fixation:
Examples of statements relating to perceptions of the teacher’s role:
…as future teachers, we need to continually develop our teaching methods, to always
stimulate the students‟ curiosity and interest. Not to be stuck with particular methods
rather to continually evolve and develop our teaching methods.
…Future teachers should get out of their fixation and be more open to innovation, to
new techniques that will increase students‟ effective interesting thinking, that will
expand their horizons and enlarge their curiosity. We as teachers must leave the
„darkness‟ – the less interesting learning methods that are less likely to lead to shared
learning … and as it were we should leave the cave with new teaching, and different and
interesting methods.
…I think it's important that the teachers should not be stuck, that they will be open to
innovations and new ideas, and this will awaken the children‟s curiosity and motivation
to learn … the teacher should focus on technological development and use it with
alternative methods in order to arouse students‟ curiosity and desire to develop and learn
new ideas. The allegory of the cave highlights the role of the educator as someone who
helps students to turn their gaze in the right direction and to overcome the obstacles as
was done in the allegory. The role of the educator is to help but he cannot do this for
them unless he himself takes on the role of liberator.
This last assertion can be linked to the deep metaphorical meaning of “chains”
and “fixation”.
Fixation occurs when a person remains stuck in a particular stage, due to lack of
resolution of the crises that characterize this stage (Freud, 1962). Fixation stands
for constricted thinking processes; the creation of restricted and defined thinking
patterns that do not allow the individual to see beyond. It symbolizes what is
old, ancient and traditional, and is rooted in the past; this is outdated thinking,
or thinking that is frozen, in contrast with the dynamic spirit of time.
It is also interesting to observe that the decoding of the text led to the new
interpretation described above: an “ending” that is significantly different in
meaning to Plato‟s original ending. In the conventional interpretation, scholars
argue that the messenger is murdered and the prisoners remain in darkness. In
the student decoding of the allegory in the on-line dialogue, the difficulties and
meanings at the end of the process moved in a positive operative direction, and
students learnt to cope with the lesson in an empowering manner, suggesting
practical solutions in both the personal and systemic dimension.
When students were asked to “describe the connection between the prisoners of
the past and teachers of the future”, their feelings were succinctly reflected in
their responses. Figure 5 relates to the process the students underwent on the
forum. The students noted:

10
…we can draw a link along the time axis between “prisoners of the past and educators of
the future” since in my opinion, in the “Allegory of the Cave”, for the prisoners of the
past, the departure towards the light, to the revelation of knowledge, stems from the same
motivation, a sort of impulse that the prisoner in the cave feels that he must go out and
be exposed to the world that he saw from behind the shade, the aspiration to know, to
satisfy curiosity. And we also, as the educators of the future, should be pushed to expose
new and different methods and to always search for what is new and for beneficial
change. Although
there is change over
time, the goal
remains the same: to
expose and know
what is new and
more effective.
…The prisoners of
the past were
imprisoned within
their representation
of particular things
and they did not
question their
knowledge; rather
they accepted their
representation in a
fixated manner.
Future educators
need to aspire to
educate their
students to investigate, to create, to construct knowledge and not to fear being exposed to
knowledge that differs from the knowledge they already have.
The use of progressive innovation, along with teacher assistance, brought about
a “release” in students that allowed them to “think outside the box”, “not
remain fixated”, and “to alter perceptions”. This constitutes the implementation
of what Duffy and Cunningham (1996) referred to as “knowledge as a creeping
rhizome". Students shared the view that learning involves an active process of
knowledge construction, and that teaching is about supporting and upholding
that process rather than simple transmission of knowledge from teacher to
student (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). This branches out into different meanings
and creates shared dialogue - on-line dialogue in the present case - within a
community of learners.
The student responses link the metaphorical world with the real world, and the
past with the present and especially the future. We found that they consolidated
opinions and insights concerning the role of the teacher and educator. This
included the suggestion that the teacher or educator should “release the
prisoners” from the cave, as well as the examination of the moral meaning of
the teacher‟s role. Lastly, they used reflective thinking about teacher training
processes that they had experienced during the academic year.
Figure 6 : The decoding model and its products.

11
Discussion and conclusions: from prisoners of the past to future
educators
Students gave original, innovative and modern interpretations of the ancient
Platonic text. They saw the “Allegory of the Cave” as a textual “starting point”
constituting a trigger for thinking from which they marched towards the future
in a quest for personal and professional self-discovery; they also conducted a
deep interpretation relating to the education system. The metaphorical “cave”
and the departure from it seemed to them to represent a transition from the past
to the future. Going out into the light, the sun, and leaving the cave‟s darkness,
symbolized the revelation of knowledge and insight, as well as the use of
knowledge to create new thinking, alternative pedagogy, and teaching-learning
“outside the box”.
Kozminski and Kalvier (2010) indicated that a stance of inquiry can assist
dialogue on teachers‟ professional identity. They cite Cochrane-Smith and Lytle
(1999), who suggest that, throughout their lives teachers should act together as
an investigative community, maintaining continuous dialogue. This dialogue
helps to construct local knowledge concerning teaching, creating personal
theories concerning practice, and testing these theories in comparison with other
research. Investigative communities conduct both social and political activity,
and raise questions concerning teaching routines and ways in which knowledge
is created and awarded use and respect. An investigative stance allows critical
discussion about teachers‟ professional identity and the role of the teacher in
bringing about educational change, both as individuals and as a group, leading
towards what Stephen, Fraser and Marcia (1992) dub “identity achievement”.
To summarize, most students felt the “Allegory of the Cave” to be a very
meaningful text, even today. Most identified an analogy in the allegory to the
restrictions of the present day education system. They identified with the need
to be released from chains and fixation in their use of teaching methods, and
advocated an approach that encourages the use of novel means and advanced
technologies as part of the teaching process. The results of the forum discussion
include clear and sharp definitions of the “dos” and “don‟ts”. The “don‟ts”
include warnings to teachers lest they remain fixated, chained in their way of
thinking, imprisoning their students and adhering to traditional and outdated
teaching methods; in other words, remaining in the dark obscurity of the cave.
On the other hand, the “dos” are more encouraging: innovation, consideration of
student needs, propagation of values and adaptation to the changing reality of
the post-modern era; progress and development of principles and new
directions of thinking while promoting creativity and curiosity; development
and implementation of new teaching methods (especially dominant in the on-
line discourse) while demonstrating ability to create interest and to be open to
new technologies and sophisticated, adapted teaching means. It is interesting to
discern that the teacher-student interface was perceived as a challenging,
complex space that facilitates meaningful learning through metaphorical
thinking that motivates thinking, dialogue, a community of thinkers, and a
community of learning. Undoubtedly, discussions on the forum added a
significant aspect to the bridge between the old and the new, and it contributed
to the departure of the cave prisoners and the formation of future educators.

12
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© 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 14-25, May 2015
Learning by Going Social: Do We Really Learn
from Social Media?
Minakshi Lahiri and James L. Moseley
Wayne State University
Detroit, Michigan, USA
Abstract. With the ever increasing ubiquity of smart phones and mobile
devices, social networking has become a trend that has captured
attention and interest of one and all. Young people, middle aged, and
older generations are all engaged to certain extent in some sort of social
networking over the web. While there are both pros and cons attached
to the use of social networks, the usage of social media interestingly has
always shown an upward trend in popularity and consumption. Are
there real benefits in getting connected to people using social networks?
Or does the use of web based social media actually isolate people and
diminish the necessity of meeting face to face? Do we really learn from
using social media? Does the use of social networks enhance
collaboration and promote motivation and collective intelligence and
learning? This research based discussion evaluates social media as an
emerging educational and performance improvement tool from the
perspective of social cognitive theory and social constructivist theories.
We discuss some existing research that used social media as a teaching
learning tool. We end this discussion with a decision making framework
matrix for educators contemplating using social media within their
course pedagogy.
Keywords: technology; social media; social learning theory; emerging
technology
Introduction
According to the 2014 Horizon Report, “Growing Ubiquity of Social Media” is
one of the fast trends that will impact significant changes in the higher education
arena in the foreseeable future. As mentioned in the Horizon Report, a report
from Business Insider indicates 2.7 billion people, almost 40% of the world
population, use social media. According to Pew Research Center (2013) report
published December, 2013, around 73% of adult online users use social media of
some kind. According to Pew Research Center‟s Internet Project, Facebook
dominates the social media playground with 71% of online adults using
Facebook for social networking and interaction. Figure 1 illustrates the

15
popularity of Facebook as a social media in comparison to other prominent
social media currently in vogue.
Figure 1. Popularity of Facebook as a Social Media
Several studies have investigated the impact of social media on learning both in
the formal and in informal settings. With the increase in the popularity and
usage of various social media, it is important to carefully consider the
implications or direct and indirect benefits of engaging with social media, in
order to harness the potential of this increasingly popular emerging technology.
In this article we review research on social media in educational settings to
investigate the impact of social media in formal and informal learning.
Social Media and Social Networks
According to Merriam Webster online dictionary (http://www.merriam-
webster.com), Social media means:
“forms of electronic communication (as Web sites for social
networking and microblogging) through which users create online
communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and
other content (as videos) .”

16
Merchant (2011) identified SixDegrees.com launched in 1997 as the first
Networking website. According to Merchant (2011), social networks are web
based services where individuals could create their profiles and connect to other
users with similar interest and share information within the network. With the
increasing popularity and use of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0, Social Networking Sites
(SNSs) have increased membership over the years and have grown to be
technology powerhouses (Alloway, Horton, Alloway, Dawson, 2013). Table 1
lists some of the most popular social media and social networking sites that are
used in educational and instructional settings.
Table 1. Popular social media sites used in educational settings
Social Media Brief description and URL
delicious Social bookmarking; users are able to locate and save
websites that match their own interests
https://delicious.com/
Flickr Used for sharing photographs, networking with
photographs,
https://www.flickr.com/
Facebook . General networking and communication: Share Photos,
Videos, Blogs, Apps
https://www.facebook.com/
Google+ General social networking site
https://plus.google.com
Instagram A photo and video sharing site
http://instagram.com/#
LinkedIn Used primarily for business and professional networking
https://www.linkedin.com/
Myspace General social networking site
https://myspace.com/
Ning Users create their own social websites and social
networks, building a community
http://www.ning.com/
Pinterest Online pin-board for organizing and sharing ideas,
recipes, craft etc. https://www.pinterest.com/
Tumblr Microblogging platform and Social Networking Website.
https://www.tumblr.com/
Twitter General. Micro-blogging, RSS, updates
https://twitter.com/
Social Learning – Cognitive and Constructivist Perspectives
Many recent researches in education have been inspired by social theories on
learning (Vygotsky, 1978; Wenger, 1998). Social learning perspectives emphasize

17
learning as a social process, that involves both personal interpretations of events
and meaning making through social negotiation (Jonassen & Land, 2000).
Acquisition of knowledge and performance from social learning perspective is
perceived as a social process (Littleton & Häkkinen, 1999).
Social Cognitive Theory helps to analyze the relationship between personal,
behavioral and environmental factors that can influence the abilities for
individuals to set goals and self-regulate learning (Wang & Lin, 2007). Social
Cognitive Theory, founded on the works of Albert Bandura and J. B. Rotter
focuses on the impact of social environment on learning. Rotter (1954) suggested
that basic behavioral instincts are mostly acquired in social situations. He
suggested that individuals behave in a certain way depending on the situation
and how the individual values the outcome of the behavior in the situation in
relation to the other possible outcomes. Albert Bandura‟s social cognitive theory,
based on observational learning (1997) was expanded on Rotter‟s theory of social
learning. It was based on the idea that people learn from observing the behavior
of others through observation, imitation and modeling. Bandura‟s social
cognitive theory assumes that the learners draw information by observing other
people and making decisions on which to accept and perform. According to
Bandura this observation, as well as decision making process to accept or ignore
a behavior, is vital to learning, acquiring, and performing a behavior.
Like cognitivists, social learning theories and their impact on learning have also
been recently studied and discussed by many social constructivists. Social
constructivists view learning as a social, conversational and interactive
knowledge construction process. Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond (2008)
suggest the use of technology as a social tool to enhance learning. They suggest
using technology
● for collaboration
● for discussion, building argument, and building consensus among
members
● for supporting communication between knowledge-building
communities
According to Jonassen (2000), meaningful learning is intentional, active,
conscious, constructive and includes reflective activities.
Many contemporary learning theorists focus on the social aspect of learning,
through negotiating and meaning making. While behavioral and cognitive
theorists focused on how an individual acquired knowledge, social
constructivists believe that learning involves social exchange and negotiation.
According to social constructivists, learning is an internal as well as a social
process. Savery and Duffy (1995) define learning as inherently a social-dialogical
process.
Social Learning in the 21st Century: Learning with Social Media and the Web
Kamel Boulos and Wheeler (2007) suggested, Web 2.0 as the „Social Web‟,
because, it encourages interaction and communication. As we have progressed
from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 environment and now moving towards Web 3.0, social

18
networking has evolved to make it possible for people to communicate with
others from anywhere, at any time.
Social networking sites are cloud based online services that enable users to
create personal profiles and help to make connections with others. Social
networking refers to applications such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, Google+,
Linkedin, where members set up personal profiles, connect with people,
communicate, and share preferences and interests. Sites such as YouTube and
different blogs are classified as social publishing websites. Another important
Web 2.0 social learning tool that is being used extensively in educational settings
is the wiki that enables collaborative creation over time and editing of
documents on the Web by multiple users.
With the current trend in the increased number of online and blended courses,
and the increased use of web based educational resources, creating a learning
environment with social interaction components and social exchange among
learners as well as the instructor poses a challenge to the instructional designer.
According to Bandura (2002), technology plays a large role in the “globalization
of human interconnectedness” (p. 2) thus influencing how people use and apply
technology within their societal and cultural environments. According to
Bandura, high self-efficacy and high motivation are necessary for individuals in
order for them to be successful and productive in the information age. If
individuals have a low perceived self-efficacy, they may not be able to access,
process, and evaluate the information obtained from an Internet search.
Conducting searches from the web for information to enable the construction of
knowledge, or to perform an Internet-based inquiry, is a complex task that
requires higher level thinking skills (Bandura, 2002). Bandura (2002)
recommends that our educational environments focus on the instruction of
skills, and not force the retention of subject matter, for the 21st Century students
to be adaptable, proficient and self-directed learners. Facts can easily be attained
by researching the many online libraries, museums and databases. As a result,
individuals are no longer receivers of information, but are involved in their own
learning as “agents of learning” (Watts, 2011).
In a study at Queensland University of Australia, by Carroll, Diaz, Niland &
Adkins (2012), an interactive, online social media was integrated into the course
as an assessment component. Students utilized the online forum Wikispaces
(http://www.wikispaces.com/) to showcase their research on complex and
contemporary health issues and also for peer review and critique of their work.
It was discovered that at the end of this assessment, students developed deeper
and long term learning with higher overall academic writing standards. This
study verified Bandura‟s social cognitive theory that modelled behavior can
impact self-motivation positively. The learning in this study used a social
setting, and the learning process was iterative, collaborative, as well as
competitive where students observed peer works, and then become both
imitated and innovated in their own work.

19
Gunawardena, et. al. (2009), define social networking as technology that
promote collective intelligence by means of social negotiation among group of
individuals that are engaged in working towards a common goal or a shared
practice. Gunawardena et. al. (2009) analyzed a variety of Web 2.0 tools to assess
their utility towards learning. The researchers concluded that self-efficacy was
an important component that directly impacted collaboration in social learning
process. Gunawardena, et. al. (2009) suggested that self-efficacy is also an
important component that contributes to success for individuals who are new to
online experiences. A complicated set of instructions and processes for using
social networking tools can also be daunting to an Internet novice and that could
add to the learning curve. Slow introduction to the newcomers to technology
and tools, and structuring online participation for learning success can help
learners in online or blended courses to boost their self-efficacy and be
successful.
The rapid proliferation and innovation of web technologies and mobile devices
have influenced how people communicate, learn and behave. Yu, Tian, Vogel
and Kwok (2010) investigated the impact of individuals‟ online social
networking engagement from a pedagogical perspective. Based on analysis of
results in their research, they concluded that online social networking influenced
students‟ learning outcomes, and also helped the students to adapt and adjust to
the university culture, which played an important role in successful learning.
Social networking also facilitated development of virtual and real relationships
with peers or models, and also encouraged integrity and a sense of community
and belonging to their universities. Online social networking had a positive
impact on students‟ mental health and encouraged technical skill development.
The researchers concluded that online networking sites, such as Facebook, can
be used to design learning activities, e.g., orientation practices, to increase
interaction among individual students and to build a collegial and peer
supportive environment.
Other research on social networking and its educational impact have found
better health, affective development and academic success (Morrow, 1999;
Steinfield, Ellison & Lampe (2008) for students who engage in some kind of
social networking. Treisman‟s (1992) study concluded that time spent in
networking and communicating with peers form a critical factor in determining
performance for college students. Hwang et al. (2004) also concluded that social
networking with peers and instructors helped college student gain information
and knowledge and achieve higher performance.
All of these studies indicated that students' online social networking
engagement with peers as well as instructors helped to raise self-esteem of
students and helped students feel motivated and succeed academically.
Steinfield et al. (2008) in their study suggested that instructional use of Facebook
helped to reduce barriers that students with lower self-esteem might experience.
Social influences play a major role in in motivating people to share knowledge
or participate in social communities. Strong community ties, for example
provided important environmental conditions for knowledge exchange

20
(Snowden, 1998; Wellman & Wortley, 1990). Langerak, Verhoef, Verlegh & Valck
(2004) concluded that satisfaction with interactions among individuals
influences member participation positively. Trust is also a key factor that enables
fostering higher level of participation in many virtual communities (Ridings,
Gefen, & Arinze, 2002; Andrews, Preece & Turoff, 2002). Dholakia, Bagozzi &
Pearo(2004) found that belonging to a group or a community had a strong effect
on group intentions to participate online or in virtual communities. There were
other studies which concluded that a sense of community (Hars & Ou(2002);
Yoo, Suh & Lee (2002)) and social identity (Dholakia, Bagozzi & Pearo, 2004)
enhanced participation and contribution in a virtual community.
Assessing Credibility of Including Social Media/Networking in Instructional
Design
Social media is a current and emerging trend that impacts learning both in the
formal as well as the informal setting. To fully harness the potential of social
media in learning, prior to any formal implementation, it is essential to critically
evaluate the benefits that the use of social media would add to the coursework.
Benefits and limitations of including social media within course pedagogy are
listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Benefits and Limitations of using Social media in educational
settings
Benefits Limitations
 Social media encourages
collaborative learning
 Social media enables
modelling of behavior
 Social Media motivates the
learner to become active
creators of content and more
participation
 Social media promotes
building of learning
communities and foster
productive discussions and
sharing of knowledge and
information.
 Social media can be used by
instructors to enhance
student engagement
 Social media can be used to
improve communication
among learners and
instructors
 Alumni group can connect
and grow with social media
 Making a safe community
presence is a challenge. Use
and access of social media
when used in school work
must be monitored closely by
the instructor.
 Social media can pose as a
distraction for the learners and
shift the focus from learning to
other stuff on web.
 Social media can easily become
a tool for cyberbullying and
other forms of cyber-crimes.
Instructors need to be vigilant
of any such possibilities and
address civil and respectful
cyber behavior.
 Use of social media for
communication might be a
discouraging factor for face to
face communication or human
interaction.

21
Implementing social media within the teaching learning process without careful
considerations, for the sake of using the technology, might result in frustration,
distraction, inequity, and deviation from the primary focus of the course. The
table below, Table 3, is a checklist of some of the critical considerations for
educators contemplating including social media within pedagogy as a means to
engage learners in social learning. If majority of the answers to this checklist
yields a “Yes”, it implies that social media in this course would actually enhance
learning experiences of students in the course.
Table 3. Considerations while Implementing Social Media in Courses.
Critical considerations before integrating social media in
pedagogy
Yes No
Overall Learning Perspective
1 Does the implementation of social media lead to in depth
learning for the learners for this course?
2 Does the implementation of social media lead to increased
student engagement for this course?
3 Does the implementation of social media lead to increased
critical thinking by students?
4 Does the implementation of social media lead to innovation
in teaching learning styles and preferences for a particular
course?
5 Does the process lead to increased collaboration and
exchange of information among the faculty and the students?
6 Does the implementation of social media make teaching
learning more interactive?
7 Can we ensure that including social media will cause
minimal to almost no distraction for the students from the
main focus of the course?
8 Will the implementation of social media enable timely and
prompt feedback to learners?
9 Will the implementation of social media act as a digital
bridge and minimize the digital divide in this particular
course?
10 Will the implementation of social media address equity?
11 Can we ensure that the implementation of social media will
not result in a steep learning curve for learners who are new
users and hence not overwhelm the learners?
12 Will the social learning provide extra motivation for learners
to engage in learning?

22
13 Will the social media used for the course provide a stable
platform for the learners to interact over a period of time?
14 Will the social media enable reliable and valid indication for
individual learner evaluation?
15 Will the inclusion of social media in this course promote self-
efficacy of the student?
16 Will the inclusion of social media in this course promote
active and critical reflective thinking by learners?
17 Will the social media use in this course enhance independent
inquiry and problem solving skills by the learners?
18 Will the implementation of social learning enhance
communication skills of the students?
19 Can we ensure privacy and safety of learners if the social
media is included within the course?
20 Will the social media promote connections among alumni
and help grow the alumni body as a community of
professionals?
Social Cognitive Theory Perspective
21 Does inclusion of social media in coursework provide
opportunities of social interactions, observations, modelling
and imitation for the learners? (Bandura‟s Social Cognitive
Theory)
22 Will there be significant, observable and measurable positive
changes in a learners‟ behavior due to the inclusion of social
media? (Bandura‟s Social Cognitive Theory)
Social Constructivist Theory Perspective
23 Will the social media use in course work encourage
collaborative learning among learners? (Jonassen, Howland,
Marra & Crismond; 2008)
24 Can the instructors utilize social media within course work
to promote conversation and dialogue for problem solving
and critical thinking on various issues among learners?
(Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond; 2008)
25 Will the inclusion of social media within course pedagogy
encourage interactive and social knowledge construction
process among learners? (Jonassen, Howland, Marra &
Crismond; 2008)
Total Score Y= N=

23
Conclusion
Pew Research Center‟s (2011) report The Digital Revolution and Higher Education,
predicted an increase in the trend of university and colleges offering online
classes during the next ten years. The report also predicted that most students
would access digital text books over mobile devices in the coming years. With
this exponential rise and growth of online and web based learning environments
and ubiquitous learning, further research on social learning theories in web
based environments and design of instructions for online learning environments
is extremely important. Instructional designers and online instructors need to
investigate effective strategies to promote quality online social interactions,
build effective online learning community, promote online collaborative work
thus eliminating the perceived feeling of isolation in online educational settings,
and promoting motivation, self-esteem, participation and engagement in web
based learning. Social media when used effectively within the pedagogy can
serve as a platform for promoting effective online interaction between a
community of learners for engagement as a community and for sharing and co-
construction of knowledge.
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© 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 26-39, May 2015
A Pedagogical Synergy of Visualization Pictures
and Scenarios to Teach the Concept of
Parallelograms
Marie-Thérèse Saliba
Université de Montréal
Faculty of Science Education
Montréal, Québec, Canada
Abstract: Many problems in geometry require students to perform a
number of steps in a particular order using congruence theorems.
According to “the Mathematics Intermediate Level – 8th year Book,
Puissance Collection” set by the mathematics curriculum in Lebanon, a
new spirit conserving the individual construction of notions is advised.
However, in practice this new spirit is not smoothly delivered to
students. In this study, we observed the effect of the Active Learning
Process in the chapter of “Parallelograms” in the 8th grade Math classes
on students’ academic realization, concept learning and approach
changes, according to their results combined with their feedback. It was
detected that after comparing the test scores of the active learning model
which uses figures and models is more successful than the traditional
teaching methods since there was a rise in success in students’ results.
Keywords: Parallelograms; Lebanese curriculum; 8th grade; active
leaning
Introduction
Context
Many problems in geometry require students to perform a number of steps in a
particular order. According to my teaching practices advanced students not only
remember the steps, they know when to use particular congruence theorems,
they understand why they are doing what they are doing, and they know when
the order of steps does or does not matter.
As stated by its authors, the Mathematics Intermediate Level – 8th year Book,
Puissance Collection, deals with the mathematics program in Lebanon with a
new spirit conserving the individual construction of notions, formation of
communication and critical thinking skills, and preservation of the link between
mathematics and the situations of our daily life. However, in practice this new

27
@2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved
spirit is not smoothly delivered to students, and some major constructs in
geometry are not delivered properly.
Research problem
Furthermore, some Geometry notions are introduced by using the direct
instruction strategy. Specifically, in the topic of Parallelograms, as covered in the
above mentioned textbook, Grade 8 students often do not recall and visualize
the convenient properties of parallelograms required for proofs and problems
involving reasoning skills. This may be due to the fact of pure memorization
which eventually might increase the risk of memory loss. Students normally
memorize properties; hence they are not visualizing the problem in all its
aspects and making the required connections to remember the needed properties
for every exercise(Cobb, 1988).
Thus concepts will not be built up properly in the students mind, and eventually
less proficient students may need extra help in understanding the reason behind
every step of the problem1.
Interest of the Study
The proposed approach to help overcome this research problem is using the
cognitive theory (Bandura & Ross, 1961; R. M Gagné, 1959; R.M Gagné, 1985;
Piaget, 1969) and the constructivist theory (Bruner, 1986). It will be implemented
using the active learning strategy: The teacher will be organizing the work by
creating an active learning situation (Prince, 2004; Race, 1993; Vellas, 2008)
formed of a series of activities where the student will answer a series of guided
questions allowing them to recognize and deduce the properties of
parallelograms which will be discussed later. Accordingly, this will test the
enhancement of the learning by discovery and the comprehension of properties
rather than having them being listed on the board or dictated to the students.
The use of active learning in this approach is aiming to ensure the grasping of
the concept where the students can now visualize and verbalize mathematics.
The aim of this study is to explore the constructivist active learning strategy
through visualizing pictures and scenarios in addition to its effects on:
1. Student’s Academic Achievement
2. Concept learning of Parallelograms
Outline of the Solution
Theoretical Framework
Constructivism approaches to teach and learn are the results of the work of
psychologists and educators such as (Bruner, 1986; Piaget, 1969).
(Piaget, 1969), the pioneer in the constructivist theory, believes that “every
learner is a constructor”.
1
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Commission on Standards for School
Mathematics. Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, Va.: The
Council, 1989

28
Accordingly, there are two major aspects of the constructivist perspective:
Cognitive Constructivism and Social Constructivism:
For the cognitive constructivism “Learning is something that takes place inside a
person’s head in the brain”(R. M Gagné, 1959). For this author, the brain is
similar to a processor that manages, treats and resolves situations.
The social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1934) adds to the inner learning process the
dimension of the contact with others to build knowledge.
However in this study we are interested in the common points of those two
strands.
According to Piaget every learner could construct his own understanding.
”Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner and not passively received
from the environment”. (Piaget, 1969).
(Jonassen, 1994) description of the general characteristics of constructivist
learning environments is a brief summary of the constructivist perspective. This
author proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiate
constructivist learning environments:
1. “Provide multiple representations of reality.
2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the
complexity of the real world.
3. Emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction.
4. Emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract
instruction out of context.
5. Provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based
learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.
6. Encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.
7. Enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction.
8. Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social
negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition." (Jonassen,
1994).
In this research, I will enhance my strategy development founded on the above
mentioned characteristics.
In the classroom, the constructivist approach brings out different teaching
practices. In this strategy, I usually encourage students to be active by choosing
several techniques as experiments and real-world problem solving. They should
be encouraged to search, create, reflect and negotiate their knowledge and their
understanding in order to rectify them if necessary. My role as a teacher is to
guide the students and to act as a mediator who organizes the students’
understands and controls their activities.
Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity
is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their
strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become expert
learners2. This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-
planned classroom environment, the students learn how to learn.
2 http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html

29
Based on the above, it is clear that the active learning process complements the
constructivist theory and is a fundamental asset for teaching and learning. It is in
fact a realization of the constructivist theory.
“The normal way of acquisition is not observation, explanation and
demonstration; it is the experimental trial and error, natural and universal
approach”(Freinet, 1964).
(Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) indicated that in the student-centred active
learning process the teacher is merely a guide, which is the focal point of
contemporary educational systems3.
According to (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) “the active learning is a process in
which the learner takes responsibility of his or her learning and is given the
opportunity to make decisions and inferences for the goal of self-regulation. In
this way, learning will no longer be a typical process, but it transforms into a
personalized process based on every student’s needs and reflections”. This
author believes that active learning provides the learner a background to self-
criticism and an autonomy to choose his own path to resolve problems.
Moreover, students will develop their skills of problem-solving and critical
thinking to learn (Bonwell & Eison, 1991).
In this process, the students shall be ready to solve any problems they encounter
in their everyday lives.
On another hand, the study shows that as (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007)
concluded “the problem based learning model turns the student from a passive
recipient to an active self -learner and problem solver shifting the emphasis of
educational programs from teaching to learning” (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007).
In this strategy the student becomes responsible of his own acquisition and
learning.
Not to forget that students attitude in the areas of problem solving, thinking,
communication, group work, information acquisition and information sharing
are affected positively. Note that the students’ feedback is to be considered but
not fully reliable (Al‐Issa & Sulieman, 2007; Boysen, 2008). In fact, even though,
gathering information from the students’ feedback is suggested, their comments
and observations remain highly subjective and not mature.
Functional Framework
Grade eight students4 consider problems in geometry as something abstract,
complicated, and incomprehensible. On another hand, students are introduced
to the concepts of proofs and statement/reason which in its turn requires a lot of
visualization and conceptual understanding. This is because in each exercise
students explore a new situation and are required to use their prior knowledge
to make decisions, inferences, and generalizations.
3
Mentioned in: 2007 Moment, Eurasia J. Math. Sci. & Tech. Ed., 3(1), 71-81
4 Grade 8: 13- 14 years old

30
The purpose of this research is to conclude whether the application of the active
learning model in “Parallelograms” chapter of the 8th grade in the Intermediate
Education brings out major modifications to students’ academic accomplishment
regarding their concept learning and their approach towards the math class.
This framework will be implemented using the active learning strategy. The
teacher will be organizing the work by creating an active learning situation
formed of a series of activities where the research group students will
individually answer a series of guided questions about parallelograms allowing
them to recognize and deduce the properties of parallelograms by themselves. In
this way, they would be able to perform similar analysis on any problem they
occur and require higher order thinking skills.
For the other group, the control group, a traditional strategy is applied: In the
School Book5 this chapter is normally introduced using the direct instruction
approach, that is the uni-directional transmission mode of learning: The teacher
provides the students with the definition of parallelogram, its properties, and
then listing the conditions required to prove that a quadrilateral is a
parallelogram. There was neither discussion nor exploration of the concept (See
Figure 1). In general, the teacher reveals the Parallelogram proprieties as follows:
1. A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel and equal in length.
2. A parallelogram has its diagonals bisect each other.
3. A parallelogram angles opposed to same extent
4. If an uncrossed quadrilateral has its parallel sides of the same length,
then it is a parallelogram
5. If an uncrossed quadrilateral has diagonals that bisect then it is a
parallelogram.
5 Mathematics - Intermediate Level - Collection Puissance - 8th Year - 2007 - Al-Ahlia

31
Figure 1: Passive method
In this research, I will prepare in advance an activity concerning the
parallelograms chapter and explain it to the research group. Students will
answer the sequential questions in the assistance of two faculty members: A
colleague and myself. Both faculty members had previously taught the
“parallelogram” chapter. Consequently, students deduce the definition, rules,
and properties of parallelograms.
Noting that, the two groups are equivalent and homogeneous; they have been
following the same program in the same school from the early elementary
classes.

32
Exploring Parallelograms will be as follows:
1. Draw any 2 points A and B
2. Use the ruler to draw from each point two parallel lines
3. Connect point A to B
4. Draw a fourth line parallel to (AB). Name it (DC)
5. Answer the following questions:
a. Measure AB and CD. Compare the results
b. Measure AC and BD. Compare the results
c. Find the measure of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷. Compare: 𝐴 and 𝐶
Compare: 𝐵 and 𝐷
d. Connect AC and BD. Name their point of intersection M
e. Measure MA, MB, MC, and MD. Compare.
Figure 2: Active method to teach parallelogram properties
Eventually, there will be class discussion about the results. Accordingly,
students will deduce the definition of a parallelogram, its properties, and the
requirements to prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
The parallelogram properties to be discovered by the students are the following:
1. Two pairs of opposite sides are equal
2. Two pairs of opposite angles are equal
3. Diagonals bisect each other
How to Analyse the Method
The analysis will be done objectively by the two faculty members, a teacher and
myself as the researcher. A unified test is assigned to both groups: The control
and the research. Then the results are recorded separately by the two faculty
members. To be noted that, for the research group, the method is introduced and
completed interactively before the students perform the unified test. These
assessments will ensure the reliability of the results. Moreover, students’
feedback taken by the two faculty members from oral opinions and comments
will be a source of evaluating the new method in terms of interest and
motivation for the math lesson and opinion about the problem based learning.
Since one should not forget the role of students’ motivation in the grasping of
the concept acquisition. Motivational issues play a strong role in the
development of conceptual skills (Klausmier, 1915). Therefore, a combined,
quantitative and qualitative analysis research methods were used in this study

33
by both faculty members. In quantitative research dimension, the test model is
based on the unified test given to the control and the research groups. In
qualitative research field, students’ attitudes and reflections were noted for
evaluation.
Methodology
Situation
This study was performed on the students who were at the 8th grade of the
Intermediate Division of Sagesse High School in Lebanon during the 2012/2013
academic school year. The 50 homogeneous students were randomly divided
into two sections encompassing 25 students in each section. In addition every
group receives 6 math sessions per week, and the number of contact hours that
were required for this task were 6 periods (hours) for every group. Moreover,
the students’ academic achievement and concept learning levels regarding
“Parallelograms” were considered.
Application
With the above mentioned aim and objectives, I prepared a unified test
including 12 questions. This test was presented to the 8th grade students in the
attendance of their teacher. 50 students were participated in the research in total.
After completing the traditional model, the unified test for the control and
research groups was the following (Figure 3):
Figure 3: Test given to the Control group

34
For the control group, students’ test feedback had varied. Some students did
really well, but the majority did not meet the requirements. Consequently, the
research group had the time for the active method implementation stimulating
the brain with the activity about the parallelograms and answering the guided
questions (Figures 4 and 5). The results of the students had changed remarkably.
They showed a notable interest to the learning by discovery and were so excited
to the deduction of properties and making generalizations.
Figure 4: Student’ activities following an Active method
Figure 5: Student’ answers following an Active method

35
After completing the sequential questions, the unified test (Figure 3) prepared in
accordance with the objectives and the acquisitions in the subject matters of
“Parallelograms”, was given to the research group in the presence of their
teacher and myself. This topic was divided into sub concepts and the 12
questions asked covered the knowledge, comprehension, and analysis of the
concepts.
Through this process, we noticed that from our observation using a student-
centred strategy, knowledge and connections were transferred to the students
and among the students as well. To be noted that, this active method has been
prepared and implemented after having the approval of the subject coordinator
and the educator.
This test gained positive feedback from students especially those who had
difficulty in grasping the concept of parallelograms inductively.
Data Collection
Knowing that the expected learning outcomes are:
1. Construct parallelograms having a specific given condition
2. Recognize a specific parallelogram property and apply it in a problem
situation
3. Prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram using a logical reasoning.
In accordance with what was previously mentioned, the results of the test
presented to the control and research groups are summarized in the Figure 2
below:
Meeting the
expectations
Below the
expectations
Total
Control
Group
21 29 50
Research
Group
37 13 50
Figure 6: The results of both groups
On another hand, the students’ valuable feedback present part of the qualitative
data collection. Some relevant opinions expressed by students from the research
group during the activities are given below. They had mentioned that they now
understood the reason behind every property.
A.M: “I liked this very much. The guided questions helped me to think about
the properties of the parallelogram independently.”
J.K: “In this process of learning by discovery, it is so easy to answer the
questions, and it is so good and fruitful to discuss them with the whole class.”

36
C.C.H: “I like this system in math very much. I can now understand the Math
course better because the activity is hand into us earlier. The problems are made
so easy now.”
T.R: “In my opinion, this active learning approach attracted me. It is a good
method. We are learning by having fun.”
Analysis of Data
The analysis of the implemented method can be considered at two levels, the
quantitative analysis, and the qualitative analysis.
Starting with the quantitative analysis, we can see that before the active learning
method has been implemented, 58% of the students were having the results
below the expectations according to their teacher and myself as the conductor of this
research. However, after the implementation of the active method, this has
decreased to become 26%. This ensures the improvement in the performance of
55% of the students who had difficulties6. (See Figure 7)
Figure 7: Student’ test answers from the research group
At the qualitative level, the students’ feedback about my active method showed
that they find great interest and enthusiasm when they learn parallelogram
6
More details about students’ answers to be requested from the author

37
through an active engagement process and in a problem-based active learning
application. Moreover, even if every student happened to construct a
parallelogram with different dimensions, they noticed that the properties end up
being the same. In addition, translating figures or flipping them in the pages
created a class discussion process which allowed students’ communication and
sharing ideas. Therefore, the active method had a constructive effect on the
students’ concept development by teaching them self-sufficiency and autonomy
in acquisition new skills. Thus the concepts learned become more effective and a
long-term stable.
“We learn by understanding, not by following a path all drawn” argued (Piaget,
1969), learning the material comes with understanding and not only from
listening.
(Gremmels, 1995, p.89) advocated: “When we use the dump truck method, we
overwhelm our students with more skills and strategies than they can possibly
absorb in an hour. That’s our first mistake. Then we fail to give students the
opportunity to practice any of the strategies and skills, virtually guaranteeing
that they won’t be internalized.”(Gremmels, 1995, p.89)
In this study, the result of implementing an active method to learn
“Parallelograms” supports and joins the author’s opinion about the passive
method whereby:
1. All the students receive the same content from the teacher, despite their
mind capacities.
2. The students are passive recipients. Their critical thinking is short-cut.
3. The students are not encouraged to self-learning; they remain dependent
on me as a transmitter of knowledge.
4. The teacher goes on with the advancement in the math curriculum
whatever is the understanding of his students.
5. The collaborative learning in group is minimized.
6. The students may not transmit their knowledge in future skills
It was what (Gremmels, 1995, p.89) meant about the disadvantages in adopting a
passive method in teaching which I strongly approve according to data analysis
of my active method.
Conclusion and Perspective
In this study, in which the effect of the Active Learning Process in the chapter of
“Parallelograms” in the 8th grade Math classes on students’ academic
achievement, concept learning, and attitude changes were examined, following
results were obtained. It was observed that after comparing the test scores, the
method which uses the active learning model is more successful than the
traditional teaching methods since there was a rise in success in students’
results. Therefore this verifies the hypothesis claiming that “Teaching
Parallelograms in geometry using the active learning constructivist approach has
effect on student achievement”. In fact, (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) showed
that “the active learning methods are more effective than the classic method by
relying on the findings of their research conducted on the basis of problem-
based learning, brain storming, and cooperative learning”.

38
When examining the students opinions about classes in which active learning
strategies and problem based learning is used, it is noted that the visualization
through pictures and scenarios of the problem models were very successful in
capturing the attention of the students to the classroom. Thus this has been quite
influential regarding the attitude of the students towards the math class.
At the end of the studies carried out with the students through the active
learning strategy regarding a simple yet basic concept in math, Parallelograms. I
observed that their cooperation with each other, accepting others perspective
and opinions, and social development were positively enhanced in addition to
improvement in the knowledge construction.
As a conclusion, it is revealed that the active learning constructivist approach
affects both the teaching and learning process positively. The rise of the
students’ social development, information dissemination, and problem solving
is unavoidable in the class encompassing an active learning process.
These qualities are essential in term of academic math education at all levels and
in diverse cultures. Nevertheless, there exist some limitations and barriers to the
use and implementation of the constructivism and active learning practices.
They include the following:
1. The limited time frame that bounds the completion of the academic
program in a school year might not allow the teacher to use the active
learning and constructivism strategies properly.
2. The number of students per class might create a barrier to the proper
implementation of the theories discussed above.
3. Not to forget, the willingness of teachers and their encouragement to
those topics and educational approaches, especially those who have
years of experience and might be not very cooperative in doing any
development/update in their teaching strategies.
4. Last but not least is the constant and regular accordance of the superiors
and coordinators that should exist in order to legalize the
implementation of the latest trends in education.
References
Akınoğlu, Orhan, & Özkardeş, Ruhan. (2007). The Effects of Problem-Based Active
Learning in Science Education on Students’ Academic Achievement, Attitude
and Concept Learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology
Education,, 3(1), 71-81, Copyright © 2007 by Moment(Tandoğan, Marmara
Üniversitesi, Istanbul, TURKEY, Received 07 June 2006; accepted 12 November
2006).
Al‐Issa, Ahmad, & Sulieman, Hana. (2007). Student evaluations of teaching: perceptions
and biasing factors. Quality Assurance in Education, 15(3), 302-317. doi:
10.1108/09684880710773183
Bandura, & Ross, S. A. . (1961). Transmission of aggression through the imitation of
aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.
Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. . (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the
classroom.(Rep. No. 1) Washington, DC: George Washington University,
ASHEERIC Higher Education.

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Boysen, G. (2008). Revenge and Student Evaluations of Teaching. Teaching of Psychology,
35, 218-222. doi: 10.1080/00986280802181533
Bruner, J (1986). Actual Minds. Possible Worlds, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cobb, P. (1988). The Tension between Theories of Learning and Instruction in
Mathematics Education. Educational Psychologist, 23, 87-103
Freinet, Celestin. (1964). Bandes enseignantes et programmation. Cannes: Editions de
l'Ecole Moderne Francaise.
Gagné, R. M. (1959). Problem solving and thinking. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 10, 147–
172.
Gagné, R.M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction. New York: CBS
College Publishing.
Gremmels, G. S (1995, p.89). Active and cooperative learning in the one-shot BI session. Paper
presented at the presented at the meeting of the National LOEX Library
Instruction Conference, Ann Arbor, MI.
Jonassen, D. (1994). Thinking Technoogy: Educational Technology.
Klausmier, Herbert. (1915). Individually Guided Motivation. Wisconsin: University of
Wisconsin.
Piaget, J. (1969). Psychologie et pédagogie. Paris: Denold.
Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of
Engineering Education, 93, 223-231.
Race, Phil. (1993). How Students Learn A Review of Some of the Main Theories- Centre for
the Enhancement of Learning & Teaching.
Vellas, E. (2008). La mise en œuvre des pédagogies actives et constructivistes. Enjeux
pédagogiques, n°10: p. 5.(Université de Genève. FPSE).
Vygotsky, L. (1934). Pensée et langage. Paris.

©2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
40
Vol. 11, No 2, pp. 40-54, May 2015
Self-Efficacy in Career Planning: A New
Approach to Career Exploration
Despina Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Kostas Mylonas
and Katerina Argyropoulou
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Athens, Greece
Abstract. Through two consecutive studies we attempted to explore
the beliefs of personal efficacy in respect to one‘s career and in relation
to the continuously evolving patterns in career planning as these
issues seem to have consequences to theory and research of career
counselling as well as to the use of psychometric tools. We aimed at
developing a research framework for assessing career self-efficacy for
use in counselling services. In Study 1, a model describing six
theoretically driven beliefs was psychometrically tested, arriving at a
21-item Perceived Self-Efficacy in Career Scale (PSECS); in this study,
mainly item analysis and exploratory factor analysis methods were
applied to Greek adults' data (N=126). In Study 2 we subjected the
PSECS to confirmatory analysis testing on Greek high-school students'
data (N=276). All analyses supported four dimensions, namely Career
Management, Career Skills, Flexibility at Work, and Creativity at
Work. The PSECS may offer an additional perspective for counselling
about the way individuals evaluate their skills in order to effectively
manage related career issues. Moreover, the scale may theoretically
contribute and aid research in career counselling with respect to how
people plan and adjust their careers within a changing economic
landscape.
Keywords: Perceived career self-efficacy; Career skills; Item-analysis
methods; Convergent validity; Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Introduction
Significant changes have been taking place in several areas of human activity
and in the nature of career over the last few decades. Societal and environmental
changes, such as financial crises, technological advancements and labour market
changes have increased workforce diversity and have altered traditional work
contexts, creating changes in how individuals manage and construct their career.
In this paper, we consider career as a range of working aspects and other relevant

©2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
41
experience shaping a unique path through individual‘s life including jobs,
occupations, professions, employers, and industries, as well as individuals‘
perceptions of career events, career alternatives, and outcomes or individuals‘
adaptation to multiple roles and transitions (Herr & Cramer & Niles, 2004;
Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, 2006). An individual‘s career is influenced by
numerous contextual factors such as national culture, economy, the political
environment, as well as by personal variables which play an important role,
such as relationships with others (Greenhaus, Callanan, & DiRenzo, 2008). In
Greece additional contextual factors may influence career (e.g., military service,
educational system).
Changing labour markets, obligations to others, shifts in job (Mylonas &
Furnham, 2014) along with life roles, all make career and work quite challenging
tasks. Nowadays, the urgent need to find occupational meaning and connection
may be getting stronger across the life span (Bloch, 2005; Plimmer, 2012). At the
same time, management scholars claim that the concept of career has largely lost
its traditional features related to the notions of linearity and predictability and
we are heading towards new forms of careers that are often attributed to the
term ―boundaryless‖ (Arthur, Khapova & Wilderom, 2005), ―protean‖ (Hall,
1996), ―customized‖ (Benko & Weisberg, 2007), ―kaleidoscope‖ (Sullivan &
Mainiero, 2008), ―dual‖ (Gari & Mylonas, 2006), and ―portfolio‖ (Handy, 1998).
The new career conceptualization is challenging in its nature (i.e., employment
and economic insecurity, psychosocial difficulties, multiple transitions within a
job/across vocations, new forms of work, and lifelong vocational education and
training) and requires complicated judgments about the self and the world.
All these issues seem to have consequences to theory and research of career
counselling as well as to the use of psychometric tools. Therefore a question
arises: How can career counsellors manage social developments, and how can they
respond to the demands of their clients and support them to reflect on their future and
find convenient solutions to their problems? Career counselling practitioners may
need to develop new scientific approaches and modify the existing theoretical
concepts to meet current needs (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, &
Drosos, 2013), thus they need to a) support the emergence of new concepts,
which are viewed as being more appropriate to satisfy new demands and
challenges, and b) support the development of new tools that will meet the
needs and expectations of their clients.
Perceived self-efficacy in career planning
The reviewed literature demonstrates that Bandura‘s (1982) self-efficacy concept
has inspired vocational research and practice (Betz & Hackett, 2006). In
particular, the concept of self-efficacy in career planning refers to the
individual‘s belief in terms of his/her ability to implement the appropriate
actions required to effectively manage occupational roles and career issues.
Therefore, the construct of self efficacy reflects a dynamic process rather than a
simple match of personal and job characteristics (Lawler, 1994). Employees of
high perceived efficacy are likely to perform occupational roles innovatively,
whereas those of low perceived efficacy are prone to process occupational

Vol 11 No 2 - May 2015

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