UpWind explored the design limits of upscaling wind turbines through an integrated research project. A key goal was determining if a 20 MW turbine was feasible. Through scientific integration and technology development across nine work packages, UpWind found that a 20 MW turbine is feasible and continued innovation could lead to more cost effective onshore and offshore wind energy. This would help the EU meet ambitious wind energy targets of supplying 20% of electricity by 2020 and 33% by 2030.
MCB 4213 Energy Conversion - Design and Installation of PV System for Residen...Muhammad Azwan Ibrahim
This document discusses the design and installation of a photovoltaic (PV) system for a residential house in Malaysia by a group of 5 mechanical engineering students. It includes an introduction describing the background and objectives of the project, as well as chapters on literature review, methodology, results, and conclusions. The methodology chapter discusses the selection of monocrystalline solar panels and feasibility analysis. The results chapter includes the design specifications, cost estimation, and system layout. The project aims to design a PV system that meets the power demands of the house and analyze the feasibility and payback period of the system.
This document describes procedures for conducting Izod and Charpy impact tests to determine the impact toughness of materials. The Izod test uses cantilever beam specimens with a V-shaped notch and stores 164J of energy. The Charpy test also uses notched cantilever beam specimens but stores 300J of energy. Both tests involve releasing a hammer that breaks the specimen and the difference between the initial stored energy and residual energy indicates the material's impact strength. Safety precautions are outlined and calculations like modulus of rupture and notch impact strength are explained. The goal is to find the impact strength value of given test specimens.
This document provides an overview of art criticism and aesthetic judgment. It discusses key terms like criteria, aesthetics, and art criticism. The steps of art criticism are described as description, analysis, interpretation, and judgment. Different aesthetic theories are outlined, including imitationalism, formalism, emotionalism, and functionalism. The document also introduces art history operations of description, analysis, interpretation, and judgment. The goal is to help the reader learn how to critique and understand works of art on different levels.
This document provides an overview of fatigue failure. It begins by defining fatigue as the premature failure or lowering of strength of a material due to repetitive stresses, even if they are below the material's yield strength. It then discusses key topics in fatigue such as stress cycles, S-N curves, fatigue testing, and factors that affect fatigue life. Crack initiation and propagation stages are described. Methods for improving fatigue performance, such as shot peening and removing stress concentrators, are also covered.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Varying the proportions of zinc and copper changes the properties of brass, allowing for both hard and soft varieties. Brass has been widely used since ancient times for decoration, utensils, and applications requiring low friction and corrosion resistance like locks and valves. The three types of brass crystal structures are alpha, beta, and alpha-beta brasses, which are distinguished by their zinc content and properties.
History Of Design Overview Of Movement And DesignersJanet Ellis
Design history involves understanding and evaluating the past from different perspectives rather than just presenting facts. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th-19th centuries influenced everyday life. In response, the Arts and Crafts Movement from 1880-1910 promoted traditional craftsmanship and using natural materials, led by William Morris. Art Nouveau in the late 19th century was influenced by Morris' emphasis on nature and craft. The Bauhaus school in Germany in the 1920s embraced industry while influenced by Arts and Crafts, promoting simplicity and absence of ornamentation.
This document provides information on industry process and automation solutions for potentially explosive environments. It discusses the ATEX directives for explosive atmospheres and defines equipment categories and groups. The document focuses on Bonfiglioli's series of bevel helical gear units that are certified for use in explosive environments. It provides details on the construction, ordering, mounting, lubrication, loads, dimensions, and declarations of conformity for the ATEX-specified gear units across various power ratings. Motor combinations for the gear units are also covered.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận văn thạc sĩ với đề tài: Nghiên cứu và phát triển máy gọt dừa tự động để phục vụ xuất khẩu, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
MCB 4213 Energy Conversion - Design and Installation of PV System for Residen...Muhammad Azwan Ibrahim
This document discusses the design and installation of a photovoltaic (PV) system for a residential house in Malaysia by a group of 5 mechanical engineering students. It includes an introduction describing the background and objectives of the project, as well as chapters on literature review, methodology, results, and conclusions. The methodology chapter discusses the selection of monocrystalline solar panels and feasibility analysis. The results chapter includes the design specifications, cost estimation, and system layout. The project aims to design a PV system that meets the power demands of the house and analyze the feasibility and payback period of the system.
This document describes procedures for conducting Izod and Charpy impact tests to determine the impact toughness of materials. The Izod test uses cantilever beam specimens with a V-shaped notch and stores 164J of energy. The Charpy test also uses notched cantilever beam specimens but stores 300J of energy. Both tests involve releasing a hammer that breaks the specimen and the difference between the initial stored energy and residual energy indicates the material's impact strength. Safety precautions are outlined and calculations like modulus of rupture and notch impact strength are explained. The goal is to find the impact strength value of given test specimens.
This document provides an overview of art criticism and aesthetic judgment. It discusses key terms like criteria, aesthetics, and art criticism. The steps of art criticism are described as description, analysis, interpretation, and judgment. Different aesthetic theories are outlined, including imitationalism, formalism, emotionalism, and functionalism. The document also introduces art history operations of description, analysis, interpretation, and judgment. The goal is to help the reader learn how to critique and understand works of art on different levels.
This document provides an overview of fatigue failure. It begins by defining fatigue as the premature failure or lowering of strength of a material due to repetitive stresses, even if they are below the material's yield strength. It then discusses key topics in fatigue such as stress cycles, S-N curves, fatigue testing, and factors that affect fatigue life. Crack initiation and propagation stages are described. Methods for improving fatigue performance, such as shot peening and removing stress concentrators, are also covered.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Varying the proportions of zinc and copper changes the properties of brass, allowing for both hard and soft varieties. Brass has been widely used since ancient times for decoration, utensils, and applications requiring low friction and corrosion resistance like locks and valves. The three types of brass crystal structures are alpha, beta, and alpha-beta brasses, which are distinguished by their zinc content and properties.
History Of Design Overview Of Movement And DesignersJanet Ellis
Design history involves understanding and evaluating the past from different perspectives rather than just presenting facts. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th-19th centuries influenced everyday life. In response, the Arts and Crafts Movement from 1880-1910 promoted traditional craftsmanship and using natural materials, led by William Morris. Art Nouveau in the late 19th century was influenced by Morris' emphasis on nature and craft. The Bauhaus school in Germany in the 1920s embraced industry while influenced by Arts and Crafts, promoting simplicity and absence of ornamentation.
This document provides information on industry process and automation solutions for potentially explosive environments. It discusses the ATEX directives for explosive atmospheres and defines equipment categories and groups. The document focuses on Bonfiglioli's series of bevel helical gear units that are certified for use in explosive environments. It provides details on the construction, ordering, mounting, lubrication, loads, dimensions, and declarations of conformity for the ATEX-specified gear units across various power ratings. Motor combinations for the gear units are also covered.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận văn thạc sĩ với đề tài: Nghiên cứu và phát triển máy gọt dừa tự động để phục vụ xuất khẩu, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
The Arts & Crafts Movement was a late 19th century design movement that advocated for traditional craftsmanship and high quality design and construction of products in response to the mass production of goods during the Industrial Revolution. Key figures included John Ruskin who believed art and labor could create happiness, and William Morris who founded Morris & Co. and the Kelmscott Press to produce beautifully crafted books and goods using traditional methods and natural materials. The movement emphasized quality over quantity and had a lasting influence on design.
The document provides an overview of the Dada and Surrealist art movements that emerged in the early 20th century in response to World War 1. It discusses the key ideas, artists and cities associated with Dadaism, which used shock, nonsense and irrationality to protest war and social conventions. Dadaism transitioned to Surrealism in Paris in 1924, led by André Breton, which was influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis and explored dreams, the unconscious mind and automatism. The movements challenged conventions of art and sought to subvert social and political establishments through provocative and absurd works.
This document is an operating manual for a split pressurized solar hot water system controller. It provides information on safety, installation, commissioning, menu structure, and 39 different solar system configurations that can be controlled by the controller. The controller can be used to control various components in solar hot water systems like pumps, valves, tanks, collectors, and heat exchangers. It allows setting parameters for temperature differences, timing of heating cycles, and temperature limits for collector emergency shutdown, maximum temperature, low temperature protection and frost protection.
This document provides specifications for a compound reverted gear train with two stages of gear reduction. It determines gear sizes and tooth counts that satisfy the required input and output speeds and torque ratios. An analysis of forces and stresses is performed on the intermediate shaft to specify its diameter and design. Bearing types and sizes are selected. Safety factors are calculated to evaluate the design. Specifications for gears, shafts, bearings and other components are provided to meet customer requirements within size, power and life constraints.
Product process design & development water coolerhrishik26
Water cooler analysis using tools including Voice of customer, functional analysis, process maps, quality function deployment, Failure Mode effect & analysis, Customer value chain analysis, Kano matrix, NUD analysis, DFMA analysis, concurrent costing, pareto plots.
Claude Lorrain was a 17th century French painter known for his idealized landscape paintings. He was born in 1600 in Lorraine but spent most of his career in Rome, where he achieved fame for his paintings of landscapes featuring mythological or religious figures. John Constable later described Lorrain as "the most perfect landscape painter the world ever saw" for his works' calmness and tranquility.
Arth teaching resources 18th and early 19th centuryAmy Raffel
This document provides an overview of 18th and early 19th century art in Europe and North America. It summarizes several major artistic movements during this period including Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism. Key aspects covered include the rise of royal academies in France, the emphasis on hierarchy of genres, and the influence of the Enlightenment ideals of reason and science on Neoclassical art. Major artists mentioned include Watteau, Fragonard, David, West, Houdon, Gericault, and Barye.
This document provides an overview of 19th century art in Europe and the United States. It discusses major artistic movements and developments such as Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Realism, and Japonisme. Key artists and works mentioned include Monet, Manet, Van Gogh, Seurat, Gauguin, Munch, Courbet, Hiroshige, Degas, Toulouse-Lautrec, and Cassatt. Major themes covered include the influence of new technologies like photography, urbanization, and cross-cultural influences between Western and Japanese art.
Stihl ts 760 cut off saw service repair manualfjjskekkmemm
The document provides specifications and repair instructions for STIHL cut-off saw models TS 510 and TS 760. It details the saws' technical specifications including engine size, clutch type, ignition components, and accessories. The document also provides detailed instructions for repairing and replacing components of the cutting wheel drive assembly, clutch, power unit, ignition system, handles, throttle control, fuel system, and includes a list of required special tools.
Dr. Madhumala Chattopadhyay was the first woman to make successful contact with the isolated Sentinelese and Jarawa tribes of the Andaman Islands. As a child, she was inspired to study the tribes after reading about the Onge people. She earned degrees in anthropology and conducted seminal research on the tribes. In 1991, as part of an expedition led by the Anthropological Survey of India, she helped establish the first peaceful contact with the Sentinelese by gifting them coconuts and wading into the water, making eye contact and building trust. She also successfully made contact with the Jarawa, becoming the first woman from outside their tribe that they welcomed ashore.
* Basics of Induction heating and heat treating
* Role and specifics of induction technology in heat treating in automotive parts
* Main processes of induction heat treating of automotive parts
* Computer simulation and optimization of induction processes and heating coils
* Advanced design of induction coils
* Magnetic controllers on induction coils
* Induction coil manufacturing
* Maintenance of induction coils
* Stresses and distortions in the process of induction heating
* Examples of induction heat treating (parts, processes, coils, installations)
* Conclusions
Persian art has a long history and was highly influential. It combined elements of Eastern art with influences from Ancient Greece and Rome. Persian art is best known for its architecture, pottery, metalworking, textiles, and miniature painting.
This document is a study guide for the theory of interest that covers topics such as simple interest, compound interest, present value, effective rates of interest and discount, nominal rates, forces of interest, varying interest rates, annuities, yield rates, amortization, bonds, and practical applications of interest theory. It provides an overview and outlines the key concepts discussed in each of the 9 chapters.
1. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti founded Futurism in Italy in 1909 as both a social and artistic movement that celebrated speed, technology, youth and violence in the modern industrial world.
2. Futurism glorified World War I as an "aesthetic spectacle" and admired the modern aspects of speed, machinery and urban life over all things in the past.
3. The movement spread internationally and influenced various art forms through manifestos, with Futurist paintings, sculptures and architecture embracing and depicting the dynamic new technological age through techniques like those exploring motion and movement.
The document describes the development and testing of the Euclidean Travelling Salesman Platform (ETSP) to test heuristics for solving the Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP). It discusses the motivation, objectives, and requirements for ETSP. It also evaluates the performance of ETSP and compares the QSTSH heuristic tested on ETSP to a greedy nearest neighbor heuristic. The results show that QSTSH has better accuracy and efficiency than the greedy nearest neighbor approach.
The document provides a table of contents for a thesis on the impact of audit software adoption on auditor performance. The thesis will include 5 chapters: an introduction, literature review, research framework and hypotheses development, research methodology, and results and discussions.
Chapter 1 introduces the background and importance of audit quality and the impact of information technology on audit judgments. It defines the research problem, objectives, and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 reviews literature on technology adoption standards and tools in auditing. It examines the relationship between technology adoption and individual performance. Theoretical models of technology acceptance are also discussed.
Chapter 3 develops the research framework and hypotheses. It operationalizes variables of audit software adoption, its determinants,
SSTRM - StrategicReviewGroup.ca - Workshop 2: Power/Energy and Sustainability...Phil Carr
This document describes the Power/Energy/Sustainability workshop which was part of the Soldier Systems Technology Roadmap initiative to identify technologies that could contribute to a superior soldier system. The workshop focused on power/energy as it is a key enabler of soldier capabilities. Participants identified six potential collaborative projects in areas like power standards, storage, and fuel cells.
Evaluation of the u.s. army asymmetric warfare adaptive leader programMamuka Mchedlidze
The document is an evaluation report of the U.S. Army's Asymmetric Warfare Adaptive Leader Program (AWALP). It finds that:
1) Participants generally reacted positively to AWALP and reported improvements in their attitudes toward adaptability.
2) Participants demonstrated gains in their knowledge of course concepts and ability to apply adaptability principles as measured through evaluations of peer performance.
3) Follow-up surveys found that participants continued to view adaptability skills as important and sought to apply principles from AWALP in their units after returning from the course.
This document describes a student project using the B-Method formal method to model and verify the software for NASA's Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER) system. It provides background on formal methods and the B-Method approach. The student developed formal models for the SAFER system at different levels of abstraction using B-Method concepts like abstract machines, refinement, and implementation. The models were analyzed using the AtelierB tool to check types and proofs. The document evaluates the modeling effort and outlines plans for future work.
This document is a thesis submitted by Gary Hopkins to the University of Cape Town in partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Sciences degree in Civil Engineering. The thesis investigates the post-buckling behavior of shell structures through highly non-linear analysis. It implements an elasto-plastic constitutive law within the framework of SESKA, a C++ analysis code, to model shell structures using three-dimensional continuum mechanics while avoiding simplifications of shell geometry and behavior. Simple shell structures are analyzed to gain preliminary understanding of post-buckling behavior and determine the feasibility of the methods employed for further analyses. Results will be benchmarked against other verified analyses that used specialized shell elements and visco-plastic material laws.
This document describes PHAST Version 2, a program for simulating groundwater flow, solute transport, and multicomponent geochemical reactions. PHAST Version 2 includes enhancements such as improved simulation of surface-water bodies and integration of MODFLOW. The document provides information on running the simulator, including required input and output files. It also describes the representation of spatial and temporal data as well as keywords for defining initial conditions, drains, and other modeling features.
The Arts & Crafts Movement was a late 19th century design movement that advocated for traditional craftsmanship and high quality design and construction of products in response to the mass production of goods during the Industrial Revolution. Key figures included John Ruskin who believed art and labor could create happiness, and William Morris who founded Morris & Co. and the Kelmscott Press to produce beautifully crafted books and goods using traditional methods and natural materials. The movement emphasized quality over quantity and had a lasting influence on design.
The document provides an overview of the Dada and Surrealist art movements that emerged in the early 20th century in response to World War 1. It discusses the key ideas, artists and cities associated with Dadaism, which used shock, nonsense and irrationality to protest war and social conventions. Dadaism transitioned to Surrealism in Paris in 1924, led by André Breton, which was influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis and explored dreams, the unconscious mind and automatism. The movements challenged conventions of art and sought to subvert social and political establishments through provocative and absurd works.
This document is an operating manual for a split pressurized solar hot water system controller. It provides information on safety, installation, commissioning, menu structure, and 39 different solar system configurations that can be controlled by the controller. The controller can be used to control various components in solar hot water systems like pumps, valves, tanks, collectors, and heat exchangers. It allows setting parameters for temperature differences, timing of heating cycles, and temperature limits for collector emergency shutdown, maximum temperature, low temperature protection and frost protection.
This document provides specifications for a compound reverted gear train with two stages of gear reduction. It determines gear sizes and tooth counts that satisfy the required input and output speeds and torque ratios. An analysis of forces and stresses is performed on the intermediate shaft to specify its diameter and design. Bearing types and sizes are selected. Safety factors are calculated to evaluate the design. Specifications for gears, shafts, bearings and other components are provided to meet customer requirements within size, power and life constraints.
Product process design & development water coolerhrishik26
Water cooler analysis using tools including Voice of customer, functional analysis, process maps, quality function deployment, Failure Mode effect & analysis, Customer value chain analysis, Kano matrix, NUD analysis, DFMA analysis, concurrent costing, pareto plots.
Claude Lorrain was a 17th century French painter known for his idealized landscape paintings. He was born in 1600 in Lorraine but spent most of his career in Rome, where he achieved fame for his paintings of landscapes featuring mythological or religious figures. John Constable later described Lorrain as "the most perfect landscape painter the world ever saw" for his works' calmness and tranquility.
Arth teaching resources 18th and early 19th centuryAmy Raffel
This document provides an overview of 18th and early 19th century art in Europe and North America. It summarizes several major artistic movements during this period including Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism. Key aspects covered include the rise of royal academies in France, the emphasis on hierarchy of genres, and the influence of the Enlightenment ideals of reason and science on Neoclassical art. Major artists mentioned include Watteau, Fragonard, David, West, Houdon, Gericault, and Barye.
This document provides an overview of 19th century art in Europe and the United States. It discusses major artistic movements and developments such as Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Realism, and Japonisme. Key artists and works mentioned include Monet, Manet, Van Gogh, Seurat, Gauguin, Munch, Courbet, Hiroshige, Degas, Toulouse-Lautrec, and Cassatt. Major themes covered include the influence of new technologies like photography, urbanization, and cross-cultural influences between Western and Japanese art.
Stihl ts 760 cut off saw service repair manualfjjskekkmemm
The document provides specifications and repair instructions for STIHL cut-off saw models TS 510 and TS 760. It details the saws' technical specifications including engine size, clutch type, ignition components, and accessories. The document also provides detailed instructions for repairing and replacing components of the cutting wheel drive assembly, clutch, power unit, ignition system, handles, throttle control, fuel system, and includes a list of required special tools.
Dr. Madhumala Chattopadhyay was the first woman to make successful contact with the isolated Sentinelese and Jarawa tribes of the Andaman Islands. As a child, she was inspired to study the tribes after reading about the Onge people. She earned degrees in anthropology and conducted seminal research on the tribes. In 1991, as part of an expedition led by the Anthropological Survey of India, she helped establish the first peaceful contact with the Sentinelese by gifting them coconuts and wading into the water, making eye contact and building trust. She also successfully made contact with the Jarawa, becoming the first woman from outside their tribe that they welcomed ashore.
* Basics of Induction heating and heat treating
* Role and specifics of induction technology in heat treating in automotive parts
* Main processes of induction heat treating of automotive parts
* Computer simulation and optimization of induction processes and heating coils
* Advanced design of induction coils
* Magnetic controllers on induction coils
* Induction coil manufacturing
* Maintenance of induction coils
* Stresses and distortions in the process of induction heating
* Examples of induction heat treating (parts, processes, coils, installations)
* Conclusions
Persian art has a long history and was highly influential. It combined elements of Eastern art with influences from Ancient Greece and Rome. Persian art is best known for its architecture, pottery, metalworking, textiles, and miniature painting.
This document is a study guide for the theory of interest that covers topics such as simple interest, compound interest, present value, effective rates of interest and discount, nominal rates, forces of interest, varying interest rates, annuities, yield rates, amortization, bonds, and practical applications of interest theory. It provides an overview and outlines the key concepts discussed in each of the 9 chapters.
1. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti founded Futurism in Italy in 1909 as both a social and artistic movement that celebrated speed, technology, youth and violence in the modern industrial world.
2. Futurism glorified World War I as an "aesthetic spectacle" and admired the modern aspects of speed, machinery and urban life over all things in the past.
3. The movement spread internationally and influenced various art forms through manifestos, with Futurist paintings, sculptures and architecture embracing and depicting the dynamic new technological age through techniques like those exploring motion and movement.
The document describes the development and testing of the Euclidean Travelling Salesman Platform (ETSP) to test heuristics for solving the Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP). It discusses the motivation, objectives, and requirements for ETSP. It also evaluates the performance of ETSP and compares the QSTSH heuristic tested on ETSP to a greedy nearest neighbor heuristic. The results show that QSTSH has better accuracy and efficiency than the greedy nearest neighbor approach.
The document provides a table of contents for a thesis on the impact of audit software adoption on auditor performance. The thesis will include 5 chapters: an introduction, literature review, research framework and hypotheses development, research methodology, and results and discussions.
Chapter 1 introduces the background and importance of audit quality and the impact of information technology on audit judgments. It defines the research problem, objectives, and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 reviews literature on technology adoption standards and tools in auditing. It examines the relationship between technology adoption and individual performance. Theoretical models of technology acceptance are also discussed.
Chapter 3 develops the research framework and hypotheses. It operationalizes variables of audit software adoption, its determinants,
SSTRM - StrategicReviewGroup.ca - Workshop 2: Power/Energy and Sustainability...Phil Carr
This document describes the Power/Energy/Sustainability workshop which was part of the Soldier Systems Technology Roadmap initiative to identify technologies that could contribute to a superior soldier system. The workshop focused on power/energy as it is a key enabler of soldier capabilities. Participants identified six potential collaborative projects in areas like power standards, storage, and fuel cells.
Evaluation of the u.s. army asymmetric warfare adaptive leader programMamuka Mchedlidze
The document is an evaluation report of the U.S. Army's Asymmetric Warfare Adaptive Leader Program (AWALP). It finds that:
1) Participants generally reacted positively to AWALP and reported improvements in their attitudes toward adaptability.
2) Participants demonstrated gains in their knowledge of course concepts and ability to apply adaptability principles as measured through evaluations of peer performance.
3) Follow-up surveys found that participants continued to view adaptability skills as important and sought to apply principles from AWALP in their units after returning from the course.
This document describes a student project using the B-Method formal method to model and verify the software for NASA's Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER) system. It provides background on formal methods and the B-Method approach. The student developed formal models for the SAFER system at different levels of abstraction using B-Method concepts like abstract machines, refinement, and implementation. The models were analyzed using the AtelierB tool to check types and proofs. The document evaluates the modeling effort and outlines plans for future work.
This document is a thesis submitted by Gary Hopkins to the University of Cape Town in partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Sciences degree in Civil Engineering. The thesis investigates the post-buckling behavior of shell structures through highly non-linear analysis. It implements an elasto-plastic constitutive law within the framework of SESKA, a C++ analysis code, to model shell structures using three-dimensional continuum mechanics while avoiding simplifications of shell geometry and behavior. Simple shell structures are analyzed to gain preliminary understanding of post-buckling behavior and determine the feasibility of the methods employed for further analyses. Results will be benchmarked against other verified analyses that used specialized shell elements and visco-plastic material laws.
This document describes PHAST Version 2, a program for simulating groundwater flow, solute transport, and multicomponent geochemical reactions. PHAST Version 2 includes enhancements such as improved simulation of surface-water bodies and integration of MODFLOW. The document provides information on running the simulator, including required input and output files. It also describes the representation of spatial and temporal data as well as keywords for defining initial conditions, drains, and other modeling features.
This technical manual provides guidance on protein electrophoresis techniques. It begins with an introduction to electrophoretic theory, including electrical parameters, buffers, heat effects, matrix materials, analysis, and blotting. Subsequent chapters cover polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, and gel analysis methods. Safety considerations are discussed for chemical and electrical hazards. The manual aims to be both a teaching guide and reference for experienced and new users of protein electrophoresis.
This document provides an overview of computer control systems. It discusses how computers are used to implement control functions in many physical processes and embedded systems. Some key advantages of computer control include avoiding issues with analog implementations, performing accurate computations repeatedly, and easily including logic functions. However, computer control also introduces new challenges from the sampling process and real-time system aspects that must be considered in the controller design. The paper covers various aspects of computer-controlled systems from modeling to design and implementation.
This document provides information about workplace safety and health for electrical trades workers. It contains instructions for ordering additional documents from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) via phone, fax, email or their website. The manual was developed by NIOSH to educate secondary and post-secondary electrical trades students on recognizing, evaluating and controlling electrical hazards using a safety model approach. It covers topics such as electrical shock and burns, electrical hazards, and safe work practices.
This document describes a project to develop an expert search system that mines academic expertise from funded research in Scottish universities. The system aims to integrate data on funded projects from external sources with an existing academic search engine to improve its search results. It will extract expertise information from publications and funded projects to generate expert profiles. Learning to rank algorithms will then be used to rank experts based on their profiles for specific queries. The goal is to enhance the current search engine that identifies experts based on publications by incorporating additional evidence of expertise from funded research projects.
This document provides an introduction to tutorials on general topography. It discusses measuring units and computational means in topography, including topographic elements of terrain, surfaces, angles, and orientations. It also covers studying the theodolite instrument, measuring angles with the theodolite, direct and indirect distance measurement methods, planimetric traverse, surveying planimetric details, problems solved on maps and plans, leveling instruments, and methods for measuring altitude differences. The author recommends using the lecture notes, tutorials, and problems chapters in parallel to effectively learn general topography.
The document summarizes the optimization of a TEG dehydration unit using recent advances in technology. Three technologies were selected to decrease the capital and operating costs and weight of the unit: liquid turbochargers, pervaporation membranes, and injection of semi-lean TEG. Simulation showed liquid turbochargers reduced energy consumption by 70%. Membranes decreased reboiling energy but were very costly. Semi-lean injection reduced equipment size but required design changes. The hybrid process doubled capital costs from the conventional design due to high membrane costs. Further research is needed to lower membrane prices and make them economically viable.
This document contains instructions and lessons on system architecture topics including determining hardware settings, booting the system, changing runlevels and rebooting. It discusses inspecting devices in Linux, how the boot process works from BIOS to system initialization. It also covers designing a hard disk layout including using separate partitions and LVM. The document provides exercises and answers for learning purposes.
This report details the design of a process to treat 800 m3 per year of magnox nuclear waste and radioactive liquid effluent. The magnox dissolution process uses filtration, dissolution in acid, thermal decomposition, and calcination in a kiln to break down the solid waste into magnesium oxide. The liquid effluent treatment process uses ion exchange and carbonation to remove radioactive nuclides before storage. Material, energy, and radioactivity balances were performed to size the major equipment. Preliminary integration found the kiln off-gases could provide 47.3 kW of heat, reducing external heating needs while heat recovery between units lowers cooling requirements from 50.3 kW to 10.3 kW.
This thesis proposes a novel way to introduce self-configuration and self-optimization autonomic characteristics to algorithmic skeletons using event-driven programming techniques. By leveraging event-driven programming, the approach is not tied to a specific application architecture and allows for structural changes at runtime. It also enables estimates of future work to be calculated on-the-fly rather than relying on pre-calculated estimates. The thesis focuses on guaranteeing a given execution time for a skeleton by optimizing the number of threads. It contributes a novel event-based separation of concerns for skeletons and evaluates strategies for estimating execution times and parallelism levels.
This thesis proposes a novel way to introduce self-configuration and self-optimization autonomic characteristics to algorithmic skeletons using event-driven programming techniques. By leveraging events, the approach is not tied to a specific application architecture and allows for structural changes at runtime. It focuses on guaranteeing execution time for skeletons by optimizing thread allocation. Other contributions include a novel separation of concerns for skeletons using events, and evaluating estimation strategies for predicting future work.
This document is a guidebook about the design, operation, and maintenance of sewage treatment plants (STPs). It was published by the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board in India. The guidebook contains detailed sections on the various stages and components of an STP, including bar screens, grit chambers, equalization tanks, aeration tanks, clarifiers, sludge recirculation systems, and more. It provides information on the function, design, construction, operation, and troubleshooting of each part. The intended audience is STP operators and maintenance personnel.
The document provides an overview of instrumentation and measurement techniques for HVAC systems. It discusses various types of measurement devices like capture hoods, thermo-anemometers, manometers, and gas analyzers. It also covers common HVAC measurements such as air velocity, volume, static pressure, temperature, humidity and gas concentrations. Measurement basics are explained for tasks like duct traversing, clean room certification, and determining outside air percentages.
Similar to Upwind - Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines (20)
- There are now 117.3 GW of installed wind energy capacity in the EU: 110.7 GW onshore and 6.6 GW offshore.
- 11,159 MW of wind power capacity (worth between €13 bn and €18 bn) was installed in the EU-28 during 2013, a decrease of 8% compared to 2012 installations.
- The EU power sector continues its move away from fuel oil and coal with each technology continuing to decommission more than it installs.
- The wind power capacity installed by the end of 2013 would, in a normal wind year, produce 257 TWh of electricity, enough to cover 8% of the EU's electricity consumption - up from 7% the year before.
Record offshore figures in 2013 conceal slow-down in new projects being developed. 418 offshore turbines came online in 2013 in Europe, making a record 1,567 Megawatts of new capacity. This is one-third more than the capacity installed in 2012. This makes a new total of 6,562 MW of offshore wind power - enough to provide 0.7% of the EU's electricity.
Binding renewable energy, greenhouse gas reduction and energy efficiency targets are needed for 2030 in the EU to ensure continued growth of renewable energy and provide clean electricity, energy security, jobs and exports. The EU must decide on an energy and climate policy framework for 2030 as soon as possible. For 2030, Europe needs an ambitious and binding renewable energy target, greenhouse gas target, and energy efficiency target to facilitate achieving the 2020 targets and put the EU on a path to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80-95% by 2050. Wind energy is already delivering clean electricity and jobs in Europe and can do much more with ambitious 2030 targets.
The EU must decide as soon as possible on an energy and climate policy framework for 2030. This is so investors continue to invest, wind energy continues to grow and deliver all its benefits, and the EU can meet its greenhouse gas reduction commitments of 80-95% by 2050 in the most cost-efficient way.
277 new offshore wind turbines, totalling 1,045 megawatts (MW), were fully grid connected in Europe during the first six months of 2013. This is double compared to the same period in 2012 when 523.2 MW were installed. In addition, 268 foundations were installed and 254 turbines erected, all during the first 181 days of the year.
In 2012, Europe’s wind energy industry was plunged into a crisis of regulatory uncertainty as governments, seeing renewables as an easy target for austerity measures, slashed or changed their support. Despite this, 2012 marked a historic milestone: reaching 100 GW of wind power capacity in the EU, meeting the power needs of 57 million households, equivalent to the output of 39 nuclear power plants – a remarkable success which was achieved during a period of extraordinary growth founded on firm political support.
The document discusses proposed fixes to the Emissions Trading System (ETS) in the European Union. It describes how the economic crisis led to a surplus of emissions permits, weakening the ETS. It proposes "backloading" as a short-term solution, which is delaying the auctioning of some permits to raise carbon prices and encourage renewable energy investment. Long-term solutions like removing the surplus permits and setting ambitious emissions reduction and renewable energy targets are needed for a structurally sound ETS.
Eastern Winds examines the frontier of wind power development in Europe. The report deals with the prospects for wind power in central and eastern Europe, tackles financing and provides an in-depth analysis of 12 emerging wind power markets. Eastern Winds is also a tool for decision-makers highlighting bottlenecks, regulatory challenges and providing policy recommendations. The report features: 1- In depth analysis of central and eastern European markets: first wave (Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Hungary, Poland) second wave and future markets covering - Power market overview, wind energy sector, supply chain, legal framework, opportunities and challenges. 2- Analysis of the wind power sector’s growth in the region - high growth in the more mature markets but boom and bust effect - and projections up to 2020. 3- Wind energy financing - Requirements of private banks when financing projects in emerging markets, profiles of International Financial Institutions active in the region and EU funding. 4- Policy recommendations
Published in February 2013 by the European Wind Energy Association, this is the most up-to-date information on wind energy. It includes facts and figures on statistics and targets, jobs and finance, technology, costs, subsidies and prices, R&D, environment and public opinion - all in an easy to digest format. For more wind energy facts, visit www.ewea.org
Europe installed and grid connected 293 offshore wind turbines in 2012 - more than one per working day. This brings the total to 1,662 turbines, in 55 offshore wind farms in ten European countries.
The EU wind energy sector installed 11.6 gigawatts (GW) of capacity in 2012, bringing the total wind power capacity to 105.6 GW, according to the 2012 annual statistics launched by the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA).
A report on EU electricity market rules, which must reflect the energy generation mix of the future and help usher in a flexible power system with a large-scale uptake of wind power and other renewable energy sources. The report recommends: 1- Creating a level playing field for renewable energy sources by tackling structural market deficits. 2-Creating functioning markets covering larger geographical regions within Europe so as to reduce the need to balance variable renewables like wind and solar 3- Developing intraday and balancing markets at national and cross-border levels 4- Creating new markets for 'grid support services', supporting the functioning of the grid to ensure a secure supply of electricity, instead of introducing market distorting capacity payments.
It is the European Commission’s job to propose a seven year ‘Multiannual Financial Framework’ budget to the Council and Parliament. The current proposal stands at €1,025 billion. This represents 1% of the EU’s gross domestic product – while national budgets are around 30-40% of national GDP.
The EU’s budget needs to reflect the high priority given to energy and climate commitments in EU policy in its 2020 climate and renewable energy targets. What is more, EU countries have been undergoing strict austerity measures. The next EU budget needs to be a “growth” budget. (September 2012).
The SEAENERGY 2020 final report highlights the fact that currently there is little in the way of maritime spatial planning (MSP) in Europe’s maritime states. However, Member States sharing the same sea basin could benefit from cooperation. The European Commission could provide MSP through a European Directive.
SEANERGY2020 was a 26 months project, financed by the Intelligent Energy Europe programme. It focused on maritime spatial planning from the offshore renewable energy perspective. It provided policy recommendations on how to promote a more integrated and coordinated approach to maritime spatial planning and how to facilitate the implementation of the 20% Renewables Directive. (July 2012).
2011 was the year that EWEA spearheaded the call for 2030 renewable energy targets and began to look forward to its 30th anniversary in 2012. During the last 30 years EWEA has supported the growth of Europe’s wind power industry from a marginal technology (in 1982 there was just over 100 MW of capacity in Europe) to a major industry – Europe is set to pass the 100,000 MW mark this year, providing over 6% of Europe’s electricity.
Despite the ongoing economic crisis, Europe’s wind installations remained stable in 2011. And the industry’s long-term prospects remain bright in the light of the European Commission’s Energy Roadmap 2050 showing that wind energy would be the leading generating technology by 2050. (June 2012).
Green Growth examines the impact of wind energy on jobs and the economy in the EU. The wind energy industry increased its contribution to the EU’s gross domestic product (GDP) by 33% between 2007 and 2010. In 2010, the industry’s growth was twice that of the EU’s GDP overall, with the sector contributing €32 billion to an EU economy in slowdown. Contents: The sector created 30% more jobs from 2007 to 2010 to reach nearly 240,000, while EU unemployment rose by 9.6% . By 2020, there should be 520,000 jobs in the sector. The sector was a net exporter of €5.7 billion worth of goods and services in 2010. The sector avoided €5.71 billion of fuel costs in 2010. The sector invested 5% of its spending in R&D – three times more than the EU average. Wind turbine manufacturers commit around 10% of their total turnover to R&D.
‘Wind in our Sails’ is about offshore wind energy and provides a detailed analysis of the sector’s rapidly developing supply chain.
A growing industry with huge potential and massive developer interest, offshore is nonetheless facing a possible financing gap and an inadequate power grid. Questions answered in the report include;
How much capacity is currently installed?
Will there be enough turbines, foundations, cables, ships and ports.
How much is under construction, consented and in government concession zones?
How will the sector develop in the next few years?
(November 2011)
EWEA's report shows that in 2010, wind energy avoided as much as 28% of the EU’s Kyoto emissions reduction target, and will avoid as much as 31% of the EU-wide objective by 2020.
EWEA climate policy recommendations for the EU to 2020 include moving to a 30% domestic reduction target, tightening the emissions trading system to avoid oversupply and a low CO2 price and committing 100% of ETS auctioning revenue to finance climate mitigation. (November 2011).
The OffshoreGrid project developed a scientifically based view of an offshore grid in Northern Europe along with a suitable regulatory framework. Key results include:
1) Clustering offshore wind farms into hubs can save up to €14 billion in infrastructure costs compared to individual connections by 2030.
2) Two highly interconnected grid designs - Direct Design and Split Design - were modeled and found total costs of €84 billion and €86 billion respectively.
3) Additional costs of the interconnected designs over a hub-based scenario were €7.4 billion for Direct Design and €5.4 billion for Split Design.
This document discusses the need for the EU to establish renewable energy targets beyond 2020 when the current targets expire. Several stakeholders argue that a binding 45% renewable energy target for 2030 is needed to provide long-term policy stability and incentives for continued investment in renewable technologies. The EU has already committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions 80-95% by 2050 but intermediary targets are required to achieve this goal. A 2030 target would help ensure the transition to a fully renewable electricity system by mid-century. Wind energy deployment has consistently exceeded expectations in Europe and could contribute 50% of renewable electricity by 2050 if supported by clear long-term policy signals.
More from EWEA - European Wind Energy Association (20)
Upwind - Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines
1.
2.
3. UpWind
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines
A 20 MW turbine is feasible
March 2011
Supported by:
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 1
5. Contents
1. UpWind: Summary - a 20 MW turbine is feasible ................................................................ 10
The need for the UpWind project: exploring the design limits of upscaling ........................................... 11
UpWind methodology: a lighthouse approach .................................................................................... 13
UpWind: 20 MW innovative turbine ................................................................................................... 14
UpWind: rooted in history ................................................................................................................ 16
UpWind: continuous innovation ........................................................................................................ 18
2. UpWind: Scientific integration ................................................................................................. 20
2.1 Work Package 1A1: Standards and integration .................................................................................. 22
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 22
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Subtask A: Reference wind turbine and cost model ........................................................................... 23
Subtask B: Integral design approach methodology ............................................................................. 23
Subtask C: Development of (pre)standards for the application of the integral design approach ............. 25
Subtask D: Integration, review and planning workshops ..................................................................... 26
References ........................................................................................................................................ 26
2.2. Work Package 1A2: Metrology......................................................................................................... 27
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 27
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 28
The metrology database .................................................................................................................. 28
Advances in metrology .................................................................................................................... 28
Verification of anemometer calibrations ............................................................................................ 29
References ........................................................................................................................................ 31
2.3. Work Package 1A3: Training and education ...................................................................................... 32
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 32
Results and conclusions..................................................................................................................... 33
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 3
6. Contents
3. UpWind: Technology integration.............................................................................................. 36
3.1 Work Package 1B1: Innovative rotor blades (Innoblade)..................................................................... 38
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 38
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Blade aerodynamic design and load calculation................................................................................. 38
Materials selection, structural design and structural verification ......................................................... 39
Sensor monitoring with response actions.......................................................................................... 39
Blade joint ...................................................................................................................................... 40
References ........................................................................................................................................ 41
3.2 Work Package 1B2: Transmission and conversion .............................................................................. 44
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 44
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 44
Mechanical transmission ................................................................................................................. 44
Generators ..................................................................................................................................... 46
Power electronics ............................................................................................................................ 47
3.3 Work Package 1B3: Smart rotor blades and rotor control ................................................................... 48
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 48
Research activities and working methods ............................................................................................ 48
Task 1: Aerodynamic controls and aeroelastic modelling .................................................................... 49
Task 2: Smart structures ................................................................................................................. 49
Task 3: Control systems .................................................................................................................. 50
Task 4: Smart wind turbine wind tunnel model .................................................................................. 50
Task 5: Interfaces ........................................................................................................................... 51
References ........................................................................................................................................ 52
3.4 Work Package 1B4: Upscaling .......................................................................................................... 54
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 54
Activities ........................................................................................................................................... 55
4 March 2011
7. 4. UpWind: Research activities .................................................................................................... 56
4.1 Work Package 2: Aerodynamics and aeroelastics .............................................................................. 58
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 58
Research activities and results ........................................................................................................... 59
Structural dynamics — large deflections and non-linear effects .......................................................... 59
Advanced aerodynamic models ........................................................................................................ 59
Aerodynamic and aeroelastic modelling of advanced control features and aerodynamic devices ............ 60
Aeroelastic stability and total damping prediction including hydroelastic interaction ............................. 60
Computation of aerodynamic noise .................................................................................................. 60
4.2 Work Package 3: Rotor structures and materials ............................................................................... 61
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 61
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 62
Task 1: Applied (phenomenological) material model ........................................................................... 62
Task 3.2 Micro-mechanics-based material model ............................................................................... 63
Task 3.3: Damage-tolerant design concept........................................................................................ 64
Task 3.4: Upscaling — cost factors .................................................................................................. 66
4.3 Work Package 4: Foundations and support structures........................................................................ 67
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 67
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 69
Task 1: Integration of support structure and wind turbine design ........................................................ 69
Task 2: Support structure concepts for deep-water sites .................................................................... 70
Task 3: Enhancement of design methods and standards.................................................................... 71
References ........................................................................................................................................ 72
4.4 Work Package 5: Control systems..................................................................................................... 74
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 74
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 75
Supervisory control implications of advanced control ......................................................................... 75
Online estimation of mechanical load for wind turbines ...................................................................... 76
Dual pitch control for out-of-plane-blade load reduction ...................................................................... 77
Identification of wind turbines operating in closed loop ...................................................................... 78
LIDAR-assisted collective pitch control .............................................................................................. 79
Validation of load reducing controllers in full-scale field tests ............................................................. 80
Hardware-in-the-loop testing of pitch actuators .................................................................................. 81
Riding through grid faults ................................................................................................................. 82
Impact of the drive train on wind farm VAR Control ............................................................................ 82
References ........................................................................................................................................ 83
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 5
8. Contents
4.5 Work Package 6: Remote sensing ..................................................................................................... 84
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 84
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 85
SODAR – calibration and design improvements ................................................................................. 85
LIDAR testing in flat terrain .............................................................................................................. 86
LIDAR measurements in complex terrain........................................................................................... 86
Power curve testing ......................................................................................................................... 86
IEC 61400-12-1 revision.................................................................................................................. 87
LIDAR turbulence measurements ..................................................................................................... 87
References ........................................................................................................................................ 88
4.6 Work Package 7: Condition monitoring .............................................................................................. 89
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 89
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 90
Optimised condition monitoring systems for use in wind turbines of the next generation ...................... 90
“Flight leader” turbines for wind farms.............................................................................................. 90
Fault statistics ................................................................................................................................ 92
Standardisation .............................................................................................................................. 92
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 92
References. ....................................................................................................................................... 93
4.7 Work Package 8: Flow ...................................................................................................................... 94
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 94
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 95
References ........................................................................................................................................ 97
4.8 Work Package 9: Electrical grid ........................................................................................................ 98
Challenges and main innovations ........................................................................................................ 98
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 99
Wind farm reliability ........................................................................................................................ 99
Power system requirements ........................................................................................................... 100
Wind farm electrical design and control .......................................................................................... 101
Upscaling ..................................................................................................................................... 102
6 March 2011
9. Contract number: 019945 (SES6)
Duration: 60 months
Co-ordinator: Risø National Laboratory - DTU
Cover picture: www.iStockphoto.com
PROJECT PARTNERS:
Risø National Laboratory - DTU, Denmark (Risø - DTU), Project Coordinator
Aalborg University (AaU), Denmark
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), The Netherlands
Stichting Kenniscentrum Windturbine Materialen en Constructies (WMC), The Netherlands
Delft University of Technology (DUT), The Netherlands
Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES), Greece
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Greece
University of Patras (UP), Greece
Institut für Solare Energieversorgungstechnik Verein an der Universität Kassel (ISET), Germany
Universität Stuttgart (Usttut), Germany
DONG Energy Power A/S (DONG), Denmark
Vattenfall Vindkraft A/S, Denmark
GE Wind Energy Zweigniederlassung der General Electric Deutschland Holding GmbH (GEGR-E), Germany
Gamesa Innovation and Technology (GIT), Spain
Fiberblade Eólica S.A., Spain
GL Garrad Hassan and Partners Ltd. (GL GH), United Kingdom
Werkzeugmaschinenlabor, Aachen University (RWTH – WZL), Germany
LM Glasfiber A.S. (LM), Denmark
Germanischer Lloyd Windenergie GmbH (GL), Germany
Ramboll Danmark A.S.(Ramboll), Denmark
Fundación Robotiker (ROBOTIKER), Spain
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT), Finland
SAMTECH S.A (SAMTECH), Belgium
Shell Windenergy BV (SHELL), The Netherlands
Repower Systems AG (REP), Germany
Bosch Rexroth AG (BRM-GT), Germany
Det Norske Veritas, Danmark A/S, Denmark
Lohmann und Stolterfoht GmbH, Germany
University of Edinburgh (UEDIN), United Kingdom
Instytut Podstawowych Problemow Techniki PAN (IPPT), Poland
Institute of Thermomechanics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (IT ACSR), Czech Republic
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 7
10. Contents
Lulea University of Technology (LTU), Sweden
Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC), United Kingdom
Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Belgium
QinetiQ Ltd. (QinetiQ), United Kingdom
Vestas Asia Pacific A/S (Vestas APAC), Denmark
Smart Fibres Ltd. (SmartFibres), United Kingdom
University of Salford (USAL), United Kingdom
European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), Belgium
Ecotècnia S.C.C.L. (ECOTECNIA), Spain
Fundación CENER - CIEMAT, Spain
Fraunhofer-Institut fur Windenergie und Energiesystemtechnik (IWES), Germany
Institute for Superhard Materials of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (ISM), Ukraine
Department of Civil Engineering, Thapar University (TIET), India
China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Mine
Safety (CUMTB), China
CWMT Fraunhofer (CWMT), Germany
SUPPORTED BY:
The Sixth Framework Programme for Research and Development of the European Commission (FP6)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AUTHORS:
Nicolas Fichaux, European Wind Energy Association
Jos Beurskens, Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Peter Hjuler Jensen, Risø National Laboratory – DTU
Justin Wilkes, European Wind Energy Association
8 March 2011
11. WORK PACKAGES AUTHORS:
Nicolas Fichaux, European Wind Energy Association
Sten Frandsen, Risø National Laboratory – DTU
John Dalsgaard Sørensen, Aalborg University and Risø National Laboratory - DTU
Peter Eecen, Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Charalambos Malamatenios, Centre for Renewable Energy Sources
Joaquin Arteaga Gomez, Gamesa
Jan Hemmelmann, GE Global Research
Gijs van Kuik, Delft University of Technology
Bernard Bulder, Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Flemming Rasmussen, Risø National Laboratory – DTU
Bert Janssen, Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Tim Fischer, Universität Stuttgart
Ervin Bossanyi, GL Garrad Hassan and Partners
Mike Courtney, Risø National Laboratory – DTU
Jochen Giebhardt, Fraunhofer-Institut fur Windenergie und Energiesystemtechnik
Rebecca Barthelmie, Risø National Laboratory – DTU
Ole Holmstrøm, DONG Energy
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION OF:
Dorina Iuga, European Wind Energy Association
Sharon Wokke, European Wind Energy Association
EDITING:
Sarah Azau, European Wind Energy Association
Chris Rose, European Wind Energy Association
Design and production: De Visu Digital Document Design
Design coordinator: Raffaella Bianchin, European Wind Energy Association
Published in March 2011
LEGAL NOTICE:
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is
responsible for the use which might be made of the following information.
The views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the author and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission.
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 9
12. xxx
Photo: Stiftung Offshore Energie/D. Gehrin
1 UPWIND: SUMMARY
A 20 MW TURBINE IS FEASIBLE
10 March 2011
13. “ They did not know it was impossible, so they did it.”
Mark Twain, American novelist, 1835 - 1910
The need for the UpWind project: Thus a significant part of the required future installed
wind power will be located offshore. For offshore ap-
exploring the design limits of
plication new technologies and know how are needed
upscaling beyond the existing knowledge base, which is mainly fo-
cused on onshore applications. Going offshore implies
The key objective of the European wind industry‘s not only new technologies but also upscaling of wind
research and development strategy for the next ten turbine dimensions, wind farm capacities and required
years is to become the most competitive energy source – not yet existing – electrical infrastructure. The need
by 2020 onshore and offshore by 2030 1, without for upscaling found its origin in the cost structure of off-
accounting for external costs. shore installations and is the “motor” of modern wind
energy research. The results will not be applicable to
In October 2009, the European Commission published offshore wind energy technology only, but will also lead
its Communication “Investing in the Development of to more cost effective onshore installations.
Low Carbon Technologies (SET-Plan)”, stating that wind
power would be “capable of contributing up to 20% of Ultimately, all research activities, aside from other im-
EU electricity by 2020 and as much as 33% by 2030” plementation measures, are focused on reductions to
were the industry‘s research needs fully met. The wind the cost of energy. The industry is taking two pathways
industry agrees with the Commission‘s assessment. towards cost reductions in parallel:
Significant additional research efforts in wind energy Incremental innovation: cost reductions through
are needed to bridge the gap between the 5% of the economies of scale resulting from increased market
European electricity demand which is currently covered volumes of mainstream products, with a continuous
by wind energy, and one-fifth of electricity demand in improvement of the manufacturing and installation
2020, one-third in 2030 and half by 2050. methods and products;
Breakthrough innovation: creation of innovative prod-
Meeting the European Commission‘s ambitions for wind ucts, including significantly upscaled dedicated (off-
energy would require meeting EWEA‘s high scenario of shore) turbines, to be considered as new products.
265 GW of wind power capacity, including 55 GW of
offshore wind by 2020. The Commission‘s 2030 target The UpWind project explores both innovation pathways.
of 33% of EU power from wind energy can be reached by In formulating the UpWind project the initiators realised
meeting EWEA‘s 2030 installed capacity target of 400 that wind energy technology disciplines were rather
GW wind, 150 GW of which would be offshore. Up to fragmented (no integrated verified design methods
2050 a total of 600 GW of wind energy capacity would were available), that essential knowledge was still miss-
be envisaged, 250 GW would be onshore and 350 GW ing in high priority areas (e.g. external loads), measur-
offshore. Assuming a total electricity demand of 4,000 ing equipment was still not accurate or fast enough,
TWh in 2050 this amount of installed wind power could and external factors were not taken into consideration
produce about 2,000 TWh and hence meet 50% of the in minimising cost of energy (grid connection, founda-
EU‘s electricity demand. tions, wind farm interaction).
1
http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/EWI/EWI_2010_final.pdf
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 11
14. 1 UpWind: summary - A 20 MW turbine is feasible
In order to be able to address all shortcomings in an For instance, the development of control methods for
effective way a comprehensive matrix project structure very large rotors requires the full wind behaviour, includ-
was designed, where disciplinary, scientific integration ing wind shear and turbulence, to be taken into account.
and technology integration were included (see page 18).
A key issue for integrating various research results was This in turn means the anemometer values must be
developing an overall engineering cost model. corrected based on the rotor effects and therefore ad-
vanced wind measurement technologies need to be
This unique UpWind approach quantifies the contribu- used. UpWind therefore developed and validated the
tion of the different types of innovation resulting from measurement devices and models able to provide such
the project. Not only are upscaling parameters incor- measurements (LIDAR).
porated, but also innovation effects are defined as a
separate independent parameter. At the time of writing UpWind also developed the tools and specified the
the full results of the integration process through cost methods to enable large designs. These tools and
modelling was not yet available, but will be published in methods are available to optimise today‘s designs,
2011. However, some early conclusions may already be and are used to improve the reliability and efficiency of
drawn, such as the benefits of distributed aerodynamic current products, such as drive trains.
blade control.
UpWind demonstrates that a 20 MW design is feasible.
The question often arises whether there is one single No significant problems have been found when upscal-
“optimum” technology. UpWind did not seek to define ing wind turbines to that scale, provided some key
one unique optimum technology but rather explored var- innovations are developed and integrated. These innova-
ious high-potential solutions and integrated them with tions come with extra cost, and the cost / benefit ratio
respect to the potential reduction of cost of energy. An depends on a complex set of parameters. The project
optimised wind turbine is the outcome of a complex resulted for instance in the specification of mass /
function combining requirements in terms of efficiency strength ratios for future very large blades securing the
(electricity production), reliability, access, transport and same load levels as the present generation wind tur-
storage, installation, visibility, support to the electricity bines. Thus in principle, future large rotors and other
network, noise emission, cost, and so on. turbine components could be realised without cost in-
creases, assuming the new materials are within certain
UpWind‘s focus was the wind turbine as the essential set cost limits.
component of a wind electricity plant. Thus external con-
ditions were only investigated if the results were needed
to optimise the turbine configuration (e.g. grid connec- As the UpWind project‘s scope is very wide and
tion options) and the other way around (control options the project has laid the basis for essential future
for wind turbines) in order to optimise wind farms. strategies for decreasing cost of energy, UpWind
contributed considerably to the recommendations
UpWind did not seek the optimal wind turbine size, but of the European Wind Energy Technology Plat-
investigated the limits of upscaling, up to, approxima- form and the foundation for the European Wind
tely, 20 MW / 250 m rotor diameter. Looking at very Initiative. It is clear from the conclusions of Up-
large designs, attention is focused on physical phenom- Wind that the European Wind Initiative‘s research
ena or model behaviour that are relevant for large-scale agenda is both feasible and necessary and should
structures but have negligible effects at lower scales. therefore be financed without delay by the Euro-
pean Commission, national governments and the
European wind energy sector.
12 March 2011
15. UpWind methodology – The lighthouse concept is a virtual concept design of
a wind turbine in which promising innovations, either
a lighthouse approach
mature or embryonic, are incorporated. The lighthouse
For its assessment of the differences between the pa- is not a pre-design of a wind turbine actually to be
rameters of the upscaled wind turbine, UpWind adopt- realised, but a concept from which ideas can be drawn
ed a reference 5 MW wind turbine. This reference was for the industry’s own product development. One of the
based on the IEA reference turbine developed by the innovations, for example, is a blade made from thermo-
National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL). As plastic materials, incorporating distributed blade control,
a first step, this reference design was extrapolated including a control system, the input of which is partly
(“upscaled”) to 10 MW. The 20 MW goal emerged fed by LIDARs.
progressively during the project, while the industry in
the meantime worked on larger machines. The largest The 20 MW concept provides values and behaviour used
concepts which are now on the drawing board measure as model entries for optimisation. It is a virtual 20 MW
close to 150 m rotor diameter and have an installed turbine, which could be designed with the existing tools,
power capacity of 10 MW. While a 10 MW concept pro- without including the UpWind innovations. This extrapo-
gressively took shape, UpWind set its mind to a larger lated virtual 20 MW design was unanimously assessed
wind turbine, a turbine of about 250 m rotor diameter as almost impossible to manufacture, and uneconomic.
and a rated power of 20 MW. Also the idea of the The extrapolated 20 MW design would weigh 880 tonnes
lighthouse concept was adopted to present the many on top of a tower making it impossible to store today at
results of UpWind in one image. a standard dockside, or install offshore with the current
installation vessels and cranes.
Reference wind Extrapolated Extrapolated virtual turbine
turbine 5 MW turbine 10 MW 20 MW
Rating MW 5.00 10.00 20.00
Wind regime IEC class 1B 2 IEC class 1B IEC class 1B
No of blades 3 3 3
Rotor orientation Upwind Upwind Upwind
Variable speed, Variable speed, Variable speed,
Control
control pitch control pitch control pitch
Rotor diameter M 126 178 252
Hub height M 90 116 153
Max. rotor speed Rpm 12 9 6
Rotor mass Tones 122 305 770
Tower top mass Tones 320 760 880
Tower mass Tones 347 983 2,780
Theoretical electricity
GWh 369 774 1,626
production
2
IEC 61400 class IB is an average wind speed at hub height of 10 m/s, V50 extreme gusts 70 m/s, 16% characteristic turbulence,
wind shear exponent is 0.2.
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 13
16. 1 UpWind: summary - A 20 MW turbine is feasible
The support structures able to carry such mass placed After reducing fatigue loads and applying materials with
at 153 m height are not possible to mass manufacture a lower mass to strength ratio, a third essential step
today. The blade length would exceed 120 m, making is needed. The application of distributed aerodynamic
it the world‘s largest ever manufactured composite ele- blade control, requiring advanced blade concepts with
ment, which cannot be produced as a single piece with integrated control features and aerodynamic devices.
today‘s technologies. The blade wall thickness would Fatigue loads could be reduced 20-40% (WP2). Various
exceed 30 cm, which puts constraints on the heating of devices can be utilised to achieve this, such as trail-
inner material core during the manufacturing process. ing edge flaps, (continuous) camber control, synthetic
The blade length would also require new types of fibres jets, micro tabs, or flexible, controllable blade root cou-
to resist the loads. pling. Within UpWind, prototypes of adapting trailing
edges, based on piezo electrically deformable materi-
However, the UpWind project developed innovations to als and SMA (shape memory alloys) were demonstrat-
enable this basic design to be significantly improved, ed (WP1B.3). However, the control system only works
and therefore enable a potentially economically sound if both hardware and software are incorporated in the
design. blade design. Thus advanced modelling and control al-
gorithms need to be developed and applied. This was
investigated in WP1B3.
UpWind: 20 MW innovative turbine
Further reducing the loads requires advanced rotor con-
Key weaknesses of the extrapolated virtual 20 MW de- trol strategies (WP5) for “smart” turbines. These con-
sign are the weight on top of the tower, the correspond- trol strategies should be taken into account in the de-
ing loads on the entire structure and the aerodynamic sign of offshore support structures (WP4). The UpWind
rotor blade control. The future large-scale wind turbine project demonstrated that individual pitching of the
system drawn up by the UpWind project, however, is blades could lower fatigue loads by 20-30%. Dual pitch
smart, reliable, accessible, efficient and lightweight. as the first step towards a more continuous distributed
blade control (pitching the blade in two sections) could
A part of UpWind (WP3) 3 analysed wind turbine materi- lead to load reductions of 15%. In addition, the future
als. This enabled the micro-structure of the blade ma- smart turbine will use advanced features to perform
terials to be studied and optimised in order to develop site adaptation of its controller in order to adapt to
stronger and lighter blades. However, this would not be local conditions (WP5).
sufficient unless fatigue loading is also reduced.
Advanced control strategies are particularly relevant
Reducing fatigue loading means longer and lighter for large offshore arrays, where UpWind demonstrated
blades can be built. The aerodynamic and aeroelastic that 20% of the power output can be lost due to wake
qualities of the models were significantly improved effects between turbines.
within the UpWind project, for example by integrat-
ing the shear effect over large rotors WP2. Significant Optimised wind farm layouts were proposed, and inno-
knowledge was gained on load mitigation and noise vative control strategies were developed, for instance
modelling. lowering the power output of the first row (thus making
these wind turbines a bit more transparent for the air
UpWind demonstrated that advanced blade designs flow), facing the undisturbed wind, allowing for higher
could alleviate loads by 10%, by using more flexible overall wind farm efficiency (WP8).
materials and fore-bending the blades (WP2).
3
The reference WP in brackets refers to the specific ‘work package’ or sub-programme fiche provided within this report.
14 March 2011
17. Control and maintenance strategies require load sen- UpWind demonstrated the need to take the wind shear
sors, which were adapted and tested within UpWind. into account for large rotors (WP6 and WP2). The 20
To avoid sensor failures causing too much loss of en- MW rotor is so large that the wind inflow needs to be
ergy output, loss of sensor signals was incorporated treated as an inhomogeneous phenomenon. One point
into the control strategies (WP5) and a strategy was de- measurement, as recommended by IEC standards, is
veloped to reduce the number of sensors. The fatigue not representative anymore. A correction method was
loading on individual wind turbines can be estimated developed and demonstrated within UpWind.
from one heavily instrumented turbine in a wind farm
if the relationship of fatigue loading between wind tur- The smart control strategies and high resolution mod-
bines inside a wind farm is known. The so-called Flight elling described above require a highly accurate wind
Leader Concept 4 was developed in WP7. measurement, since a small deviation can have a sig-
nificant impact on reliability. In the metrology domain,
Those load sensors can be Bragg sensors, which were UpWind considerably improved knowledge on wind
tested and validated within the project (WP7). UpWind measurement accuracy within the MEASNET 5 commu-
demonstrated the efficiency and reliability of such nity. Cup anemometers, LIDARs, SODARs and sonic
sensors, and assessed the possibility of including optic anemometers (WP1A.2 and WP6) were tested, demon-
fibres within the blade material without damaging the strated and improved. UpWind‘s WP1A.2 had access to
structure (WP3). almost all existing wind measurement databases.
However, using sensors implies the rotor is only react- The advanced control strategies of smart blades using
ing to the actual loading phenomenon. As a result of smart sensors enable loads to be lowered considerably,
the system inertia, the load will be partly absorbed. so lighter structures can be developed. The improved
A step further is to develop preventative load alleviation modelling capability means the design safety factors
strategies by detecting and evaluating the upcoming can be less conservative, paving the way to lighter struc-
gust or vortex before it arrives at the turbine. A nacelle- tures (WP1A1). UpWind investigated this path, develop-
mounted LIDAR is able to do this (WP6), and can be ing accurate integral design tools that took into account
used as an input signal for the individual blade pitching, transport, installation, and operation and maintenance
or in distributed blade control strategies (WP5). (O&M). Onshore, the transport of large blades is a par-
ticular challenge, and UpWind developed innovative
In recent years, UpWind has been a focal point for LIDAR blade concepts (WP1B1) enabling a component to be
development, and has considerably helped the market transported in two sections without endangering its
penetration of LIDAR technologies. Although LIDARs structural safety or aerodynamic efficiency.
are still considerably more expensive than SODARs for
instance, their technical performance, and thus poten- Integral design tools were also developed to improve the
tial, is substantial. UpWind demonstrated that LIDARs reliability of the entire drive train (WP1B.2), and to inves-
are sufficiently accurate for wind energy applications. tigate the possibility of developing proportionally lighter
(WP1A2). LIDARs can be used for the power curve generators for large wind turbine designs. UpWind inves-
estimation of large turbines, for control systems, for tigated ten different generator configurations and found
resource assessment in flat terrain, including offshore promising potential weight reductions for permanent
and soon in complex terrains (WP1A2 and WP6), and magnet transversal flux generators.
for measuring the wind shear over the entire rotor area.
4
The "flight leader " is a term used in aircraft technologies. The idea behind the “flight leader turbines” is to equip selected turbines at
representative positions in the wind farm with the required load measurement. The flight leader turbines are thus subject to higher, or
at least similar, loads to other turbines in a wind farm.
5
www.measnet.com
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 15
18. 1 UpWind: summary - A 20 MW turbine is feasible
The UpWind project worked on ensuring the reliability of It will be challenging for the wind energy sector to at-
large turbines, in particular for far offshore applications. tract and train the required number of engineers, post-
UpWind focused on condition monitoring technologies graduates and PhD students to fulfil its needs. UpWind
(WP7) and fault prediction systems. Such advanced sys- focused on training and education (WP1A3), and devel-
tems enable fault detection and preventative mainte- oped free of charge advanced training modules on wind
nance to be carried out, with a large potential for cutting energy, including the latest innovations in the field. This
O&M costs. The reliability of the future large blades can content is distributed through the REnKnow database 6.
be assessed using probabilistic blade failure simulation
tools (WP3).
UpWind: rooted in history
Reducing the loads and the nacelle weight enables the
offshore substructure design to be optimised (WP4). UpWind is the largest-ever EU-funded research and
UpWind developed integrated wind turbine/substructure development project on wind energy. In terms of scope,
design tools and investigated optimal offshore substruc- content and volume, the project can be compared to
ture configurations according to the type of turbine, type typical national R&D programmes carried out in coun-
of soil and water depth. Future deeper water locations tries like Denmark, Spain, the Netherlands and the
were investigated and innovative cost-effective designs USA. The UpWind project was made up of 48 partners,
were analysed. all leaders in their field, half from the private sector,
and half from the research and academic sector. This
Progress was made on deep water foundation analy- makes UpWind the largest public/private partnership
sis, including the development of advanced model- ever designed for the wind energy sector.
ling techniques and enhancements of current design
standards which for example become very important The story of the UpWind project starts in 2001. At
for floating designs. that time, the 2001 renewable electricity directive
(2001/77/EC) was facilitating the rapid growth of wind
With the improved intelligence of wind turbines, wind energy in Europe. By the end of 2000, the installed wind
farms are operated more and more as power plants, capacity in Europe was 13 GW. Growth was based on
providing services to the electricity system, such as 1 to 2 MW wind turbines, the work horses of that time,
flexibility and controllability of active and reactive power, and demonstrators of 4 to 5 MW were under develop-
frequency and voltage, fault-ride-through or black start ment, showing the potential for upscaling and innova-
capabilities (WP9). Those capabilities will allow for sub- tion. Large cost reductions were envisaged. However,
stantially increased penetration of wind power in the the wind energy sector needed to considerably acceler-
grid in the near future. The future large offshore wind ate its innovation rate if the energy objectives were to
farms, far from shore, will be connected to HVDC VSC, be achieved.
forming the backbone of an integrated European off-
shore grid, and supporting the emergence of a single
electricity market.
6
http://www.renknow.net/
16 March 2011
19. 2008
250 m Ø
160 m Ø
126 m Ø
126 m Ø
?
Rotor diameter (m)
112 m Ø
Airbus A380
wing span
80m
15 m Ø
'85 '87 '89 '91 '93 '95 '97 '99 '01 '03 '05 '10 ? 1ST year of operation
.05 .3 .5 1.3 1.6 2 4.5 5 7.5 8/10 rated capacity (MW)
An innovation accelerator was required that could set the European Wind Energy Technology Platform. TPWind
clear pathways for future development and rapidly updated the Strategic Research Agenda and developed
transfer technological advances to the market. In or- an industry-led master plan with a total R&D budget of
der to shape such a vehicle, the wind industry created €6 billion up to 2020: the European Wind Industrial Ini-
what was known as a ‘ Wind Energy Thematic Network ’ tiative (EWI). The recently created European Energy Re-
(WEN), an initiative supported as a project by the Euro- search Alliance (EERA) reinforces this trend by putting
pean Commission. Through an extended consultation more emphasis on long-term research. The UpWind pro-
process, WEN identified the key innovation areas and posal and consortium, financed by the European Com-
put forward recommendations to address the declin- mission under the sixth Framework Programme (FP6),
ing public R&D funding in the wind energy sector. The was developed in parallel with the creation of the Tech-
WEN placed wind energy innovation in the context of nology Platform by the sector involving individual key
the newly adopted Lisbon strategy for the first time 7 : institutions and companies with the European Academy
wind energy was identified as being able to improve of Wind Energy (EAWE) and the European Wind Energy
European competitiveness. Association (EWEA) as essential catalysers. Building on
UpWind‘s achievements, EERA and EWI together cover
In 2005 WEN published a roadmap for innovation, which the main road of designing the European wind energy
was the first Strategic Research Agenda for the wind technology of the future and helping to meet the EU‘s
energy sector. This document was used as a basis for 2020 renewable energy targets, and beyond.
7
One objective was a level of spending of 3% of the EU GDP in R&D in 2010. The Lisbon objective was not achieved,
and the strategy was relaunched through the recent Europe 2020 strategy.
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 17
20. 1 UpWind: summary - A 20 MW turbine is feasible
UpWind: continuous innovation These considerations led to a matrix structure shown
below. In this structure, scientific and technical disci-
UpWind is one of the few integrated projects launched plines are dealt with within horizontal work packages
under FP6. Integrated projects were designed to cover (WP‘s), and integration through vertical activities.
the whole research spectrum. Due to the broad range The vertical activities are themselves grouped into
of innovation challenges to be covered in a single scientific and technology integration work WP‘s re-
field, such projects required a high level of coordina- spectively. The earlier mentioned lighthouse approach 8
tion and consistency. Due to their size and complexity, forms the focus of the WP1A.1 Integrated Design
high demands were put on the management. An inno- Approach and Standards and WP1B.4 Upscaling.
vative management concept was designed, enabling All other WPs provide inputs.
research to be carried out on specific issues, both sci-
entific and technological ones, while at the same time
integration of the results was guaranteed.
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WP Number
Work Package
2 Aerodynamics and aero-elastics
3 Rotor structure and materials
4 Foundations and support structures
5 Control systems
6 Remote sensing
7 Condition monitoring
8 Flow
9 Electrical grid
10 Management
1A1 1A2 1A3 1B1 1B2 1B3 1B4
Scientific integration Technology integration
8
UpWind investigated a lighthouse vision, which means a vision that defines the options and necessities for future very large wind
turbines.
18 March 2011
21. In addition to defining a clear way forward for wind In terms of project financing, UpWind shows the way
energy technology, UpWind had the responsibility of forward for public-private partnership instruments.
accelerating innovation within the sector. This required The scale of today‘s challenges, and the scarcity of
strong involvement from the private sector. The involve- resources require developing innovative funding instru-
ment in UpWind of leading wind turbine and component ments able to create a leverage effect. Those should
manufacturers, as well as software providers, techni- combine funding from the Framework Programmes,
cal consultants and energy companies, demonstrated other Community programmes and Member States,
the sector‘s high level of maturity. Handling Intellectual private capital, and European Investment Bank instru-
Property within large EU-funded projects was secured ments. The future FP8 instruments are likely to be flex-
by IP agreements and was dealt with inside the WP ible, with less red tape, and their structure is likely
concerned. This proved to be a very effective model. to be shaped by the time-to-market of innovation, and
able to combine those various sources of funding in
The strategy followed by UpWind was to focus on innova- a coordinated manner. Although UpWind was financed
tion with a long-term aim: exploring the design limits of under the FP6, some specific WP activities were
very large-scale wind turbines, in the 10-20 MW range. co-financed by Member State programmes beyond the
UpWind used upscaling as a driver for innovation, and financial scope of UpWind. One outstanding example is
moved away from the competitive arena. Along the way, the development of LIDAR remote sensing techniques
the challenges dealt with in UpWind became a reality, (WP6). This made UpWind the first project within the
with the demonstration of 5 MW turbines, the current European Wind Initiative priorities that complemented
testing of 7 MW machines, and the development of support from the Framework Programmes with coordi-
10 MW designs. The innovation developed within the nated calls for proposals from committed countries.
project helped solve day-to-day challenges, such as Within EWI, UpWind is used as a reference case for
was the case in the field of WP1B.2 Transmission and such instruments.
Conversion. UpWind had an international impact,
through the IEA Wind Implementing agreement, where
the UpWind results are included in several internation-
al task activities. Partnerships, especially in the field
of material research (WP3), were developed with India,
Ukraine and China.
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 19
22. xx
xxx
xxx
Photo: Vestas
2 UPWIND: SCIENTIFIC INTEGRATION
20 March 2011
23. UpWind: Scientific integration
1A1 Standards and integration
1A2 Metrology
1A3 Training and education
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WP Number In
Work Package
2 Aerodynamics and aero-elastics
3 Rotor structure and materials
4 Foundations and support structures
5 Control systems
6 Remote sensing
7 Condition monitoring
8 Flow
9 Electrical grid
10 Management
1A1 1A2 1A3 1B1 1B2 1B3 1B4
Scientific integration Technology integration
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 21
24. 2 UpWind: Scientific integration
2.1 Work Package 1A1: disciplines within the same framework. In this frame-
work, manufacturing, transport, installation and O&M
Standards and integration procedures become design parameters rather than
constraints. It enables the system as a whole to be
Mr. Sten Frandsen from RisøNational Laboratory - DTU optimised at a design stage. Finally, a large potential
died during the month of October 2010. He was the Work for cost optimisation lies in the design safety levels.
Package leader of WP 1A1. A probabilistic design of structural wind turbine com-
ponents can be used to design components directly,
The entire UpWind consortium would like to acknowledge thereby ensuring the design is more uniform and eco-
the human and scientific abilities he demonstrated along nomic than that obtained by traditional design using
his career. Mr. Frandsen was known as a man express- standards such as the IEC 61400 series.
ing and standing for his ideas and his contribution to the
UpWind project was invaluable. The challenge is to efficiently update the design stand-
ards and to promote the use of an integrated design
UpWind demonstrates that an integral design ap- approach. This will ensure consistency between the
proach can significantly cut costs for current and up- advanced models and strengthen their integration into
scaled products. UpWind was trying to find an optimal wind energy technology, improve the test methods and
wind turbine design: cost-effective and with appropri- design concepts developed in UpWind and in turn pro-
ate design safety levels, influenced by operation and vide a consistent scientific background for standards
maintenance and installation strategies. and design tools. The approach has four parts:
Providing a reference wind turbine for ease of com-
munication between the work packages and integra-
Challenges and main tion and benchmarking of their findings;
Development of cost models for upscaling to very
innovations
large wind turbines (20 MW) – in cooperation with
the upscaling work package;
The UpWind project needed a baseline case study to Development and definition of an integral design
benchmark innovation. UpWind defined a reference method; and
5 MW turbine, adapted from NREL’s 5 MW design. Development of (pre)standards for the application
During the project, these reference design parameters of the integral design approach, including interfaces,
were extrapolated to a virtual 20 MW machine. This data needs guidelines and proposals for a formal
enables a comparison to be made between a virtual international standardisation process.
extrapolated 20 MW machine and the UpWind innova-
tive 20 MW machine. A cost model was developed in
order to isolate and study the dimensioning cost pa-
rameters of this upscaled wind turbine. However, as an
optimal design should account for the external design
constraints, an innovative design approach was devel-
oped that includes both technical and non-technical
22 March 2011
25. Results The cost model is based on a life-cycle approach
including all capitalised costs. The main up-scaling
Subtask A: Reference wind turbine and cost model parameter is typically the rotor diameter. The cost
As reference wind turbine an NREL 5 MW model - was model is basically formulated as function of this
used (see [1]) and improved. An overall framework for design parameter using an up-scaling factor with an
an optimal design of wind turbines was formulated, up-scaling exponent (typically 3) and a time-dependent
taking up-scaling and cost modelling into account [2] technology improvement factor.
and [3]. The approach is based on a life-cycle analysis
including all the expected costs and benefits through- Subtask B: Integral design approach methodology
out the lifetime of the wind turbine (wind farm). UpWind addresses the full life-cycle of the large-scale
wind turbines of the future, including the technical and
The cost model was developed for wind turbine up- commercial aspects. However, non-technical disciplines
scaling up to 20 MW. These wind turbines are expect- do not use any kind of model that is compatible with
ed to have a rotor diameter of approximately 250m the technical disciplines. There is a strong need for
and a hub height of 153m. A theoretical framework for new design paradigms that are able to account for both
a risk-based optimal design of large wind turbines was technical and non-technical disciplines within the same
formulated. Three types of formulation were made: 1) framework so that manufacturing, transport, installa-
a risk / reliability-based formulation, 2) a determinis- tion and O&M procedures become design parameters
tic, code-based formulation and 3) a crude determin- rather than constraints. A new design approach was
istic formulation. These formulations are described in proposed in UpWind. This approach is based on the
[2] and [3]. principles of systems engineering and features ele-
ments of Multi-disciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO),
In the third formulation (crude, deterministic), generic Knowledge Based Engineering (KBE) and Mono-discipli-
cost models are given as a function of the design nary Computational Analysis Methods (MCAM).
parameters using basic up-scaling laws adjusted for
technology improvement effects. There, the optimal The approach requires knowledge on the design pro-
design is the one which minimises the levelised cesses of the wind turbine and their subsystems to be
production costs. The main design parameters are: the captured and written down. The wind turbine techno-
rotor diameter, the hub height, the tip speed and where logies currently applied are in this approach, as well as
the wind turbines are placed in relation to one another those being studied and developed within the UpWind
in wind farms. In a more detailed approach, the cross- project. The captured knowledge is analysed and trans-
sectional dimensions (such as the geometry of the lated into knowledge applications through KBE. These
blade or the tower), the O&M strategy, or more refined applications address the following areas of the design:
input parameters can be included. External design
parameters are fixed regarding the size of the wind farm
(in terms of MW capacity and / or the geographical area
covered by the wind farm), the wind climate including
the terrain (mean wind speed and turbulence), wave and
current climate (offshore), water depth, soil conditions
and distance from land (or nearest harbour).
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 23
26. 2 UpWind: Scientific integration
The development of a parametric Multi Model This set of automated tools allows new wind turbine
Generator (MMG) for existing and new wind turbine concepts to be designed. Furthermore, the tools are
concepts. interconnected within what is known as a “Design and
Automation of the prepared models and aerody- Engineering Engine” (DEE) [4, 5, 6]. This framework
namic and structural analysis of the wind turbine enables the software tools to communicate through
components. agents or functions and provides a loosely coupled
Automation of the prepared models and aero-elastic demand-driven structure for the DEE. Within the frame-
analysis of wind turbine components. work, each tool is considered an engineering service
Automation of the prepared models and cost ana- providing functionality to the framework.
lysis of wind turbine components including material,
manufacturing, transport and installation.
Standardisation of a communication framework
between the different disciplines.
Work package 1
External conditions
Economic parameters
Analysis
Wind turbine within Wind turbine
design data WP1 performance
Conversion Conversion
PROJECT INTERNET SITE
Other work packages
Wind turbine Analysis Wind turbine
design data in other performance
WP
Figure 1 : The design and engineering engine
24 March 2011
27. Subtask C: Development of (pre)standards for the associated tests. Proposals will be submitted to the
application of the integral design approach International Organisation for Standards for all electri-
Broad standards were developed and formulated to cal, electronic and related technologies known as “elec-
clarify the design requirements of multi megawatt tur- trotechnologies” (IEC) /ISO (International Organisation
bines. Special emphasis has been put on probabilistic for Standardisation) and to the European Committee
design of wind turbines, and recommendations of how for Standardisation (CEN)/European Committee for
to implement research results in international design Electrotechnical Standardisation (CENELEC).
standards [7].
Special emphasis was put on the synthesis and ex-
A high reliability level and significant cost reductions trapolation of design load computations as required
are required so that offshore and land-based wind in IEC 61400-1, in order to arrive at efficient schemes
energy generation becomes competitive with other for the derivation of design fatigue and extreme loads
energy technologies. In traditional deterministic, code- (extrapolation of load effects).
based design, the structural costs are determined in
part by the safety factors, which reflect the uncertainty The IEC 61400-1 and -3 recommend identifying the 50
related to the design parameters. Improved design year extreme component load on the basis of limited
with a consistent reliability level for all components load simulations through the use of statistical extrapo-
can be obtained through probabilistic design methods, lation methods. Such methods are often the cause of
where uncertainties connected to loads, strengths and large variations in the extreme design load level. The
calculation methods are part of the calculation. In prob- possibility of determining a robust 50 year extreme
abilistic design, single components are designed to a turbine component load level when using statistical
level of safety, which accounts for an optimal balance extrapolation methods was investigated, so that the
between failure consequences, material consumption, 50 year load shows limited variations due to different
O&M costs and the probability of failure. Furthermore, turbulent wind seeds or inflow conditions. Case stud-
by using a probabilistic design basis, it is possible to ies of isolated high extreme out of plane loads were
design wind turbines so that site-specific information also dealt with, so as to demonstrate the underlying
on climatic parameters can be used. Probabilistic physical reasons for them. The extreme load extrapo-
design of structural wind turbine components can be lation methodology was made robust through the use
used for direct design of components, thereby ensur- of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and simulation
ing a more uniform and economic design than that data from two widely used aeroelastic codes was
obtained by traditional design using standards such applied. The results for the blade root out of plane
as the IEC 61400 series. loads and the tower base fore-aft moments were
investigated as those extrapolated loads have shown
The IEC 61400-1 and -3 standards were reviewed wide variability in the past and are essential for turbine
within the UpWind project, and an assessment was design. The effects of varying wind directions and
made of design load computations and in particular the linear ocean waves on the extreme loads were also
needs related to very large wind turbines. The methods, included. Parametric fitting techniques that consider
topics and results identified by UpWind create the all extreme loads including “outliers” were proposed
need for the revision or development of international and the physical reasons that result in isolated high
standards for the design of wind energy plants and extreme loads were highlighted [8]. The isolation of
Design limits and solutions for very large wind turbines 25