6. Topics to be covered
Introduction to solidification
Concept of solidification on casting
Solidification of pure metals
Solidification of alloys
Nucleation
Growth
7. Introduction to Solidification
• Solidification mechanism is essential for preventing defects due to
shrinkage.
• As soon as the molten metal is poured in a sand mold, the process of
solidification starts.
• During solidification, cast forms develops cohesion and acquires structural
characteristics.
• The mode of solidification affects the properties of the casting acquires a
metallographic structure which is determined during solidification. The
metallographic structure consists of:
Grain size, shape and orientation
Distribution of alloying elements
Underlying crystal structure and its imperfections
8. • Volume shrinkage/volume contraction occurs during three stages:
Liquid contraction (shrinkage): liquid contraction occurs when the metal is
in liquid state.
Solidification contraction (shrinkage): solidification contraction occurs
during the change from liquid to solid
Solid contraction (shrinkage): solid contraction occurs when the metal is
solid; solid contraction occurs after solidification; solid contraction does
not influence shrinkage defects.
9. Concept of Solidification on Casting
• A metal in molten condition possesses high energy
• As the molten metal cools, it loses energy to form crystals
• Since heat loss is more rapid near the mold walls than any other place, the
first metal crystallites called ‘nuclei’ form here.
• Nuclei formed as above tend to grow at the second stage of solidification.
• The crystal growth occurs in a dendrite manner.
• Dendrite growth takes place by the evolution of small arms on the original
branches of individual dendrites:
Slow cooling makes the dendrites to grow long whereas fast cooling causes
short dendrite growth.
Since eventually dendrites become grains, slow cooling results in large
grain structure and fast cooling in small grain structure in the solidified
metal.
10. • As solidification proceeds, more and more arms grow on an existing
dendrite and also more and more dendrites form until the whole melt is
crystallized.
Fig.2.1 Figure showing formation of dendrites
11. Solidification of Metals
• Transformation of molten metal back into solid
state
– Solidification differs depending on whether the
metal is
• A pure element or
• An alloy
12. Cooling Curve
• A cooling curve is a graphical plot of the
changes in temperature with time for a
material over the entire temperature range
through which it cools.
13. Cooling Curve for Pure Metals
• Under equilibrium conditions, all metals
exhibit a definite melting or freezing point.
• If a cooling curve is plotted for a pure metal, It
will show a horizontal line at the melting or
freezing temperature.
• A pure metal solidifies at a
constant temperature equal
to its freezing point (same
as melting point)
14. Solidification of Pure Metals
• Pure metals melt and solidify at a single
temperature which may be termed as
Melting point or Freezing point (FP).
• If a number of temperature
measurements are taken at different
times, while pure metal is cooled under
equilibrium conditions from the molten
state till it solidifies, a Time-
Temperature plot will look like Fig.(a)
• If a pure metal cools rapidly when it is
very pure and does not contain any
impurity as nucleus to start
crystallization, it may cool as per
Fig.(b)
Prof. Naman M. Dave
15. • Characteristic grain
structure in a
casting of a pure
metal, showing
randomly oriented
grains of small size
near the mold wall,
and large columnar
grains oriented
toward the center of
the casting
Solidification of Pure Metals
16. Solidification of Pure Metals
Pure metals generally posses
Excellent thermal and electrical conductivity(e.g. Cu and Al).
Higher ductility, higher melting point, lower yield point and tensile
strength, and
Better corrosion resistance, as compared to alloys.
As metals posses high melting points, they exhibit certain difficulties in
casting,
Difficulties during pouring
Occurrence of several metal-mold reactions
Greater tendency toward cracking
Their mode of solidification, which may produce defective castings.
Above freezing point the metal is liquid and below freezing point, it is in solid.
17. From the above curve the following observations can be made:
Liquid metals cools from A to B
From B to C, the melt liberates latent heat of fusion; temperature remains
constant.
The liquid metal starts solidifying at B and it is partly solid at any point
between B and C and at C metal is purely solid.
From C to D, the solid metal cools and tends to reach room temperature.
The slopes of AB and CD depend upon the specific heats of liquid and
solid metals respectively.
18. Cooling Curve of Alloys
• In this method, alloys with different compositions are melted and then the
temperature of the mixture is measured at certain time intervals while
cooling back to room temperature.
• A cooling curve for each mixture is constructed and the initial and final
phase change temperatures are determined.
19. Most Alloys Solidify Over a
Temperature Range
• (a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and (b)
cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu composition
20. • Characteristic
grain structure in
an alloy casting,
showing
segregation of
alloying
components in
center of casting
Solidification of Alloys
21. Solidification of Alloys
Alloyed metals possess:
Higher tensile strengths
Better high temperature strengths
Better corrosion resistance
Improved machinability and workability
Lower melting points
Improved castability
Main types of alloys:
Solid solution alloys
Eutectic alloys
Peritectic alloys
23. The above curve shows the cooling curve of a binary-solid solution alloy
From A to B, the alloy is in liquid state
Solidification starts at B and completes at point C.
Unlike pure metals, solidification occurs throughout the temperature
range(i.e., from Tb to Tc).
Latent heat of fusion is liberated gradually from B to C and it tends to
increase the time required for the solidification
25. • If two metals of a binary solid solution system are mixed in different
proportions and a cooling curve is constructed for each composition,
resulting diagram will be one which is known as PHASE DIAGRAM for
the alloy system.
• A phase diagram shows two different and distinct phases; one is liquid
metal solution and the other is solid solution.
• Within these two phases i.e., liquidus and solidus, the two phases – the
liquid and solid exist together.
• Liquidus is that line (a) above which the alloy is in liquid state, and
• Solidus is that line (a) below which the alloy is in solid state, and (b) where
solidification completes.
• If in a phase diagram, for each change of phase, adequate time is allowed
for the change to complete so that phase change takes place under
equilibrium conditions, the phase diagram will be known as Equilibrium
diagram.
26. Alloy solidification occurring under equilibrium conditions is known as
equilibrium solidification
Equilibrium conditions are not generally attained during the solidification
of castings because the diffusion involved may be extremely sluggish due
to fast cooling rate of castings.
Thus, most frequently castings solidify under non-equilibrium conditions
and the solidification process is known as non-equilibrium solidification.
Non – equilibrium solidification results in porous, columnar , cored
material which is usually of very inhomogeneous composition.
27. Nucleation
• Nucleation is the beginning of a phase transformation.
• Nucleation is marked by the appearance in the molten metal of tiny
regions called Nuclei which grow to solid crystals (by further deposition
of atoms).
• Nucleation may involve:
a) The Assembly of proper kinds of atoms by diffusion.
b) The Structural change into one or more unstable intermediate structures.
c) The Formation of critical sized particle i.e., Nuclei of the new solid
phase.
28. Nucleation and Growth of Crystals
• At the solidification temperature,
atoms from the liquid, such as molten
metal, begin to bond together and
start to form crystals.
• The moment a crystal begins to grow
is know as nucleus and the point
where it occurs is the nucleation
point.
• When a metal begins to solidify,
multiple crystals begin to grow in the
liquid.
• The final sizes of the individual
crystals depend on the number of
nucleation points.
• The crystals increase in size by the
progressive addition of atoms and
grow until they impinge upon
adjacent growing crystal.
a)Nucleation of crystals, b) crystal
growth, c) irregular grains form as
crystals grow together, d) grain
boundaries as seen in a
29.
30. • The “Grain Structure” of a material shows shape and size of the
grains (crystals) which form the bulk material.
• It is characterized by grain boundaries, grain shape and grain size.
31.
32. What is Solidification ?
• The process of transformation of a substance from liquid to solid state in which
the crystal lattice forms and crystals appear.
• Volume shrinkage or volume contraction
Solidification
• in pure metals and eutectic alloys takes place at constant temperature,
• in solid solution alloys proceeds over a temperature range.
• Crystallization / Solidification occurs in two stages- (1) Nucleation (2) Growth
Solidification occurs
• by the nucleation of very small (crystals),
• which grow under the thermal and crystallographic conditions existing during
solidification. Grain growth stops when complete melt has been solidified.
Dendritic Growth
Prof. Naman M. Dave
