The Moral Agent

1. The Moral Agent
Culture and its Roles in Moral Behavior
Introduction
What is culture? Culture has been defined in many ways. Jomil C. Baring, CSSR
(www.academia.edu) citing Sir Edward Taylor defines culture as the “integrated pattern of
human knowledge, beliefs and behaviors. This consists of language, ideas, customs. morals,
laws, taboos, institutions, tools, techniques, and works of art, rituals and other capacities and
habits acquired by a person as a member of society.” By this definition, one realizes the
importance and the crucial influence culture has for an individual.
“I am what I am because of my culture. I am an embodiment of my culture. I am not
the perfect embodiment of my culture, no one is, but somehow, as I am, I represent my culture.”
Such proves how cultures shapes the morality of a person.
Every person born in a particular culture is an embodiment of his or her particular
culture. From this, we can confidently say that culture is the basis of one’s behavior, on which
the moral fabric of an individual is patterned. People act, think and live according to the culture
in which they are part of. And nobody is culture-free as we are always part of a society as
succinctly expressed by the definition.
What is the role of culture in moral behavior? Culture as fundamentally the basis of
people’s moral behavior is the short and precise answer to the question. Culture becomes the
basis of our moral valuation as we evaluate the rightness or wrongness of our decision and
action according to the values and codes of our culture.
Learning Outcomes
1. Describe how culture serves as bases of morality;
2. Identify the relationship of culture and morality; and
3. Relate the aspects of moral development to real life situations.
Activating Prior Learning
1. In the small group, answer the question: What is culture?
2. What are those that we consider elements of our culture? Give examples.
Unit2

2. Presentation of Contents
In a seminar in which culture was a subtopic, one participant, a former member of the
Society of Jesus, described what culture is in the following terms: Culture is equal PERSIA,
where:
P = Political
E = Economic
R = Religion
S = Social (Society)
I = Intellectual and
A = Artistic
Therefore, C (culture) = P + E + R + S + I + A (PERSIA)
The participant made an interesting explanation about PERSIA. He explained that all
these elements are part of culture. They all interact to make a culture; each cultural element
having a particular role but having the same importance. He said that all that we are, all that
we say, all that we think, all that we produce including our point of references in life are part
of our culture. Culture penetrates each fabric of our personal and social life.
Cultural Elements
The following are the elements of culture:
Time. Something that is part of culture must endure time. If it does not last, it might just be a
fad.
Place. A culture is limited in its coverage. It is limited in a particular place. It cannot be a
practice in all places, otherwise it is a universal phenomenon and it does not reflect the culture
of a particular place.
Player (persons). In the same manner as the place, culture is also limited to particular persons
living the particular culture. There has to be a people practicing the culture. If nobody practices
something, it is not culture. Culture gives an identity to a particular people. It is what makes
such a people unique.
Dynamism. A culture is not dead. It is alive. Cultures continue to develop or evolve to become
another culture.
The Role of Culture in Moral Development
Baring (www.academia.edu) discusses the elements of moral development in the
context of the society as distinguished from the Stages of Moral Development by Lawrence
Kohlberg. The following elements relative to culture influence moral development:

3. First, culture is always social and communal. Culture is learned in the context of the
society in which the person lives and expands his or her horizon. One’s relationship allows one
to learn and be influenced by the specific culture in which the person lives and mature. In such
condition, morality is promoted through the relationship in the community. Individuals learn
the moral codes of the right behavior and their opposites within that context of social
interaction. The people around the individual transmit those codes which the individual
acquires as he matures and develops intellectually, psychologically and socially. The pattern
of the person’s life is conditioned by the moral standards present in his or her culture.
Second, culture defines the normative principles and behavior of the society. Within
the culture are sets of principles that are encouraged to guide the manner in which people will
have to live. As such, there are behaviors that are recommended by the culture and the society
that practice them. This includes the moral norms that the society nurtures allowing the
members live and define what is right and wrong.
Third, culture, sets the restrictions and boundaries in the lives of people as they relate
and live in their community. In any society, not everything is tolerable as there are restrictions
in order to maintain a certain order to guarantee that each member is protected in the same
manner that the same member can protect others. Restrictions and boundaries are important to
any society because delinquent manners may always be present. As such, they serve as guide
to people’s behavior.
Fourth, culture helps generate the character and identity of its people and that includes
their moral character. The manners in which people live together give them their identity as a
unique group. The way people dress up, the way they greet each other, their food and even the
type of houses symbolize their uniqueness which outsiders notice with ease. Visitors and
tourists always make a way that before leaving a place they have visited to buy souvenir items
unique in the place. The uniqueness of a people is not only manifested in some form of souvenir
items, but the contact with them makes one aware that their true uniqueness and identity is
exemplified in their moral character.
It is well known in the Philippines that it exists in Batanes what is known as “honesty
stores.” These stores do not only represent the peculiar system the people of Batanes have
adapted but demonstrate more deeply a unique type of moral character expressed in their strong
sense of honesty.
Finally, culture identifies the authorities. They are the symbol of guidance and control.
During the earlier times, the elders had this great honor of having been looked up to because
of their experience. As such they were considered to be the “talisman” of their community who
offered wise and appropriate decisions to resolve conflicts and issues.
According to Baring (www.academia.edu), as the previous society was patriarchal by
nature, the elders were composed of the old men in communities. They were respected and
their decisions were upheld by the members of their communities. Their authority did not only
include the rules that govern their life – how they dealt with each other, family, work, social
interactions but they also considered the behavior of the members of the community. As such,

4. community moral code was determined by the council of elders. Sanctions were also decided
by them when rules and decisions were violated. It was important that there should be overseers
in the community to safeguard the peace and order whether it is internal or outside threat that
menaces their communal life.
Summary
People are what they are because of their culture. It gives them their identity, sense of
uniqueness and defines to a great extent their moral character. People behave in the way they
are according to the dictates of their cultural background and practices. It is difficult to imagine
how people would be without this great frame of reference for their life.
In the words of Jean Paul Sartre, “how can one get rid of bad faith and live freely
according to one’s free will and choices?” This may be a reaction similar to the reaction of
other existentialists. They were trying to point out the restrictions and limitations that culture
and traditions impose upon individuals. Culture has deep impact in molding people’s thoughts,
feelings and moral valuation and consequently in their behavior.
Same idea is confirmed by Lev Vygotsky, a prominent Russian psychologist who
believes that self-regulation or independent learning can only be achieved when a child has
learned the signs and symbols of one’s culture. It is an important indicator according to him of
the child’s ability to solve problems on his or her own.
Also, Gestalt psychology believes that to be able to understand a person, there is a need
to understand his or her environment. Individuals are part of their environment and we cannot
treat them apart from it. Hence, we can say that to understand ourselves, others and our
community, including the understanding of our moral behavior, it would be necessary that we
should know and understand our culture.
Assessment/ Evaluation
Complete the frame by identifying the strength and weaknesses of the following
Filipino traditions or practices. (20 points)
Weaknesses Practice/Tradition Strengths
Family Orientednes
Kadakilaan
Pagkamatiisin
Bahala na
Pangangatuwiran
Bukas-loob
Kanyao

5. Pakikipagdalamhati
Bayanihan
Katapangan
Reflection
Have I not been discriminating others because of their cultural background? Do I not
insist that my upbringing is better than those of others? Am I considerate of people not of my
own culture?

6. Introduction
Cultural Relativism
Are there universal truth and absolute objective reality? It would seem that such is not
the case because our exposure and knowledge about the different cultural realities tend to
provide us with ample evidences that there are other ways of thinking, believing and manners
of living. This implies that there is not one single existing culture but different cultures existing
side by side. Cultures of different people each having its own origin, practicing its own codes
and standards and having its own traditions are proofs of such co-existence.
Is there such a thing as universal culture? What is evident is cultural diversity. Cultural
relativism is undeniably present and the best people can do of their differences to mutually
respect one another. People coming from different origins and traditions will have to treat each
other as equals and co-exist in mutual respect and understanding. If such is the case, we need
to understand the implication of living our culture in the midst of other cultures.
In this topic, we will elucidate cultural relativism, its weaknesses and criticisms. The
enlightenment we can derive from the discussion might help us develop a critical attitude not
only toward other cultures but also toward our own culture.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define cultural relativism;
2. Analyze the criticisms and limitations of cultural relativism; and
3. Discover the alternative ways of treating our own culture and others’.
Activating Prior Learning
Students may be grouped or individualized in their responses. Define culture in
differentiated tasks /activities. Rubrics answer the question: What is culture through
differentiated activities.
Presentation of Contents
What is cultural relativism?
Nowadays, exchanges with and exposures to various cultural practices are not rare.
Modern technology allows people to travel faster and more conveniently that attract more
people to do just that and consequently experience living in another culture. Technology has
made possible what was unimaginable a few decades ago – information explosion. Information
has been made readily available through the internet connection. In terms of exposure,
communication technology has done more than what is needed and essential as we can be

7. connected to access information about different societies and cultures which make us all the
more deeply aware of the various ways of thinking and valuing different from our own. The
contacts people have with others and exposures to different ways of life have significant
consequences in the way they understand others and themselves. On this basis , people easily
conclude that it is acceptable to be different; it is the same with ethics. This means to say that
what is ethically or morally acceptable or unacceptable is dependent on a particular culture.
This manner of considering what is right or wrong based on cultural standard is known as
cultural relativism (Bulaong Jr. et al., 2018).
Culture has now become the sole basis or morality; what is right or wrong is judged on
the basis of culture and its standards or codes. This implies that what is moral or ethical in one
culture may not be necessarily reflected in another. The rightness and wrongness of an act or
decision is entirely a cultural affair. Hence, something that is morally accepted in one culture
may not be in the case of another culture or what is wrong in another might be acceptable in
another. This is cultural relativism. Morality or ethics depends on the valuations of each
specific culture.
If this is the way how morality should be understood, authorities question whether this
is sound. Rachels (2003) asks whether it is alright that each culture makes its own judgment of
what is right or wrong. But what about if cultural practices in one culture allows genocide to
take place? Should we be silent about the genocide committed by the Nazi Germans to the
Jews during the Second World War? Or, should the excision of women in a particular African
culture which is extremely painful with certain irreversible biological and psychological
changes in the life of the African women be allowed to continue without criticizing the
practice? Is there not one right concept of how should things be? What is the answer?
If it would seem that the mother Eskimos of the north did not feel remorse killing their
baby girls and did it as if it were the most natural thing to do when there were too many girls
in the family, it would be the most shocking discovery in the life of an outsider. It is total
disrespect of human life and dignity and absolutely aberrant manner of treatment for the
innocent and helpless beings. However, much to our amazement, what these Eskimo mothers
were doing was exactly the protection the life of the entire family and their clan. Their natural
and physical environment was such that it was too harsh and unfriendly that people cannot
afford to have more liabilities or more mouth to feed as there was almost nothing to live on.
Should everyone be allowed to live, paradoxically; everyone disappears from the face of the
earth. Baby boys were favoured because they were potential hunters when they grow up but
the girls were definitely liabilities in such kind of extremely unfavourable geographical
conditions.
Why Cultural Relativism is Appealing
1. It gives us the freedom to act in the way we want to act. It means that we need not
adjust in a given situation knowing that there is diversity of valuation.
2. Cultural standards give us a basis for judging the rightness or wrongness of our own
action.

8. 3. Cultural relativism allows us to be tolerant of others from other cultures.
Consequences of Cultural Relativism
1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to
our own.
2. We could decide the rightness or wrongness of our actions by consulting the
standards of our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called onto doubt.
Difficulties of Cultural Relativism
Bulaong Jr. et al. (2018) citing James Rachels presents some of the difficulties of
cultural relativism in the following terms:
1. We cannot say that any one moral valuation is the right one?
2. It is no longer possible to render any kind of judgment on the practice of
another society. But what if their practices strongly suggest and call for
criticism. Example, in the case of racism, genocide, etc.
3. It means also that under cultural relativism, we cannot question even our
own culture and the prevailing practices. This means that as if moral
perfection is achieved.
4. Cultural relativism as noted by Bulaong Jr. et al. (2018) can only be
maintained by assuming that there is only a single and fixed culture while
it is increasingly becoming evident that it is difficult to determine what
exactly determines one’s culture.
Why we cannot absolutize Cultural Relativism
1. It is a contradiction in itself. When we insist on cultural relativism, we have made
it absolute, there, it ceases to be.
2. The differences are in our belief system, not in our values. If we look closely at our
values, there are more similarities than differences.
3. Other values tend to be more or less universal, e.g., telling the truth.
4. There are some moral rules that all societies must have in common.
Summary
Cultural relativism is happening. The evidences of cultural diversity are undeniable as
evidenced by the multitude of cultures around the world. People live in many different ways
and that these differences range from being almost similar to being radically different. The
purpose of the study of cultural relativism is not to point out that peoples around the world are
different and as such they will remain different and should be treated differently. And that
means also that other people have nothing to say about others’ ethical standards being different.

9. That the only way we can deal with each other is by mutual respect which is respecting the
differences that there are in each culture including the existing moral valuations honoured by
each culture.
Rachels (2003) obviously wants more than simply mutual respect. He believes that
there is something that binds different people better than mere accepting or allowing other
cultural practices without questioning them or that others would do the same. He suggests that
more than mutual respect for the differences he proposes that we should go farther and
recognize that there are more commonalities that bind the people of the world. He believes that
the values behind the practices of different cultures are more important to consider as they are
basically the same.
When he points out that the Callatians practiced the eating of the dead bodies of their
fathers while the Greeks burned them, he actually meant to point that despite the utter
differences in their practices, both were meant to express the same value in quite amazing
differences – that of respect for the dead fathers. If we know more of the values behind our
practices, we can establish the highest form of respect that is based on the inherent similarity
of values found in each of the cultures. Cultural relativism is not the promotion of antagonism
between and among cultures but to seek for the elements that can unite and tie up harmoniously
what seems to be different and separated. This is the best alternative because deep down the
different practices are common universal values. People of different cultures may have
different practices, but remain the same because of the inherent common values behind and
beyond their practices.
Assessment
Short Answer Questions. Answer the questions thoroughly:
1. Explain why cultural relativism is self-contradictory.
2. What makes cultural relativism appealing?
3. Expound: Different practices and traditions from different cultures are closer than
they appear.
4. What is the effect of cultural relativism to moral valuation?
5. Is the idea of cultural identity possible within the context of globalization?
Reflection
What are the universal values found in every culture that can unite the people of
different cultures? Consider honesty or care for the needy. What are the values that you care
about and those that you don’t but you believe people can’t live without?

10. Introduction
Is there a Filipino Culture?
Filipinos themselves doubt about their proper answer to the question “What is the
Filipino culture?” Writers about the Filipino culture are unanimous in their opinion that this
difficulty originates from the history of the Philippines. The country has been successively
colonized by Spain and by the United States and both brought cultural influences that until
now are practiced by the Filipinos. Filipinos do not find it difficult to identify which practices
are of Spanish influence in the same manner that Filipinos will be able to identify easily which
is a practice that is American. However, the difficulty is to which of these two influences a
Filipino would identify himself or herself more. The confusion is so deep that it would be
difficult for many to say what is the Filipino culture.
Things are so dynamically intertwined that it is difficult to determine what is finally
the Filipino culture or who is a Filipino? However, this dynamic intertwining is a Filipino
ingenuity that makes it in a sense Filipino. Some say it is Spanish-Filipino or Filipino-
American. What matters probably is that it is practiced by a Filipino who identifies himself to
be a Filipino and not otherwise.
Would it be important to delve into the question: Is there a Filipino understanding of
right or wrong? From the point of view of what has been previously discussed about cultural
relativism, it would seem that we have our sense of what is right or wrong, first, from our
cultural point of view. In this succeeding discussion, we analyze cultural and traditional
practices of our own.
Learning Outcomes
1. Identify common Filipino practices and traditions;
2. Express appreciation to these practices and traditions;
3. Criticize some of the present Filipino traditions and practices.
Activating Prior Learning
1. For fifteen minutes, in small groups, they will identify some Filipino practices and
traditions and;
2. Criticize these practices by pointing out their advantages and disadvantages.

11. Presentation of Contents
A. Difficulties of Identifying the Filipino culture
First, when we talk about the Filipino culture, we have a difficulty. Filipinos do not
know exactly which of the cultures they will talk about. Why, because there is not a single
Filipino culture. The Filipino culture is a combination or blend of the east and west cultures.
Basically the western influence would include Spanish and American cultures as part of the
colonial past of the Philippines. Asian influences can also be added to the list as there are
Japanese, Indonesian and even Arabic traces in the Philippine culture. Hence, the problem
arises when we want to assert that there is only one Filipino culture. Obviously, it will be a
mistake to insist on the idea. From the point of view alone of the number of languages and
dialects spoken in the entire archipelago, the more or less 170 languages and dialects spoken
of which eight are considered major languages, are signs of cultural diversity in the country.
Second, having been born in a subculture of a major culture raises a problem about to
which culture will someone identify with exactly? What is going to be his or her cultural
identity? The question has also been raised by Bulaong Jr. et al. (2018) in relation to cultural
relativism. Since cultural relativism can only work within the context of a very well defined
and determined culture, it implies the necessity of a single, definite and clear cultural identity.
However, in an increasingly open and globalized world, the notion of cultural relativism is
being put into question. But whether or not cultural relativism is tenable, for the Filipino in
quest for his or her cultural identity, will always have the problem of identifying with a specific
culture.
B. Source of Cultural Identity
Cultural identity may remain evasive because of the Filipino historical and socio-
cultural cross-points, but certain practices do give the Filipino his or her own cultural identity.
Some of the Filipino traditional practices from multi-cultural origin are:
- Asking the elders’ approval before getting married, concern, pagmamano or
“Mano po Culture”. Asking God’s blessing through kissing of hands. Useof
the polite expressions “Po and Opo”, hospitality, adaptability and
resiliency.
Cultural identity for the Filipino is not to be found in the manner that we define what
the Filipino culture is nor in trying to identify ourselves with a specific culture whether
Tagalog, Iloko, Ybanag, Itawes, Cebuano, Bicolano or another, but it is to be found in the
practices and traditions with which we are accustomed to. As Filipinos we are identified with
and through how we identify ourselves with one another. Not even with the color of the skin
and the language that we speak, but in the manner that we live and deal with one another that
we are able to identify who is a Filipino and what is the Filipino culture. This manner of making
sense of the Filipino culture from the point of view of the existing practices and traditions
makes the Filipino culture boundless. Whether American, European or Spanish, if you feel like
a Filipino, think like one and eat with them, for them you are a Filipino and you share in the

12. Filipino culture. The Filipino cultural identity is a lived identity. The practices that one
practices will be the measure by which your being a Filipino will be measured and identified.
C. Being critical about our practices
Filipinos should not remain unperturbed about their traditions and practices. It is not
because they are traditions that they are forever true and remain unquestionable. The
significance and meaning of traditions might have changed positively or negatively overtime.
For instance, a very important Filipino tradition, is the one related to strong family ties.
It symbolizes the unity and strong bond in the family. The tradition gives a sense of support
and security for all the members of the family or even for the entire clan. In times of crisis and
difficult moments, one can always rely on this tradition and family members will not hesitate
to rescue someone in trouble. However, the same tradition can be abused by any member of
the family and it may lead to perpetual dependence of a family member. Someone from the
family might have his or her own family, but remains dependent on the parents for every need
like finances, in terms of decision making and for every other need that arises.
Another trait we easily associate to us as Filipinos is that of being religious. The
Filipino reliance on divine providence is extraordinary. It is expressive of the Filipino faith in
the power of the Omnipotent and All powerful God. Our deep sense of religiosity can give us
hope and from which we draw strength and courage and it can redefine our direction and sense
of fulfilment. However, it is sometimes misconstrued to mean that everything will have to
come from God and that God will always intervene on our behalf. We have forgotten that we
have to do our part to make things come true. We tend to forget that God helps those who help
themselves. Faith does not justify laziness, indecisiveness and lack of initiative. Religiosity
cannot be taken also as a substitute for good work.
Summary
We have learned from our exposure to the different cultures that much of what we have
considered uniquely Filipino cultures are in fact shared with other people of other cultures. We
have so often considered, for instance, hospitality as a strongly and uniquely Filipino trait only
to find out that the same attitude is very much alive in others and perhaps more alive in them.
People for instance are always welcome to come at any time of the day and can dine with the
family. Filipinos have no problem at all with that and that is very Filipino. When your hosts
know that you have come from afar they will always offer you something to eat. That is
hospitality for the Filipino.
The whiteman might not entertain you immediately and asks you to wait until he or she
is finished or done with something she is busy about or won’t invite you to dine with him or
her. And we say, the whiteman is not at all hospitable. “We were not entertained immediately
and we were made to wait.” This is the usual reaction that Filipinos have when not given
attention as soon as possible by their hosts.

13. Filipinos have no sense of formality. They are gatecrashers, they may come at anytime.
The whiteman needs to be informed and an appointment is very important for him or for her.
He or she doesn’t want to be caught unaware. However, if you are invited or made an
appointment with the whiteman, you need to consider that very seriously. If you get invited for
a meal at home, you are there for half a day or maybe during the whole day. When Europeans
invite you, they really mean it. They will try to foresee every need to the last detail to make
you most comfortable during the entire duration of your stay. A meal can mean all the nice
words upon arrival that naturally continues with an aperitif with more stories and continues at
table for the “plat de resistance” that goes on and on at least for the next two or more hours.
Next you have the dessert and later the post cafe and another cup of coffee. That is the
whiteman’s hospitality. It is a serious thing which means that when you are invited, you have
to take it seriously as well and must really give time for it and nothing else. Their hospitality
is unbelievable. After you have left you remember the event long after the invitation. But for
Filipinos, you might have encountered so often, but have no idea exactly why you had to see
each other.
“Palabra de honor” or being a person of one word reveals that it is also not only Filipino
but is shared with others. The terms themselves reveal that they are of Spanish origin. Filipinos
have their own version of “Palabra de honor.” We can be proud to note that in history. It is a
known fact that the early Filipinos have always respected their promises to Chinese traders
transacting with them. The Chinese trader goes back to China and comes back after many
months and the Filipino costumer waits for his return. No written contracts, only promises were
at stake. But that shows at the same time the Chinese “palabra de honor” indicating that is not
uniquely Filipino. The point is, if certain values are shared by different nationalities, it is in the
manner that these values are practiced where differences are found.
Rachels (2003) explained that Eskimos also practiced hospitality but in the manner
unique to them expressed by offering their wives to their male visitors at night. In the same
manner, the way we practice the same values as Filipinos gives form to them and makes them
unique. There is a uniquely Filipino culture in terms of the practices through which we express
the same values shared with other people of other nationalities.
Assessment
Write an article that could be published in an international magazine promoting
the unique Filipino Culture and identity and discouraging the not so pleasant or acceptable
Filipino culture or practices /traditions to you. Back up your arguments with authorities. (Use
at least 250 words)
Reflection
Have I not been complacent with my own culture. Have I always been defending my
own culture even when it is sometimes obviously unreasonable? Do I take the initiative to
encourage positive attitudes even when the majority consider them old fashioned?

14. The Moral Development Stages of the Moral Agent
Introduction
We have discussed how we can be more ethical or moral in our actions and decisions.
Morality or ethics constitute a fundamental guide to people’s existence that without which, it
would be impossible for people to co-exist harmoniously. Furthermore, the topic about ethics
is not just a guide about co-existence but it has an important role to play for people to live more
meaningful and positive relationships that bring about transformative changes to the quality of
life.
In this topic, we will underscore moral development. The understanding of moral
development can help us gain insights about our role in providing avenues for its development.
Morality might have its own course of natural development, but we might just have the
responsibility to choose to allow or impede its full maturation in us or in other people. For
children, they need assistance from more mature individuals to reach the full development of
their moral or ethical reasoning and judgment. It will always be to their advantage if they are
guided and given the chance to be empowered by such wise and experienced individuals.
The different stages of moral development have been the focus of the study of the
American moral psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. He theorized that moral development
involves three levels which are discussed in this chapter:
Learning Outcomes
1. Identify the different levels of moral development;
2. Characterize one’s present stage of moral development; and
3. Evaluate the roles of more mature people in the moral development of younger people.
Activating Prior Learning
Recall that event when you started to have knowledge about having done something
good or bad. Share it to class. (15 minutes)

15. Presentation of Contents
The Levels and Stages of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg
Level I. Pre-conventional
The pre-conventional level corresponds to how infants and children think. The type of
reasoning at this level is centered on the consequences of one’s action and the level is divided
into two stages.
Stage I. The first stage of reasoning focuses on obedience and the avoidance of
punishment. At this stage, a child reasons out that actions are “good” if they are able to
avoid punishment and actions are “bad” if they result to punishment. By that, we
understand that children’s action as thought of is not that they have found what the best
thing to do is, rather, they have found what to do in order to evade getting scolded or
punished.
Stage II. At this point, entering the second stage of reasoning, children act
according to what will satisfy their interests. The good at this stage of development is
what brings pleasure to them. Children’s activities at this stage are focused on those in
line with their interests. Characteristically, at this stage, children still have difficulties
making a distinction between them and others. Others are considered extensions of who
they are and deals with them to the extent that they can bring them pleasure or some
kind of advantage.
The pre-conventional stage symbolizes the stage when children have not yet
understood the importance of rules in their life. The consequences of their acts are most
important as they may lead to either punishment or to their satisfaction or pleasure their
interests having been served. What is right or wrong is not determined by following
rules but by what their actions bring them
Level II Conventional
At this stage, older children, adolescents and young adults learn to conform to societal
expectations. Conventions acquire significance for the individual and learn to follow them.
They now understand the importance of conventions in their life. Level II is subdivided into
two stages.
Stage III. Group approval at this stage is very important for the child. The
desire to belong is a strong motivation for the child in order to act according to what
the group expect from her or him. The more common tendency for the individual is to
conform specially to the values of the immediate group like the family, playmates and
later on to those of the peer group because by doing so it will best serve his or her
interests. Adolescents would therefore seek for the approval of others since they are

16. instrumental to the satisfaction of their new needs. They are also more open and give
more importance to the expectations of larger groups in their community or in school.
Stage IV. The fourth stage is an important development. It is the deepening of
the acceptance of the importance of societal conventions. The individual learns by now
that conventions are not only good for him or for her but the individual realizes that
conventions are necessary for the existence of the society itself. Hence, at this stage,
the individual is better ready in order to accept and value most of the laws, rules and
regulations of one’s community or society. Dutifulness toward the standards of the
society embodied in its rules and laws shape the moral reasoning of the stage.
Adolescents of this stage very importantly uphold laws and regulations that when others
disobey them like when laws are not properly or wrongly implemented, they arecapable
of rebelling against a system that does not respect the laws.
Kohlberg explains that people who merely follow the rules and regulations of
their society or of their organizations or the doctrines of their religion is the best they
can do are trapped in this second stage of the conventional level. Many of them reach
only this far in their moral development. Unable to understand the reasons behind why
there are rules and laws to follow, they tend to develop a kind of legalistic mentality in
which rightness or wrongness of an act is based on whether or not one follows rules
and regulations. It must be noted that Kohlberg’s theory is not about the definition of
the goodness or rightness of an act. He does not propose a kind of ethical theory but
describes the stage of the growth in moral thinking in the different stages of
development.
Level III. Post-Conventional
In the post-conventional level, people realize that what matters is no longer the simple
following of rules in the society that takes precedence. The moral agent by now knows that
what is at stake is more on doing or acting upon the personally acquired beliefs or principles.
What one does is what one ought to do is now the new challenge for the individual moral agent.
Stage V. In the fifth stage, the moral agent realizes the value of social contract
which is about the agreements. Rational agents realize that to serve the common good
which he or she ought to respect and live by. The idea of the common good is post-
conventional because it is theoretically the mature and conscientious moral agents who
are identified to be morally upright. The moral agent binds himself or herself with the
common good whether or not it produces consequences that are beneficial or not. For
clarity, the notion of the common good is upheld higher or given more importance than
existing communal agreements, traditions and rules because these must be examined
using rational discourse. Hence, what is moral is what honors the social contract.
Stage VI. Kohlberg argues that this stage is the highest stage of moral
development. The stage goes beyond social contract. It is about choosing to do acts
based on universal ethical principles acquired by the moral agent himself or herself.

17. This stage goes beyond the societal conventions, rules and agreements and that actions
are morally correct only if they are based on the universal ethical principles. The actions
must be respected only if these reflect the universal ethical principles.
Summary
The different stages of moral development according to Lawrence Kohlberg are not to
be confused with determining what is morally right or wrong. But the stages describe only the
characteristics of each of the developmental stages. Hence, one must be careful not to pass on
moral judgment to an act based on the stages of moral development developed by Kohlberg.
Kohlberg argues that in the stages of moral development, most people are locked up in
the fourth stage. Only very few are able to go beyond it. This means that most people relate
their moral judgment to communal or societal conventions, rules, laws and regulations.
Therefore, the rightness and wrongness of an act depends on whether one follows them or not;
implying therefore a kind of legalistic mentality.
Assessment
Identify the stage of moral development (first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth).
Write your answer on the space provided before the item.
1. It is characterized by following the rules and regulations knowing that these are
significant for the society’s existence.
2. It is the stage when acts are performed in order to avoid pain.
3. Andres wants that his playmates play only games he wants to play.
4. Concerned that the government is not serious about what it should implement as laws
of the land like recognition of the rights of its citizens, Marco decided to join the
rebels.
5. Miss X defied the tradition of lavish wedding celebration believing that it does not
help anymore the family and the new couple.
6. It refers to the stage when the child desires to be always number one.
7. It is characterized by the belief that what rational people have realized as good
is the right thing to do.
8. Consequences of the act are the bases of the rightness or wrongness of
the act.
9. It is the stage during which Boy Y thinks that his playmates are there to
serve his interest or the inability to make distinction between him and others.
10. It is the stage when individuals are convinced that laws and communal traditions
should be honored only when they serve universal principles but should be
rejected when they don’t.

18. Reflection
If we were to ask ourselves, where are we situated in our personal moral judgment? Do
we base our moral decision and choices on conventions or from universal ethical principles
that we have acquired? Have we arrived at acquiring certain universal ethical principles
personally? Are we afraid to honor ethical principles because their consequences might not be
beneficial for us personally?

19. Introduction
The Moral Agent and Contexts
Individual choices, decisions, plans and needs even when initiated and originated from
the individual himself or herself may seem not to be products of purely individual nature. Many
variables of external origins may be at play.
Ramon Reyes as suggested by Bulaong Jr. et al. 2008 (pp. 102-104), strongly pointed
out that multifarious influences play important roles to arrive at a decision. Four significant
cross-points influence people’s ideas, motivations, reactions, thoughts and emotions, including
and especially moral judgments and decisions.
People live not in isolation but are well situated in a given environment and particular
context influencing their behaviors and mentality. Parental influences cannot be undermined
as confirmed by well-known psychologists among those of psychodynamic orientation.
Behaviorists would certainly agree that the environment play an important role to people’s
reaction while denying any cognitive materials to explain human behavior.
Furthermore, the socio-cultural and social contexts are undeniably important elements
to consider that explain the way people are molded and therefore are real sources of influence
to people’s worldview and behavior. The discussion below provides ample situations and
events to explain the critical assumptions that influence people’s daily life.
Learning Outcome
1. Explain human behavior in making moral judgment and decision;
2. Articulate the crucial influences in one’s personal life; and
3. Analyze situations and actions of moral agents.
Activating Prior Learning
Share it! 15 minutes. Share in the class who has influenced you most in making up your
mind to take the course of your life now. Was it a significant individual, a situation, a personal
ambition? Listen to what others have to say about their own experiences.

20. Presentation of Contents
Bulaong Jr. et al. (2018) argues that the one who is tasked to make the moral decision
is a human individual. This person when making moral valuation is not doing it out of nowhere
or from a purely personal stance. The moral agent is, according to Ramon C. Reyes as cited by
Bulaong Jr. et al (2018) is a cross-point. This means that any moral agent is a product of many
forces and events outside of one’s choosing. Reyes mentions 4 cross-points namely: the
physical, the interpersonal, the social and the historical cross-points.
First, the physical cross-point include the genetic endowments, characteristics endemic
to the species Homo sapiens with its limitations and strengths, the geographical realities in
which the individual is born and lives, the kind of natural environment with all resources and
challenges that impact growth and development. All these physical cross-points are influences
not from the individual own choosing.
An important aspect when making a decision which is clearly a physical cross-point
based is intelligence. Intelligent people may for instance make crucial decision to solve a
situation or concern definitively, while others might simply go for a tentative solution unsure
about the veracity of their chosen option. Or, it is possible that someone decides making a
career in sports having special talents that gives assurance of success in a certain field. Usually
special talents are best when it is a product not only of training but also and especially when it
is inherent in the person. These factors based on physical cross-point influence individual
decisions, motivation and judgment which are not one’s own choices but simply something
given.
Second, is social cross point. No person is born outside human contact. Every individual
is a product of interpersonal cross-points. The first and the most influential of themare those
established with the parents. The first human contact of every individual is with parents who
nourish, protect, give care and attention and provide security at the very first stagesof life. How
individuals are brought up in the family influence an individuals’ character, manners and his
or her thinking and mindset. One’s personality is shaped by the people aroundespecially by
those who influence the person during the early years of existence. Again, theseinfluences are
not the individual’s own choice. The person is born of parents who dispose theirtime making
sure that every need of the newborn is addressed and taken care of resulting to a compassionate
interpersonal cross-point. Other interpersonal cross-points come in as the individual’s
relational horizon expands with friends, colleagues, clients, schoolmates, etc.
Third, as individuals grow and discover their way in the outside world, they come into
contact with the broader social context. From now on, the shaping of individual personality
accommodates those brought about by the larger society. The culture and the values inherent
in it are inevitably forces that impact the way individuals perceive the world and judge it .
Again, the social and cultural influences as with the other cross-points are not according to the
choices of any individual but realities in which one is born in and is molded by it to become
partly the person that one is. People see things and make choices based on their training and
are influenced by the kind of association they have forged in life. Unconsciously, they serve

21. as important influences coming from outside when they make options or choose solutions from
available alternatives.
Finally, the historical and cultural cross-point. It means that events especially those
with crucial importance shape an entire nation and every individual living in that particular
society. Significant events like wars, devastating natural calamities, and important societal
changes are powerful forces that lead to new awareness leaving incredible impact on people’s
attitude and thinking. Thereby, people’s lives are shaped by the crucial events of their lives
manifested in their day to day attitude and manner of perceiving new experiences.
Similarly, Filipinos have been shaped by its own unique history. The centuries of
Spanish’s colonization have brought a new consciousness that was different before they landed
in the archipelago. Christianity made critical and permanent changes in the lives of Filipinos.
Even if they chased away the colonizers they kept their Christian faith which they embraced
profoundly. Filipino traditions and lifestyle have been the result of the influences of its
historical journey. History has molded the Filipino people resulting to what we Filipinos are
now. The historical and cultural influences are external influences, but they may have crucial
impact on individuals’ moral valuations and decisions.
So far, history is yet another cross-point interacting with the other ones – the four of
them making impact on the Filipino consciousness, his or her perspective including but
especially his or her type of moral valuation.
However, Reyes believes that the Filipino is not only the product of the cross-points of
his life but is also a product of his or her free will and intention in life. The freedom that every
Filipino enjoys allows one to make choices of his or her own, giving the capacity to direct or
invent one’s own life toward the realization of an ideal self. Reyes describes this point in the
following manner:
The Filipino, “who one is” is a cross-point, but in an existential level. Whose meaning
of existence is the interaction between the fact that one’s being is a product of may forces
outside her/his choosing and his/her ideal future for herself or himself.”
Summary
No individual born is free from all possible influences in this world. Everyone
experiences the natural life cycle of being born, gaining knowledge, going through life and
growing up until death. The moment one is born, one receives all-at-once the trademark of the
physical cross-point. No one escapes everything that is given about being born in a particular
family, community, country and all that is circumstantial about a certain context. Many things
are given without our permission but they all count and influence our being human and all that
every human being does. But one can choose what one can be. Despite the different
possibilities that personal cross-points indicate, one can and therefore have the ability to break
away from all cross points and possess freedom from the cross-points of one’s existence and
invent what one desires in life.

22. Assessment
Identify the following items as Physical, Interpersonal, Social, Historical Cross-
points and Existential Perspective: Write your answer on the space provided before the
number.
1. Endowments received by parents.
2. March 16, 1521.
3. Belief in the” Engkanto” or “maligno.”
4. Ways of doing things, basic personality traits, eating behavior.
5. Elements one shares with others in the society.
6. The belief in personal achievements that gives meaning to life.
7. The Christian values and beliefs upheld by an individual.
8. Creating one’s destiny and belief that every individual is free.
9. The beliefs I share with others and cultural practices like being
hospitable.
10. The recognition that I am similar to others endowed with the ability to
deliberate, think logically, with emotional needs and the need to share
life with others.
Reflection
Which of your cross-points has the greatest impact in your life? Had you followed your
freedom, would you be different now? How honest have you been to yourself?