TURNAROUND SCHOOLS AND ONLINE LEARNING 1 .docx

TURNAROUND SCHOOLS AND ONLINE LEARNING
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Transforming and Turning Around Low-Performing Schools:
The Role of Online Learning
Michael Corry, George Washington University, Washington,
D.C.
Angela Carlson-Bancroft, George Washington University,
Center for the Advancement of
Research in Distance Education, Washington, D.C.
Abstract
This review of the literature examines online learning as a core
strategy for bold, dramatic
curricular reform within transformational or turnaround models
in improving low-performing

K-12 schools. The analysis of the literature in this area found
benefits of online learning in
transforming and turning around low-performing schools to
include: (a) broadening access for all
students and providing opportunities for students to recover
course credit, (b) the potential to
motivate and engage students due to the flexible and self-paced
nature of online learning, and (c)
providing highly individualized and differentiated environments
allowing for personalized
learning. As a number of schools and school districts move to
online learning, it can be used not
only as a curricular reform, but also as a tool to improve student
achievement and turning around
low-performing schools.
Keywords: Credit Recovery, Curricular Reform, Low-
Performing Schools, Online Learning,
Personalized Learning, School Improvement Grant, School
Transformation, School Turnaround

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INTRODUCTION
In 1994, the Improving America’s Schools Act introduced the
concept of holding schools
accountable for student performance on state assessments.
Later, the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act of 2001 enforced this concept by requiring a
regimen of annual testing and
imposing sanctions on schools that fail to make adequate yearly
progress (AYP). In 2008, the
Institute of Education Sciences (IES) reported that out of
98,905 schools nationwide, 65,546 (70
percent) made AYP during the 2006-07 school year. Out of the
remaining schools that did not
make AYP, 10,676 schools were designated as schools in need
of improvement and 2,302
schools were designated in need of restructuring (Herman et al.,
2008). Under NCLB, schools
that did not meet AYP for many years were labeled as “failing”
and “were required to implement
the same one-size-fits-all interventions that did not result in

significant improvement” (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012a).
Then in 2009, the U.S. Department of Education shifted its
focus to turning around the nation’s
lowest-performing schools by overhauling the Title 1 School
Improvement Grant (SIG) program.
As of 2012, there were approximately 5,000 chronically low-
performing schools with half
located in urban areas, a third in rural areas, and the rest in
suburbs and medium-sized towns
(U.S. Department of Education, 2012a). Compared to the
traditional school improvement
strategies which are “often marked by steady, incremental
improvements over a longer time”
(Herman et al., 2008, p. 6), the goal of the SIG program is to
quickly turn around the nation’s
lowest-performing schools through targeted funding of up to $2
million a year per school for a
maximum of three years (Education Week, 2012).

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The importance and timeliness for improvement of these low-
performing schools cannot be
understated. School turnaround is critical to the success and
future of the students, teachers,
administrators, families, and their communities. Given the
benefits and increased use of online
learning in K-12 education, this review aims to (a) provide a
better understanding of online
learning within the context of turnaround schools and (b)
discuss of the role online learning
might play as a core strategy for curricular reform in turnaround
schools.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In this review and meta-analysis of the literature, published
studies were examined that explore
online learning as part of a comprehensive curricular reform
strategy for turning around the
nation’s lowest-performing schools (Rocco & Plakhotnik,
2009). Literature selected for inclusion

in this review was located by (a) a search for information
related to school turnaround and online
learning within education journals, (b) a search of the following
electronic databases – EBSCO,
ERIC, JSTOR, and ProQuest, (c) an exploration of federal
websites, including What Works
Clearinghouse and the Department of Education, and (d) an
examination of websites of national
organizations related to online learning, including the
International Association for Online K-12
Learning (iNACOL) and the National Center on Time &
Learning (NCTL). The database
searches included the following search terms: credit recovery,
cyber learning, distance learning,
e-learning, hybrid learning, online learning, personalized
learning, school improvement, school
improvement grant, school turnaround, self-paced, turnaround
reforms, turnaround schools, and
virtual learning.
The initial search using these terms yielded approximately 658
articles, books, evaluative
reports, videos, and websites from the identified sources. They
consisted of both peer-reviewed

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and other articles. The search was not limited to a particular
time frame because the mid-1990s
marks a point in time when computers and the Internet began to
take hold in K-12 schools and
can be considered a relatively recent phenomenon. The search
was further narrowed by
identifying articles that used more than one of the search terms.
This narrowing resulted in 98
articles. Abstracts for each of the 98 articles were reviewed to
determine their relevancy to the
role of online learning in school turnaround. The review of the
abstracts resulted in 10 relevant
research studies and one dissertation. In summary, this review is
organized in a progressive
format by (a) providing contextual definitions to clarify
understanding of online learning within
the context of turnaround schools and (b) summarizing the
research focused on the role of online

learning as a curricular reform in turnaround schools.
School Turnaround
The newly overhauled SIG program, requiring quick and
dramatic change at the school and
system levels, is also known in the literature as school
turnaround (Duke, 2012; Robinson &
Buntrock, 2011). Rigorous, empirical research on the school
turnaround practice is in “short
supply” (Trujillo & Rénee, 2012, p. 12). However, the IES’
Turning Around Low-Performing
Schools project systematically analyzed three years worth of
test score data from 2002-03
through 2007-08 to identify and study sustained school
turnarounds. The results indicated about
half of the 750 low-performing schools studied showed signs of
improvement within three years;
yet another 35 percent showed no increase in student-
achievement or growth (Herman et al.,
2008; Sparks, 2012; Trujillo & Rénee, 2012). Additionally, the
researchers identified 15 percent
of those schools were deemed “true turnarounds” (Sparks, 2012,
p. 10). These schools were able
to sustain and increase the number of proficient students in

math or reading by at least five
5
percentile points and had student growth rates in the 65
th
percentile statewide (Sparks, 2012;
Trujillo & Rénee, 2012).
Strategies for implementing quick school turnarounds include
(but are not limited to) providing
additional time for teaching and collaboration, strong and
aligned instructional programs, data
for continued improvement, supportive and safe school
environments, more engaged and
supportive communities, operational flexibility and capacity
building, as well as strong
leadership and effective teachers. In general, authors describe
successful turnaround conditions
comprising clear and visible support for dramatic change,

recognizing the vital importance of
leadership, providing support for instructional strategies on the
use of data, and providing
principals with the freedom to act (Duke, 2012; Robinson &
Buntrock, 2011; Sparks, 2012;
Trujillo & Rénee, 2012; U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
An additional possible factor to
the success of school turnaround can be attributed to the number
of improvement strategies
implemented simultaneously. The IES researchers found the
successful turnaround schools in
their study implemented on average fewer improvement
strategies (2.3) than schools that did not
improve (2.6) (Herman et al., 2008).
Provided the many reform strategies to choose from, the SIG
program recognized that schools
have different needs and will be at different points in their
improvement processes, so a tiered
approach was provided that targeted “the most intensive support
to the lowest-performing
schools” (U.S. Department of Education, 2012a, p. 1).
Therefore, a SIG-funded school can
accomplish any one or more improvement strategies by

choosing one of the four prescribed
turnaround options: closure, restart, transformation, or
turnaround.
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The closure model requires the school is closed and all enrolled
students are placed in other
schools in the district that are higher achieving. The restart
model converts the school or closes
and reopens the school under a charter school operator, a
charter management organization, or an
education management organization. The transformation model
requires: (a) replacing the
principal and taking steps to increase teacher and school leader
effectiveness through
professional development, (b) instituting comprehensive
curricular reforms, (c) increasing
learning time and creating community-oriented schools, and (d)
providing operational flexibility

and sustained support. Finally, the turnaround model requires:
(a) replacing the principal, (b)
granting the new principal sufficient operational flexibility to
fully implement a comprehensive
approach, and (c) rehiring staff and no more than 50% of the
original teachers (Center on
Education Policy [CEP], 2012; Duke, 2012; Trujillo & Rénee,
2012; U.S. Department of
Education, 2010b).
As of March 2011, there were 820 SIG-funded schools. Out of
these 820 schools, 74 percent
chose the transformation model and 20 percent chose the
turnaround model (CEP, 2012; Trujillo
& Rénee, 2012). Therefore, in the first round of SIG funding
more than 750 schools were
required to replace principals and/or staff. Additionally, while
the four-percent of first-round
grantees that chose the restart model were not formally required
to replace principals or staff,
many did so as part of their conversion to a charter or privately
managed school (CEP, 2012).
As part of a comprehensive school improvement plan, more than

90 percent of SIG grantees
chose extended learning time (ELT) (Silva, 2012). According to
the National Center on Time &
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Learning (NCTL, 2012), schools with at least 30 minutes more
time per day and/or 10 more days
per year are considered to utilize ELT. Additionally, the federal
definition of “increased learning
time” not only means a longer school day but is characterized
by “the extent to which added time
is dedicated to: (1) additional instruction in core and non-core
subject areas, (2) enrichment
activities and enhanced instructional programs, and (3) teacher
professional activities” (Kolbe,
Partridge, & O’Reilly, 2011, p. 12). Data analyzed from the
national School and Staffing Survey
found that schools with an extended school day received more
instruction in core subject areas

than their peers who attended schools without an extended day
(Kolbe et al., 2011). As a result,
those schools successful with ELT did not just add time, they
integrated more time into an
overall model for successful teaching and learning so it became
“less about time and more about
quality teaching and learning” (Silva, 2012, p. 4).
Moreover, the SIG-funded schools with ELT are turning to
technology and online learning to
boost learning time (Silva, 2012). For example, Silva highlights
multiple schools utilizing
technology during the additional time such as a school in
Mississippi starting a 90-minute,
computer-based literacy class for students with low scores in
reading. Another high school in
Michigan has implemented ELT by using a management system
that helps districts provide
virtual instruction in remediation and ACT preparation. And yet
another example of technology
in ELT focuses on a network of charter schools offering not just
online learning but year-round
start dates and early graduation. The use of technology and
online learning is growing rapidly

“and will surely expand options not just for extending time but
for enhancing learning” (p. 11).
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Online Learning
The U.S. Department of Education (2010a) likens the origin of
distance learning to the early
correspondence courses over 100 years ago. It started as a type
of distance education in the
1980s and 1990s as offerings aspiring to enhance the quality of
learning experiences and
outcomes (Geith & Vignare, 2008). The term online learning is
used interchangeably with other
monikers such as (but not limited to) distance education, virtual
learning, cyber learning, and e-
learning. For the purpose of this article, the authors will refer to
online learning as education in

which instruction and content are primarily delivered over the
Internet or in a “hybrid”
combination of face-to-face and online. It can be offered with
synchronous (real-time) or
asynchronous communication between instructors and learners,
ultimately providing more
flexible access for content and instruction at any time and from
any place (Allen & Seaman,
2013; Geith & Vignare, 2008; International Association for K-
12 Online Learning [iNACOL],
2011; U.S Department of Education, 2010a; Watson, 2005).
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2010a), online
learning is one of the fastest
growing trends in education. In higher education where online
learning has historically been
more prevalent, more than 29 percent of students took at least
one online course during the Fall
2009 semester. This was a 21 percent increase over the number
reported the previous year
surpassing the 1.2 percent growth of the overall higher
education student population (Xu &
Jaggars, 2011). By 2011, the number of college students taking
at least one online course

increased by over 570,000 surpassing 6.7 million students. Just
in California State University
system alone, the online enrollment is expected to increase by
250,000 students due to an
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entirely new separate online university being launched in 2013
(Allen & Seaman, 2013;
Zatynski, 2013).
The number of K-12 school students enrolling in online learning
is also increasing. Opportunities
to enroll in online learning during the 2002-03 and 2004-05
school years grew by 65 percent
(U.S. Department of Education, 2010a). A district survey
conducted in 2007 estimated that more
than a million K-12 students took online courses in the 2007-08
school year (U.S. Department of
Education, 2010a). More recent estimates from the International
Association for K-12 Online

Learning (iNACOL, 2012) report there were 1,816,400
enrollments in K-12 online courses
during the 2009-10 school year. Additionally, enrollments in
full-time online schools during the
2009-10 school year were estimated at 200,000 students, which
increased to 275,000 in the
2011-12 school year. This represents a remarkable growth from
the estimates in 2000 of only 40-
50,000 enrollments in K-12 online education. Furthermore,
online education has begun to
expand beyond high school to include K-8. Therefore, it can be
expected that more online
options will continue to be developed for students and
enrollments will continue to increase.
In the literature on student performance, students enrolled in
online courses do “as well or better
than their classroom counterparts” (Barbour, 2009, p. 16). The
U.S. Department of Education
(2010a) meta-analysis conducted of 50 experimental and quasi-
experimental studies contrasting
different online learning practices found the outcomes of
students engaged in online learning
exceeded those receiving face-to-face instruction. The results

found that “students in online
conditions performed modestly better, on average, than those
learning the same material through
traditional face-to-face instruction” (p. xiv). Additionally,
students in online courses exhibit
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higher achievement when a course has a strong emphasis in
online interaction and when the
students actively participate in online discussion (Missett,
Reed, Scot, Callahan, and Slade,
2010).
Advantages observed in the meta-analysis for online learning
may be a product of unique
qualities and conditions rather than solely a product of the
instructional delivery method. The
authors of the meta-analysis note these interpretations should
take into account the fact that

online and face-to-face conditions differ on multiple
dimensions. For example, online learning
offers more opportunities for expanded learning time and
collaboration possibly contributing to
the enhanced learning outcomes. Therefore, the effectiveness of
online learning may be related
to the quality of the program and the differences in the design
and delivery of online learning
courses may explain some of the variance in student
performance (Blazer, 2009).
Along with the benefits of online learning, there are also some
challenges including high start-up
costs, access issues surrounding the digital divide, the approval
or accreditation process, as well
as student readiness. Furthermore, the benefits of online
learning outlined above can only be
attributed to students who complete their online classes.
Attrition, defined as a decrease in the
student enrollment during a course of study (Martinez, 2003;
Ni, Diomede, & Rutland, 2013), is
typically higher in online courses than in traditional face-to-
face courses (Blazer, 2009; Moody,
2004; Ni et al, 2013). Therefore, attrition rates continue to be a
concern among academic leaders

(Allen & Seaman, 2013; Barbour & Reeves, 2009). A survey
conducted by Allen and Seaman
(2013) noted this barrier as an Important or a Very Important
factor by 56.1 percent of chief
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academic officers surveyed in 2007. This proportion increased
by and additional five percentage
points to 61.9 percent the next year in 2008, only to continue to
rise to 73.5 percent in 2012.
Possible explanations for high attrition rates in online learning
environments have been attributed
to technical challenges, registering for proctored exams,
difficulties navigating the online
platform, a sense of isolation, lack of face-to-face
accountability, personal obligations, and a
general lack of support. Yet another reason cited for high
attrition rates has been attributed to the

lack of motivation, initiative, and management skills from the
online student (Allen & Seaman,
2013; Zatynski, 2013). The proportion of academic leaders who
cite the need for more discipline
on the part of the online student has increased “from just over
80 percent in 2007 to 88.8 percent
in 2012” (Allen & Seaman, 2013, p. 6). High attrition rates
continue to be a concern for
academic leaders as they feel this remains a barrier to the
growth of online instruction (Allen &
Seaman, 2013; Xu & Jaggars, 2011; Zatynski, 2013).
Despite the challenges of online learning, the future of K-12
education will most certainly
include some form of online learning. It continues to grow
rapidly and has expanded beyond a
strategy for extended learning time to a popular strategy for
turning around low-performing
schools due to its flexible nature providing access to content
and instruction for all students,
assembling and disseminating instructional content more
efficiently, and increasing student-
teacher ratios while achieving learning outcomes equal to those
of traditional classroom

instructions (U.S. Department of Education, 2012b).
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Online Learning in School Turnaround
In 2011, the Alliance for Excellent Education hosted an event,
How Blended Learning Can Help
Turn Around Struggling Schools, representatives from
struggling schools around the nation
spoke to their experiences using online learning to improve the
graduation and dropout rates
while raising achievement (Alliance for Excellent Education,
2011). The following vignettes,
Charlotte-Mecklenberg Schools and Carpe Diem Collegiate
High School, are two of these
stories.
Charlotte-Mecklenberg Schools.

The Charlotte-Mecklenberg school district in Charlotte, NC
began using a blended learning
model which Hope Johnston, Distance Learning Advisor,
defined as an environment where
students work online in classes but are also provided a face-to-
face certified teacher, adult
facilitator, or teacher assistant for additional assistance when
needed (Alliance for Excellent
Education, 2011). The three goals for the districts blended
learning model included raising
cohort graduation, increase access for credit recovery and
accelerated courses, and increase
college readiness/awareness. As of 2011, the district met their
goal to broaden access by offering
multiple online courses including 19 advanced placement, 27
honors, 8 world languages, and 12
core classes in English, math, science, and social studies. In the
2009-10 school year, student
enrollments reached 1,171 only to see an increase in student
enrollments the following year to
5,785, a 394% increase. According to Johnston, the online
world provides different ways for
learning and creates opportunities for “truly personalized
education” (Alliance for Excellent

Education, 2011).
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Carpe Diem Collegiate High School.
Carpe Diem Collegiate High School in Yuma, AZ started with
the question, “Does our
pedagogy match our learner and our times?” (Alliance for
Excellent Education, 2011). Speaker,
Rick Ogston, Executive Director, discussed the importance
online learning as not just a technical
supplement to instruction but the core of instruction. With the
Carpe Diem schools, all core
concepts are introduced and practiced through an online
environment followed by face-to-face
instruction to receive remediation or extended learning
opportunities. According to Ogston, most
student’s scores continue to rise and the norm is 92 percent or

above proficiency. More
importantly, for two consecutive years Carpe Diem has led the
county and state in student
growth, which he directly attributes to including technology
into a new ecology of learning
(Alliance for Excellent Education, 2011).
Therefore, not only does online learning offer students a full
range of enhanced curriculum
choices and support, but it also offers additional courses,
academic credits, and support toward a
diploma (Watson & Gemin, 2008). As a result, an increasing
number of schools and school
districts have turned to online learning as a way to improve
their schools. Taking this concept
one step further, online learning as a curricular reform can be a
strategy to improve student
achievement and turn around low-performing schools.
Online Learning as a Curricular Reform in School Turnaround
A comprehensive literature review conducted by the U.S.
Department of Education in 2012(b)
offered three overarching benefits for using online learning as a
comprehensive curricular reform

and can be applied to low-performing schools. The benefits
comprise the following: (a)
broadening access for all students and providing opportunities
for students to recover course
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credit, (b) the potential to motivate and engage students due to
the flexible and self-paced nature
of online learning, and (c) providing highly individualized and
differentiated environments
allowing for personalized learning.
Broadening Access
One of the key benefits of online learning is that it can be
offered free of time and geographic
constraints. The right to education “depends on both availability
of key infrastructure and its
obstacle-free accessibility (Geith & Vignare, 2008, p. 107).
Thereby, online learning broadens
access to courses taught by qualified teachers and is a model

that provides improved availability
for a variety of students whether they are in remote locations or
in other situations where
challenges make the traditional school model impractical (Geith
& Vignare, 2008; U.S.
Department of Education, 2012b). In the past, online learning
primarily targeted advanced
students who did not have access to certain courses in the
traditional school setting. The rapid
growth of online learning has extended to students with
disabilities and credit recovery to
students who have failed traditional courses (Blazer, 2009).
Online learning is a cost-effective way of packaging a complete
learning experience that is more
accessible to all populations by offering fewer barriers
(provided the student has Internet
connection) and more choices in what and where they learn
(Geith & Vignare, 2008). In a
qualitative study conducted by Graves, Asunda, Plant, and Goad
(2011) “asynchronous online
access of course curriculum in the STEM disciplines appears to
be helping students gain
knowledge of course content” (p. 327). Through a cross case

analysis of 11 interviews of
students enrolled in postsecondary courses, students with
learning disabilities and/or Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) self-reported
asynchronous access supported their
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learning habits because they could access the course material
anytime. The participants
explained they liked the on-demand availability of course
material for studying purposes, stating
they could study “independently and review course notes with
more confidence at their own pace
without the feel of time constraints and pressures experienced in
a typical classroom” (p. 325).
Schools also turn to online learning opportunities to provide
courses not available at their schools
and to provide opportunities for students to recover course
credits from classes missed, failed, or

dropped (iNACOL, 2012; Watson & Gemin, 2008; Xu &
Jaggars, 2011; Zatynski, 2013). Credit
recovery differs from ‘first time credit’ in that the student has
previously satisfied the seat time
requirement but was unsuccessful in earning academic credit
towards graduation (Watson &
Gemin, 2008). According to iNACOL (2012), credit recovery
online courses have the highest
student enrollment and are especially important for urban
schools. While there is ongoing debate
about the numbers of dropouts in the United States, one study
estimates 1.2 million students or
30% of all students in the United States are dropping out before
earning a high school diploma
(Jones, 2011). Credit recovery is one strategy to decrease the
high failure and dropout rates.
The flexibility of online courses offers an advantage to schools
and students looking for
alternatives to the traditional model of credit recovery, which
was confined to retaking a course
during the regular school day or during summer school (Jones,
2011). Since the seat time
requirement has been fulfilled, online credit recovery courses

have the ability to concentrate on
concepts and material that needs to be mastered. Through a
qualitative, phenomenological
design, Jones (2011) conducted a study to document what
factors they believed contributed to
their success in an online credit recovery program. Interviews
with twenty retained ninth grade
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students perceived they were in control of the learning
environment in the online credit recovery
course, which contributed to their success. Yet, the key to a
successful online credit recovery
program is motivating and engaging students who have failed in
the traditional classroom setting
effectively individualizing instruction (Jones, 2011; Watson &
Gemin, 2008).
Flexible and Self-Paced Environments
With online learning it is now possible to create flexible

learning environments without time and
geographical constraints; “some would argue even more
effective and flexible experiences than
face-to-face models" (Geith & Vignare, 2008), p. 119).
Armstrong’s (2011) analysis of data from
interviews, think-aloud observations, and online focus groups of
16 undergraduate students
found the main reasons for pursuing online instruction were
flexibility and self-control within the
learning environment. Rhode (2009) in a mixed methods
research study on 10 online adult
leaners enrolled in a fully-online professional development
certificate program maintained that
the flexibility and independence of the self-paced learning
environment “supplanted the need for
certain types of interaction” (p. 16).
Exploring the K12 realm, Thomson’s (2010) mixed methods
research study found 68 percent of
the 28 online instructors surveyed believed it was essential to
allow students the flexibility to
work at their own pace. Also, 60 percent of the 65 online gifted
students in grades 3-12 surveyed
rated flexibility and the ability to work at one’s own pace as

essential. In addition, Jones’ (2011)
study of twenty retained ninth grade students felt they were
successful in the online credit
recovery courses because they could move at their own pace. In
a traditional classroom these
participants expressed they felt rushed, would get lost, or
become confused. Whereas an online
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credit recovery course allowed the students to slow down and
learn the material at their own
pace.
Alternatively, research has shown learners may experience a
sense of isolation and alienation in
an online environment. Through a questionnaire-based survey of
522 online learners, Wei, Chen,
and Kinshuk (2012) found that user interface and social cues
have significant effects on social

presence reducing the feelings of isolation and alienation which
in turn affects learning
performance. Sun and Rueda (2012) surveyed 203 online higher
education students strongly
correlated emotional engagement with interest, “suggesting that
it is important to facilitate
emotional engagement by increasing student interest” (p. 199).
The flexible and self-paced
nature of online learning has the potential to motivate and
engage students in active learning by
replacing lecture time with online and face-to-face discussions,
group and individual work, as
well as providing instantaneous feedback, and one-on-one
support.
Survey participants of district and school-level leaders in a
benchmark survey conducted in 2012,
identified the most important driver (93 percent) for successful
implementation of online courses
is offering rigorous curriculum that is designed to accommodate
different learning styles and
keeps students focused and engaged. It was also reported that 88
percent of the respondents
found the following factors as important for success; teachers
who are readily available to assist

struggling students in a timely manner, tracking and reporting
student progress, as well as initial
and ongoing assessments to benchmark and measure student
progress (K12 Inc., 2012).
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Rather than being passive recipients of transmitted knowledge,
students are engaged by helping
to create the learning environment (Friedman and Friedman,
2013). Broadly accessible digital
content provides a range of modalities, topics, complexity, and
representations to ensure the
content meets every student’s interests and abilities ultimately
capturing and holding the students
attention and increasing motivation (Alliance for Excellent
Education, 2013; Software &
Information Industry Association [SIIA], 2013; Twigg, 2003a;
Twigg, 2003b; U.S. Department

of Education, 2012b). These learning environments and
experiences can be “so engaging and
compelling that they ignite a new, insatiable curiosity for more
and more knowledge” (Project
Tomorrow, 2011, p. 14). Such flexible, self-paced, and engaging
environments provides learners
the freedom to customize aspects of their learning experience to
meet their personal and
educational preferences, creating personalized learning
available for all students (Project
Tomorrow, 2011).
Personalized Learning
To further expand on the benefit of the flexible and self-paced
nature, online learning provides
highly individualized and differentiated learning opportunities,
optimizing an environment for
personalizing learning. (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2013;
Archambault et al., 2010;
Christensen & Horn, 2008; U.S. Department of Education,
2012b; Waldeck, 2007; Watson &
Gemin, 2008). Using the definition provided in the National
Education Technology Plan (U.S.
Department of Education, 2010a), personalized learning not

only encompasses the
individualization and differentiation, but also allows students to
draw on their personal interests
to direct learning objectives and content that meet their needs.
These factors can result in
increased student engagement and motivation, time on task, and
ultimately better learning
outcomes (Repetto, Cavanaugh, Wayer, & Liu, 2010; U.S.
Department of Education, 2012b).
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This type of learning environment has been identified as an
effective strategy in working with
many groups of students including those at-risk, with
disabilities, and the gifted (Watson &
Gemin, 2008).
Asynchronous usability, or the ability to download course
material outside of traditional class

meetings, provides students the opportunity to study at times
more conducive to their individual
learning needs (Graves, Asunda, Plant, & Goad, 2011, p. 319).
This was demonstrated in the
qualitative study conducted by Graves, Asunda, Plant, & Goad
(2011), where the students with
learning disabilities and/or ADHD were able to access at any
time or place the digital recordings
of courses. Instead of having to focus on lectures/discussion
without the burden of taking notes,
the students have a complete and accurate record of what was
said and demonstrated allowing
them to utilize the recording to meet their individual ways of
learning.
In Thomson’s (2010) mixed methods study, both instructors and
gifted students interviewed and
surveyed found the online format more conducive to a “more
individualized and differentiated
learning experience than is often possible in a regular
classroom” (p. 663). In the online
environment, the students were able to work at their own pace,
have more time to reflect, engage
in more “self-directed and independent learning” (p. 663).
According to the instructors, 74

percent rated personalized learning as essential to the successful
online learning experience for
gifted students.
In this section, evidence concentrating on the benefits of online
learning is introduced in
anticipation of igniting a discussion about the role online
learning may play as a core strategy for
20
curricular reform in transforming and turning around low-
performing schools. The following
descriptions of the flipped classroom and Khan Academy offer
examples of curricular reform
models that exhibit all three benefits as outlined; broadened
access, flexible and self paced, and
individualized and differentiated instruction.
Flipped Classroom

A flipped classroom as defined by Bergmann and Sams (2012)
is “that which is traditionally
done in a class is now done at home” with the main content
most commonly delivered via online
videos and “that which is traditionally done as homework is
now completed in class” (p. 13).
There are some similar features between a flipped classroom
and online learning, and they
“could possibly be interchangeable in certain contexts” (p. 7).
Flipping the classroom creates an
ideal merger of online and face-to-face instruction allowing
teachers to effectively leverage
technology and increase individualized education.
A flipped classroom model embraces all three benefits of online
learning as a comprehensive
curricular reform. First, the content delivered via online
methods allows for students to access
the material at any place and at any time. Second, the flipped
classroom system allows for
students to master the material at their own pace. Additionally,
each student is provided with
timely feedback as the teachers take on a more “tutorial role”
(Bergmann & Sams, 2012, p. 14)

rather than a deliverer of content. Finally, flipping the
classroom establishes a framework that
enables teachers to effectively differentiate and personalize
instruction so it is tailored to meet
each student’s individual needs. During one-on-one interactions
the teachers are able to work
with the individual students to quickly correct misconceptions
that keep them from mastering the
21
content allowing the direct instruction to be asynchronous, “so
differentiation for each student
becomes possible” (p. 62).
It is unclear how many teachers and schools are using the
flipped model, but the national Flipped
Learning Network has seen participation in its online
community more than quadruple “from
2,500 to about 11,000” (DeFour, 2013) in the past year. It is
also uncertain whether the flipped

model is an effective curricular reform as it is in its infancy. At
the time of publication of their
book, Bergmann & Sams (2012) knew of some action research
being conducted, “but very little
has yet been completed and published” (p. 103). However, there
are many testimonials such as
this one from Greg Green (2012), a principal at Clintondale
High School in Michigan. After one
quarter of using the flipped model, the school-wide failure rate
dropped from 61.2 percent to just
below 10 percent. Moreover, within one year of switching to the
flipped model, the school was
removed from the persistently lowest achieving (PLA) school
list. By using the flipped model,
Green stated they “put the best instruction in front of all
students in a way that matches their
learning style and life circumstances to give them the attention
they need to be successful.”
Khan Academy© 2014
Khan Academy © 2014 is a not-for-profit organization with free
online educational materials and
resources. With a library of videos covering K-12 math,
biology, chemistry, physics, and various

topics in humanities it is accessible for anyone, anywhere and
students can work and learn in an
adaptive assessment environment at their own pace at any time
(Khan Academy © 2014, 2012a).
The following case study demonstrates how a school with low-
performing math students
increased their scores through the implementation of a Khan
Academy © 2014 learning lab for all
students enrolled in an Algebra Readiness or Algebra 1 course.
22
In 2010, Oakland Unity High School, located in Oakland, CA
conducted a diagnostic test with
all incoming freshman to evaluate basic algebra and arithmetic
skills. The results showed most
students needed to retake Algebra Readiness or Algebra 1
courses. After retaking these courses
through the Khan Academy © 2014 learning labs, there was an
improvement in proficiency scores

(approximately 60 percent) from 9 percent to 32 percent.
Additionally, the number of students
scoring below basic (approximately 40 percent) decreased from
77 percent to 28 percent. With
the implementation of the Khan Academy © 2014 labs, the
students scored consistently higher on
solving equations, absolute value, and the first semester final
exams. The improvements
continued with an increase of scores above 80 percent on all of
the tests (Castillo & McIntosh,
2012).
Castillo and McIntosh (2012) attribute some of the success with
the Khan Academy labs to the
online environment and short video clips allowing students to
watch them repeatedly as needed.
The students were able to delve deeper into the material and
become more engaged, effectively
taking more responsibility for their own learning. Peter
McIntosh, a 9
th
grade math teacher, says,
“Now that they’re fully engaged, I have to find a way to take
them deeper into more complex

problems, solving more difficult word problems because they
are more engaged and they’re
ready for it” (Khan Academy © 2014, 2012b). Kallie Berg,
another 9
th
grade math teacher, attributes
the success of her students to the way the Kahn Academy ©
2014 is designed allowing for greater
differentiation. “Some students” she said “took off right
away…So I have students that are
learning calculus already and some that jumped right into
Geometry right away…But as more
and more of them are getting stronger, they’re getting happier
about making choices about what
23
they get to learn” (Khan Academy © 2014, 2012b). According
to Castillo & McIntosh (2012), they
believe that the Khan Academy © 2014 approach met student’s

learning needs in order to deliver
real learning in math proficiency.
CONCLUSION
As the aim of the SIG program is to quickly turn around the
lowest-performing K-12 schools,
online learning has the potential to be a core strategy for
curricular reform within the
transformational or turnaround models. This review and meta-
analysis of the literature found
benefits of online learning in transforming and turning around
low-performing schools to
include: (a) broadening access for all students and providing
opportunities for students to recover
course credit, (b) the potential to motivate and engage students
due to the flexible and self-paced
nature of online learning, and (c) providing highly
individualized and differentiated
environments allowing for personalized learning. Online
offerings are able to reach more
students at any place and at any time increasing the availability
for all students and offering
students a full range of enhanced curriculum choices, as well as
academic credits and support

toward a diploma. They offer flexibility for students to learn at
their own pace with expanded
learning time to master complex content, instantaneous
feedback, and one-on-one support while
achieving learning outcomes equal to those of traditional
classroom instruction. Because the
content is broadly accessible it can provide a range of topics,
complexity, and representations
ensuring the content meets every student’s interests and
abilities ultimately increasing attention
and motivation. Lastly, since online offerings offer continuous
access to a variety of learning
materials, students can progress toward individualized goals at
their own pace optimizing an
environment for truly personalized learning. As a result, online
learning is proving to be an
important and transformational tool (Watson & Gemin, 2008).
24

Future Research
Research on effective turnaround improvement strategies is in
its infancy as is the development
of online learning models. The current literature offers several
school turnaround reform
strategies for implementing quick school turnaround, including
operational flexibility and
increasing ELT. However, while there is some empirical
research and narrative reviews available
on the school turnaround practice in general, research or
reviews pertaining to the use of online
learning as a curricular reform strategy in turning around low-
performing schools are limited. In
addition, this review and meta-analysis refers primarily to K-12
studies; future studies should
examine post-secondary institutions, including community
colleges and higher education
institutions._
Due to the limited research in these areas, it is essential for
researchers to inform practitioners
and policy makers in this important area. Specifically,
practitioners and policy makers need to

understand where the field is today and the role online learning
can play as an integral part in
transforming and turning around low-performing schools. This
leaves many important questions
that require further research and development. As researchers
begin to address these questions,
the outcomes will impact education in general, but will also
provide many of the answers on how
to transform and turn around low-performing schools. The
impact of this research on schools,
students, families, and society in general cannot be undervalued
and should be a priority for
educational researchers moving forward.
25
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Assignment #2 – Individual
Topic: Understanding the Customer
Marketing 116-007 – Fall 2015
15% of Final Grade / 82 Marks
Due Date – Week 9
Overview/Assignment Objective:
“Consumers’ product and service preferences are constantly
changing. To address this constant state of flux and to create a
proper marketing mix for a well-defined market, marketing
managers must have a thorough knowledge of consumer
behavior.” (Lamb, 2013)
This assignment will assist you in better understanding the
consumer. “Understanding how consumers make purchase
decisions can help marketing managers in many ways.”(Lamb,
2013)
Background:
You are a new marketing consultant working for two different
clients:
a) First you are working for Nike helping them produce a new
line of athletic shoes to be targeted to students.
b) Then you will be consulting with Apple Canada on their
current website for both the MacBook Air, and MacBook Pro
products.
Report Questions:
Nike:

1. List and explain five (5) athletic shoe product attributes that
might appeal to the student subculture. (5 marks)
2. Now list and explain the steps in your customers’ decision
purchase process. (10 marks)
3. Recommend three (3) marketing strategies that can influence
the targeted customer’s decision to purchase, be specific. (15
marks)
Apple:
4. Describe the level of involvement and the involvement
factors likely to be associated with buying a new MacBook
product. (5 marks)
5. Now visit Apple’s website: www.apple.com - do you think
the site simplifies or complicates the process for the average
consumer? Explain your rationale in detail. (10 marks)
6. Now make three (3) marketing web site recommendations for
Apple that can better influence and/or simplify the targeted
customer’s purchase decision, be specific. (15 marks)
Report Requirements:
· Provide a word processed professional report outlining you’re
your understanding of the customer and recommendations.
· Your report must be five pages in length, single spaced with a
font size of 12, including cover and reference pages.
· Your cover page should include the report title, your name,
student #, course code, section number, professor name and a
copy of the rubric below.
· Your report will be graded out of 82 marks and will represent
15% of your final grade.
· The report must be authored individually by the MKTG 116-
Fall 2015 student to be graded
· Place your finished report into the MKTG 116-007 assignment
e-drop box before midnight November 13th, 2015. Please also
bring a paper copy of your typed assignment to class for your
professor.

· Late assignments will NOT be accepted unless extenuating
circumstances exist with supporting documentation.
Assignment #2 - Marking Rubric
Report Component
Your Mark/
Potential Mark
· Product attributes
/5
· Customer purchase process
/10
· Marketing Strategies
· 1st recommendation
· 2nd recommendation
· 3rd recommendation
/5
/5
/5
· Involvement, and involvement factors
/5
· Website Critique
/10
· Website Strategies
· 1st recommendation
· 2nd recommendation
· 3rd recommendation

/5
/5
/5
· Overall Report Style/Format
· Your report should professional written and should be error
free as it relates to spelling/grammar/ punctuations
/5
· APA Citations
/5
Report Mark:
/70
Weighted Grade:
/15%
Feedback:
The Role of The SupeRinTendenT in CloSing
The AChievemenT gAp in diveRSe
SmAll SChool diSTRiCTS
Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative, narrative study was to
investigate
the role of the superintendent in leading the district to be more
culturally
proficient, resulting in the narrowing of the achievement gap in
culturally
diverse small districts. Eight superintendents of small school

districts were
purposefully selected based on their district size and their
success in nar-
rowing the achievement gap. Findings suggested that
superintendents who
recognize the importance of cultural proficiency and declare
their willing-
ness to lead the district through necessary focused change to
address cul-
tural proficiency lead their districts to reduce the achievement
gap.
The national drive for excellence in education has focused on
closing
the achievement gap between White students and other
demographic popu-
lations found in public schools in the United States (Manning &
Kovach,
2003). Closing the achievement gap has been a focus of
educators across the
United States over the past three decades and most recently with
the imple-
mentation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (Ferguson,
2002).
Student demographics are quickly changing across the United
States at the same time accountability for students meeting
minimum stan-
dards is increasing for district and campus administrators
(Marx, 2006).
For example, in Texas, performance for all students and groups
of students
is reported through the AEIS (Academic Excellence Indicator
System)
(Texas Education Agency (TEA), 2006). Data from the AEIS
suggested an

achievement gap between white students and other groups of
students in
each of the cognitive areas assessed on the Texas Assessment of
Knowl-
edge and Skills (TAKS), (TEA, 2007). The report also showed
minority
students represented the majority of students in Texas (TEA,
2007). Ac-
cording to the Texas Education Agency, African American
students repre-
sent 14.7%, Hispanic students represent 45.3%, and White
students repre-
sent 36.5% of the student population in Texas.
Within the complex leadership role of the superintendent is the
goal of closing the achievement gap and building cultural
proficiency in
diverse school districts among the teachers, community
members, admin-
istrators, and parents of the district (Lindsey, Roberts, &
CampbellJones,
2005). White (2007) noted a primary responsibility of the
superintendent
is to bring out the best leadership qualities in colleagues,
parents, and stu-
dents and cause them to embrace and promote the district’s
vision and
Howell Wright, Jr.
Sandra Harris
Planning and Changing
Vol. 41, No. 3/4, 2010, pp. 220–233
220

goals. In fact, all the visions, missions, and decisions of a
school learn-
ing community should be focused on student learning (DuFour,
2004) and
success, and developing vision and goals that focus on
improving stu-
dent achievement should be established collaboratively in a
community
of learners (DuFour & Eaker, 1998). Practicing cultural
proficiency is re-
quired to create this community of learners (Littky et al., 2004).
Conse-
quently, the superintendent’s role is complex and accountable to
the mul-
ticultural issues that affect the academic achievement of the
students in
our schools today (White, 2007). Educational leaders of
academically suc-
cessful districts with populations of demographically diverse
students rec-
ognize that the achievement gap has multiple causes and must
be confront-
ed with varied approaches, including training educators to
understand the
cultural differences of the students they teach (Rothman, 2001).
purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative, narrative study was to
investigate
the role of the superintendent in leading the district to be more
culturally
proficient resulting in the narrowing of the achievement gap in
culturally

diverse small districts. Cultural proficiency is defined as the
honoring of
differences among cultures, viewing diversity as a benefit, and
interacting
knowledgeably and respectfully with a variety of cultural
groups (Lindsey
et al., 2005). For this study cultural proficiency was described
as the ac-
tions and the accommodations within a district that aid in the
understand-
ing of cultural differences, resulting in the closing of the
achievement gap.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. How important is it that the superintendent recognizes
cultural profi-
ciency within the school district?
2. How has the superintendent’s recognition of cultural
differences im-
pacted the leadership of the school district?
3. What is the role of the superintendent in leading the school
district to
become more culturally proficient?
4. What strategies have superintendents implemented that
directly ad-
dress the multicultural diversity in the district?
5. In what ways have the changes the district has made
developing cul-
tural proficiency among its stakeholders impacted the school
district?
6. What is the role of the superintendent in working with the
board of

trustees in leading the district to become more culturally
proficient?
Role of the Culturally Proficient Superintendent
A task force composed of representatives from multiple super-
intendent leadership institutions declared that leadership has
significant
The Role of the Superintendent
Vol. 41, No. 3/4, 2010, pp. 220–233 221
effects on student learning and successful superintendents must
work to
respond to the opportunities and challenges of educating diverse
groups
of students (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). Waters and Marzano
(2006) ar-
gued that leadership from the superintendent is essential to the
academic
achievement of the students in a district. They found that
effective super-
intendents set goals for the district through collaborative
practices, estab-
lish non-negotiable goals for achievement and instruction, and
support
the goals with resources and assistance from the board of
trustees. Price
(2007) interviewed five superintendents of culturally diverse
districts and
found that they recognized the importance of cultural
proficiency and thus

focused on leading the district to address cultural proficiency.
This com-
mitment to lead the district to be more culturally proficient led
to reducing
the achievement gap in all five districts.
According to Petersen (2004), The No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) has influenced the role of the superintendent with
significant
challenges that bring the position to the front lines of student
achievement.
School leaders should investigate the nature of the achievement
gap and
its root causes as a part of their responsibility, argued Snell
(2003). Snell
proposed that school leaders should implement a coherent and
broad range
of strategies that are designed to improve teaching and learning
over time.
Additionally, Snell suggested that leaders should model a
consistent sense
of urgency towards the problem, such as helping the school
confront dif-
ficult equity issues. The superintendent as the district chief
executive offi-
cer has the ultimate responsibility of closing the achievement
gap between
student groups in the school district (Houston, 2001).
Superintendents must understand the different cultures found in
the communities where they serve (Hoyle, Bjork, Collier, &
Glass, 2005).
Hoyle et al. (2005) reported several important tenets of cultural
sensitiv-
ity, including listening to the communities and being respectful
of diversi-

ty issues. These authors suggested superintendents would be
wise to build
learning communities inside and outside the school buildings to
respond
to the needs of different cultures.
Trumbull, Greenfield, and Quiroz (2003) declared that
superinten-
dents need to recognize the big picture of the need for cultural
proficiency
within the school system. The researchers argued that if the goal
of educa-
tion is focused on the learning of each student in a multicultural
society then
superintendents should lead their staff to recognize and value
the cultural
differences of their students. Superintendents should ensure that
schools
provide opportunities for diverse groups of students to interact
socially un-
der conditions designed to reduce fear and anxiety (Hoyle et al.,
2005).
Henze (2000) reported that proactive leaders can make a dif-
ference in race relations with the specific reforms they
implement. She
found that superintendents who encouraged leadership from
stakehold-
ers, who cared about achieving a more equitable and socially
just environ-
ment, lead efforts to improve interethnic relations. The
researcher suggest-
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Harris

Planning and Changing222
ed that building upon blended themes connected the vision of
the school
to its practices. Additionally, Harris (2004) suggested that
campus leaders
should support diversity by using an inviting and welcoming
policy with
parents, students, and community members.
In an examination of graduate students preparing for school
lead-
ership roles, Brown (2006) found that leaders increased their
perception of
their personal knowledge and action toward social justice
following par-
ticipation in a transformative learning process. She argued that
education-
al leaders need to work for social justice and social change to
provide the
appropriate education for a multicultural society. The researcher
affirmed
that the development of transformative leaders was necessary
for success-
fully facilitating cultural proficient educators in schools.
Rapidly changing demographics demand that educators engage
in
a vigorous, ongoing, and systemic process of professional
development to
prepare all educators in the school to function effectively in a
highly di-
verse environment (Howard, 2007). Population trends in the
United States

affirm the nation will be a nation of minorities by 2050 when
the white
population drops below 50% (Marx, 2006).
methodology
The researcher used a qualitative, phenomenological research
de-
sign, specifically narrative inquiry, to investigate the
superintendent’s role
in helping a school district become more culturally proficient.
Creswell
(1998) explained that a phenomenological study illustrates the
meaning of
the shared experiences of the participants in the study about a
common oc-
currence or phenomenon. Clandinin and Connelly (2000)
established the
importance of separating the phenomenon from the participants
to sort out
the narrative view of the experience. They suggested that
narrative inqui-
ries are written around an extraordinary experience or
phenomenon.
This study was an extension of Price’s (2007) work on bringing
cultural proficiency to a school district. Price used
phenomenological nar-
rative inquiry to interview five superintendents of districts
located in or
near a large urban area of Texas. Each district had a minimum
30% of stu-
dents from demographic groups other than White. Additionally,
each dis-
trict had at least a minimum improvement of 10% in reducing
the achieve-

ment gap. The selection criteria for this study remained the
same except
that superintendents from small school districts were targeted.
Research
questions 1–5 were revised slightly from the Price study for
clarity. Re-
search question 6 was an additional question specific to this
study.
Population
From small school districts with diverse student populations,
eight
superintendents were purposefully chosen to be interviewed. A
small dis-
Vol. 41, No. 3/4, 2010, pp. 220–233 223
trict was characterized by enrolled students of fewer than 2300.
A diverse
population was defined as a district with a minimum 30% of
students from
demographic groups other than White. An additional criterion
included
superintendents from districts that had made a minimum of 10%
improve-
ment in closing the achievement gap between percentage of
students from
non-White demographic groups and White students on the
TAKS in math
and/or reading at some point between the years of 2003–2007.
The target

population which met these criteria totaled 39 superintendents
of whom
eight agreed to participate in the study. The superintendents
selected for
the study were six White men and two White women; one of the
super-
intendents had received a doctoral degree, and all had a
minimum of two
years experience as a superintendent. Each district had an
enrollment be-
tween 500 and 2,300 students.
Data Collection
Each participant was provided with a written introduction to the
study that explained the rationale. This was followed by a phone
call or e-
mail to clarify any questions the superintendent had and to
schedule the ini-
tial interview. All interviews lasted from one to two hours.
Participants re-
sponded to open-ended questions that paralleled the research
questions for
this study. Additional interviews were scheduled as needed for
clarification
of details from the initial interview. Triangulation of data from
district ar-
chives, test scores and field notes taken during the interviews
contributed to
the trustworthiness of the study (Creswell, 1998). All responses
remained
confidential. Respondents answered all questions in their own
words and
from their own perspective as superintendent. Probing questions
provided
data saturation (Creswell, 1998). The use of a tape recorder

allowed the re-
searcher to reconstruct the event of the interview and freely
participate in the
conversation (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). To increase study
credibility, the
researcher conducted a pilot study in the spring of 2008 using
the same crite-
ria and interview procedures that were used in the actual study
(Fink, 2005).
Data Analysis
The researcher organized the data so that patterns could be dis-
cerned through constant comparative analysis (Creswell, 1998).
Once the
patterns were established they were organized into themes. The
researcher
then constructed a narrative report that gave meaning to the data
collect-
ed. Consistencies, as well as inconsistencies, were noted in the
information
gathered. In order to member check, participants were provided
with a copy
of their interviews to review for accuracy (Bowen, 2005).
Writing an epoche
allowed the researcher to further increase trustworthiness in an
attempt to
bracket biases and suspend personal opinions of the subjects
utilized in this
study (Creswell, 1998).
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Harris

Findings
All eight participants agreed that the superintendent’s beliefs
were
an important key to leading the challenge for a school district to
become
more culturally proficient. Specific findings are discussed in the
order of
the research questions.
Research Question 1
Superintendent beliefs about cultural proficiency emphasized
the
importance of understanding and respecting cultural differences
for aca-
demic success for all students. One superintendent noted, “We
have always
felt like diversity was a benefit in our district.” All of the
superintendents
reiterated a need for higher expectations of all students in their
districts.
One participant emphasized that educators should understand
the
circumstances that face some cultures in their school district
before they
can address the needs of the individual student. He stated, “I
feel that
when you know the culture you know your people. You need to
know the
circumstances at home and in their daily life.” Another pointed
out, “To
close or improve anything you have to be aware that there is an

issue that
needs to be addressed—awareness that there could be a gap or
that there
are differences.”
All but two of the superintendents in the study had been in their
dis-
trict for eight years or more. Three of the superintendents grew
up in or with-
in ten miles of the district and two of the superintendents have
never been
in another district as an educator at any level. This led to the
suggestion that
their background knowledge of cultural issues within the
district was more
informed, based on their longevity in the district. For example,
one com-
mented, “I have spent my entire educational career in this
district. I can tell
you that the environment has changed in the twenty five years
since I first
arrived.”
Research Question 2
Themes that emerged in response to the question regarding the
su-
perintendent’s recognition of cultural differences and the impact
on lead-
ership were the importance of developing relationships and
creating a cul-
ture of success.
Developing relationships. All of the superintendents in this
study
believed that building relationships with students, parents, and

the com-
munity were essential for their success. One superintendent
emphasized
that “building relationships is important so people don’t ignore
someone
because of their ethnicity or so they don’t become a separate
group in
our district.” Several superintendents suggested developing a
relationship
with members of the community by attending athletic events,
speaking at
Vol. 41, No. 3/4, 2010, pp. 220–233 225
various churches and community programs in the area. Another
superin-
tendent emphasized the importance of building relationships by
helping
students at school feel connected.
Creating a culture of success. Each of the superintendents
agreed
that creating a culture of success and recognizing cultural
differences were
critical to leading the district. Six of the eight superintendents
alluded to
the importance of developing a culture of high expectations and
all of the
superintendents spoke about individualizing instruction as a
means of im-
proving academic achievement and bridging the achievement
gap. Conse-

quently, these superintendents focused on improving instruction
across the
district. For example, one superintendent pointed out “the
delivery method
of instruction needs to be different; teachers and administrators
needed to
understand that different kids learn in different ways.” One
superintendent
shared that she had learned to not accept failure of students or
excuses
from teachers. She described the importance of specific goal
setting to
improve student performance.
Research Question 3
The common themes that emerged regarding the role of the
super-
intendent in leading the district to be culturally proficient were
the super-
intendents’ responsibility to be a role model for cultural
proficiency, their
response to data, and their development of written policies that
focused on
building a climate of cultural proficiency which included hiring
practices.
Being a role model for cultural proficiency. One superintendent
indicated that role modeling begins at the top, especially with
his belief in
high expectations for students. He stated, “Our staff looks at me
as a cul-
turally proficient leader because of my respect for other cultures
and that I
believe that all students can learn no matter where they come
from.” Two

of the superintendents explained that the district’s stakeholders
perceived
them as culturally proficient role model leaders because of their
fair treat-
ment of all students. A female superintendent said, “I think they
see me as
involved with all students and they see me as a model who cares
[for all
students equally].”
Responding to data. All of the superintendents explained that
they
monitored data including the demographic changes in the
district through
information from the campus principals, and all standardized
testing re-
ports. They described meetings held with the administrative
staff about
major demographic changes and how they would be addressed.
For ex-
ample, one superintendent pointed out that his “role is to
communicate
these data, the changes and how our district looks culturally to
our board,
our community, and our staff.”
Establishing policies. Four of the superintendents developed
writ-
ten policy that addressed cultural issues. One superintendent
described
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Harris

how he implemented a policy to hire a diverse teaching and
administrative
staff. He noted, “if those data reflect that we need a more
diverse teaching
staff, then that is how we develop a goal like we did.” Another
pointed
out that he implemented a district wide-policy that required a
meeting of
the child and family of a student who failed any portion of the
TAKS. He
noted that in this way educators could work more closely with
the child
and the family, which should lead to better understanding
cultural issues
that might interfere with learning, as well as emphasizing
cultural issues
which might accelerate learning.
Research Question 4
The two themes that surfaced when the superintendents
discussed
the multicultural strategies used in their district were
professional devel-
opment and evaluation and planning. All of the superintendents
empha-
sized the use of professional development and the use of data to
evaluate
programs and conduct planning for the development of cultural
proficien-
cy in their district.
Professional development. One superintendent argued that small
districts have an advantage of knowing students on a more

personal basis
and that they should be proactive to prevent students from
falling through
the cracks. All of the superintendents conducted book studies
with their
leadership teams and teaching staffs. Each emphasized books
that were se-
lected with a cultural emphasis, and as they were read and
discussed with
faculty, efforts were made to relate the information to their own
district.
One superintendent reiterated this practice when he noted that
he imple-
mented book studies to help break cultural barriers in his
district. Because
there was a large percentage of economically disadvantaged
students in
each of these districts, working with students from low socio-
economic
backgrounds was a major focus for all of the professional
development.
Evaluation and Planning. All of the superintendents stated that
the programs in their district were monitored and evaluated
constantly
and programs not successful over a period of time were
eliminated, while
those that were successful were continuously improved. For
example, one
superintendent said, “we use longitudinal studies of three years
to look
at our data over a period of time. Evaluation is constant in our
district….
Planning is accomplished through our principals as a leadership
team.”

One superintendent commented that her administrators not only
monitored testing, but also reviewed district programs for
demographic
representation and student success. She pointed out that student
achieve-
ment reflected huge gains according to the most recent scores.
All of the
principals, the campus curriculum facilitators and the
department heads
were involved in the planning within this district.
Vol. 41, No. 3/4, 2010, pp. 220–233 227
Research Question 5
Research question 5 looked at the impact on the district when
cul-
tural diversity was the focus. The vision for each superintendent
in the
study was to close or eliminate the achievement gap in their
district and
for their schools to be successful in everything they did. Several
of the su-
perintendents desired to bring their communities together to
work as one
cohesive population. Also, each of the superintendents was
viewed as a
change agent in his or her district, and all of them had
intervened with staff
that resisted required change.
Vision. While all of the superintendents had a vision that there

would not be any achievement gaps in the district, four of them
also agreed
that they wanted their communities to live in harmony and come
together
as one group. One superintendent stated that his vision for
cultural aware-
ness in the district was that all students would be successful and
that there
would be no achievement gap.
Change agent. Waters and Marzano (2006) argued that
educational
leaders have discovered that making substantial changes to their
organiza-
tion requires that they adjust the basic relationships that
management and
employees have with each other. Seven of the superintendents
explained
that their staff perceived them as change agents because of their
focus on
culturally proficient goals for the district and their specific
modeling of
cultural proficiency. One superintendent explained how his role
changed
shortly after coming to the district, “I became a very well
known change
agent three weeks after I was hired [and our district was labeled
by the state
as] Academically Unacceptable.” Another superintendent
discussed his
role as change agent when he said, “…because I was a local
they thought I
would fall in there and I would just be status quo. I began to
make sugges-
tions and some of it was well received and some of it wasn’t.”

Resistance to change. One superintendent explained his method
of preventing resistance to change with district planning and
strong com-
munication of the district’s mission. He noted “I handle staff
resistance to
change by good planning; and quite frankly those kinds of
people weed
themselves out of the district.” All of the superintendents
described their
non-negotiable terms, but three specifically noted that there was
resistance
to the newer teacher expectations, especially among teachers
who had
over ten years of experience in the district. Each superintendent
had a dif-
ferent method of working with a resistant staff, but eventually
all of them
terminated or non-renewed teacher contracts of staff who would
not buy
into the change process.
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Harris
Research Question 6
Research Question 6 explored how the superintendent worked
with the board of trustees when moving the district toward
becoming more
culturally proficient. They agreed that their role was to provide
informa-
tion to the board that concerned the academic achievement of

each de-
mographic group in their district. Every superintendent
conducted board
workshops to address academic concerns and the importance of
develop-
ing cultural proficiency in the district.
All but one of the boards had members who understood that cul-
tural proficiency played a role in closing the achievement gap.
Member-
ship on five of the eight boards was culturally diverse. The
board of trust-
ees that did not understand that cultural proficiency played a
role in closing
the achievement gap was all White.
One superintendent spoke highly of the board members’ under-
standing of the need for cultural proficiency in his district. He
explained,
that having diversity on the board is positive because board
members must
have some understanding about other cultures. In all but one
district, the
superintendents in this study worked with school boards who
reflected this
thinking. For example, one superintendent commented, “our
board looks
at the data and they see the gaps and they know we need to
improve. Just
like when we changed our GT program, they wanted our
programs to mir-
ror our population.”
Another superintendent described his understanding of the atti-
tudes of the school board members:

Once they saw the results from some of the changes in the new
data, they realized that [all of our] kids can learn. The board
still
has a long way to go and we need to continue with our board
training, especially with our emphasis on becoming a culturally
proficient school.
Conclusion and Implications for Practice
The findings of this study were consistent with the findings
from
the Price (2007) study which specifically noted the importance
of vi-
sion, hiring practices, recognizing the need for change,
understanding the
quickly changing demographics, increasing student
achievement, provid-
ing training for culturally proficient teaching, improving staff
understand-
ing of cultures, increasing connectivity with all students, and
responding
with urgency. Also, there was more discussion of the resistance
to change
in this study, which perhaps could be attributed to the small size
of the dis-
tricts involved. An omission in the Price study was the failure
to explore
how the superintendent worked with the board of trustees when
moving
the district toward becoming more culturally proficient. By
adding a ques-
tion on this point, this study acknowledged the importance of
the working

Vol. 41, No. 3/4, 2010, pp. 220–233 229
relationship between the superintendent and school board as
important to
bringing cultural proficiency to a district.
When considered together, this study and the Price (2007) study
shared the stories of 13 Texas superintendents from diverse
districts. These
studies emphasize that superintendents who recognize the
importance of
cultural proficiency will be more likely to be effective in
leading a cultur-
ally diverse district. Superintendents who participate in
educational train-
ing, personal reading, and diverse experiences are likely to
recognize the
importance of the need to be culturally proficient.
Leading a district to recognize and value diversity occurs
through
developing relationships with all members of the community
and creating
a culture of success. This community participation results in
recognition of
leadership responsibilities that emphasize cultural proficiency.
The partici-
pants in this study emphasized that leaders should work to
create for their
schools a culture of continuous improvement through high
expectations
(Reeves, 2002). Likewise, these superintendents realized the
importance
of developing relationships and communicating to community

stakehold-
ers (Andero, 2000).
Being a role model for cultural proficiency is imperative for the
superintendent who expects to lead a school district to become
more cul-
turally proficient. Professional development specific to
developing cultur-
al proficiency and the use of data to evaluate and plan programs
in the
district are effective strategies in valuing multicultural diversity
in the dis-
trict. Leaders need to provide teachers with training to
effectively teach to
cultural experiences that contribute to understanding how to
narrow the
achievement gap (Manning & Kovach, 2003). The professional
develop-
ment conducted by the superintendents varied among the
different dis-
tricts from book studies, to the use of speakers, and the use of
pre-estab-
lished programs. A consistent focus of professional
development for the
superintendents was the impact of poverty on student
achievement. Clear-
ly, providing professional development emphasizing cultural
proficiency
is needed at every level of a school district.
Superintendents in diverse districts who have a vision to bridge
the
achievement gap by leading their districts to become more
culturally pro-
ficient must be change agents. Thus superintendents must
overcome resis-

tance to change with staff members through building trust,
establishing rela-
tionships, and providing direction through the change process
(Duke, 2004).
Superintendents in this study concurred with Fullan (2002) and
were com-
mitted to the change process to raise the achievement level of
all students.
Another integral part of leading a district to become culturally
proficient is that of working collaboratively with the board of
trustees.
These superintendents provided board members with student
data that was
demographically disaggregated and conducted board workshops
that relat-
ed the development of cultural proficiency to the closing of the
achieve-
ment gap. In most cases, these superintendents had the full
support of a
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Harris
school board that was interested in closing the achievement gap
and en-
suring that every child received a quality education. Thus,
superintendents
must acknowledge the importance of working with and
educating their
school board in order to enhance their district’s commitment to
cultural

proficiency.
Finally, Southworth and DuQuesnay (2005) emphasized that
lead-
ership plays a key role in the effectiveness of the school. An
increase in
student standards requires dynamic leadership vital to
educational reform.
They argued that leaders who make a difference in the schools
that they lead
have developed specific pathways to influence student outcomes
and good
teaching. Overall the superintendents in this study and the Price
(2007)
study demonstrated leadership that made a difference in their
school dis-
trict. Their ability to recognize the importance of cultural
proficiency and
their willingness to lead the district through necessary change
to address
cultural proficiency is evidenced by the academic progress in
their district.
This level of commitment to leading the district to be more
culturally pro-
ficient led to reducing the achievement gap in all of these
school districts
by at least 10%.
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Howell Wright Jr. is Superintendent of Rockdale Independent
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Sandra Harris is the Director of the Center for Doctoral Studies
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Student-involved data use: Establishing the evidence
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Jo Beth Jimerson1 • Ellen Reames2
Published online: 14 April 2015
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

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