The document appears to be lecture slides on information security. It discusses several topics: - Digital signature schemes and what it means for them to be secure - Approaches for building secure digital signature schemes such as using hash functions and RSA - Public key infrastructure and how certificate authorities can be used to securely distribute public keys - Alternative models for establishing trust between parties such as web of trust without a centralized trusted authority The document contains definitions, theorems, and examples related to these information security concepts.

1. Hoang Nguyen Van
Mail: nvhoang@vnua.edu.vn
Department of Computer Science – FITA – VNUA
Information Security Course --------------------------------------------- Fall 2015
Dept. of Computer Science – FITA – VNUA
Trust

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7. Alice attacks Bob or vice versa
(in terms of information)

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Trust
Make belief
How
Alice cannot attack Bob
and Bob cannot attack Alice

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“Unforgeability” = Integrity (or authenticity)
Can MACs help?
(Without access to the secret key, no way to verify a tag)
Only sender can generate a tag (using private information)
Anyone can verify a tag (public verifiability)
(MACs are symmetric)

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“Unforgeability” = Integrity (or authenticity)
Can MACs help?
(Without access to the secret key, no way to verify a tag)
Only sender can generate a tag (using private information)
Anyone can verify a tag (public verifiability)
(MACs are symmetric)

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asymmetric
Security (informal)
Even after observing signatures on multiple messages, attacker
should be unable to forge a valid signature on a new message.

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Definition
G (key-generation algorithm), output a pair of keys (pu,pr) ∈ K1K2
S (signing algorithm): K2xM → T
V (verification algorithm): K1xTxM → {0, 1}
∀ (pu, pr) ∈ K1K2, ∀m ∈ M: V(pu, S(pr,m), m) = 1.

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What it means for a DSS to be
secure

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What it means for a DSS to be secure
Threat model
Adaptive chosen-message attack
Assume the attacker can induce the sender to sign messages
of the attacker’s choice
Attacker gets the public key (pu)
Security requirements
Existential “unforgeability”
Attacker should be unable to forge valid signature on any
massage not signed by the sender

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Chal. Adv.
AkK
(m,t)
m1  M
t1  S(pr,m1)
b=1 if V(pu,m,t) = 1 and (m,t)  { (m1,t1) , … , (mq,tq) }
b=0 otherwise
b
m2 , …, mq
t2 , …, tq
Secure DSS
Def: Π =(G,S,V) is a secure DSS if for all “efficient” A:
AdvDSS[A, Π] = Pr[Chal. outputs 1] is “negligible”.

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How to build a secure digital signature
scheme

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A simple approach is called plain RSA signature scheme.
Π = (G, S, V)
G = GRSA which outputs pu = <N,e> and pr = <N,d>
S(pr, m) = ERSA(pr, m) = md mod N
V(pu, t, m) = 1 if m = DRSA(pu, t) = te mod N and = 0 otherwise
Plain RSA signature scheme is secure, isn’t it

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RSA assumption: Given pu=<N,e>, hard to compute
the eth root of a uniform m ∈ ℤ 𝑁
∗
. ⟹ easy to compute eth
root of some specific message.
The eth root of m modulo N is [md mod N]
(md)e = mde = m[ed mod 𝜙(N)] = m mod N
Example
easy to compute the eth root of m = 1.

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A no-message attack
Only use the public key pu=<N,e>
Choose a uniform t ∈ ℤ 𝑁
∗
Compute m = DRSA(pu, t) = te mod N
Output (m, t) ⟹ not secure.
The adv. has “no control” over the message m for which it
forges a valid signature.

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Forge a signature on arbitrary message
te = (t1.t2)e = (m1
d.m2
d)e = m1
ed.m2
ed = m1.m2= m mod N
Given m ∈ ℤ 𝑁
∗
Choose m1, m2 ∈ ℤ 𝑁
∗
distinct from m s.t. m=m1.m2 mod N
Obtain signatures t1, t2 on m1, m2
Compute t = t1.t2 mod N
Output (m, t) ⟹ not secure.

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Transformation function h: M ⟶ ℤ 𝑁
∗
Π = (G, S, V)
G = GRSA which outputs pu = <N,e> and pr = <N,d>
S(pr, m) = ERSA(pr, h(m)) = [h(m)]d mod N
V(pu, t, m) = 1 if h(m) = DRSA(pu, t) = te mod N and = 0 otherwise
What cryptographic property h should have

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What cryptographic property h should have
Not easy to compute the eth root of H(1), ...
Given t, how to find m such that H(m) = te mod N
⟹ computing inverses of h should be hard
Hard to find three message m, m1, m2 such that
h(m) = h(m1).h(m2) mod N
Hard to find collisions in h

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Theorem
ℤ 𝑁
∗
How to build h function

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In practice, h is instantiated with a (modified)
cryptographic hash function.
How to build h function
In theory, h: M ⟶ ℤ 𝑁
∗
It is crictical that the range of h to be (close to) all of ℤ 𝑁
∗
Must ensure that the range of h is large enough

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Given a d.s.s Π = (G,S,V) for short messages of length
n and a hash function h: {0,1}* → {0,1}n
Goal: construct a d.s.s Π1 = (G1,S1,V1) for arbitrary-
length messages
Hash-Sign Paradigm
G1 = G
S1(pr,m) = S(pr, h(m))
V1(pu,t,m) = V(pu, t, h(m))

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Theorem
Π Π
Proof
Assume Π attacker outputs forgery (m, t), m ≠ mi
∀ i ∈ {1, …, q}
If h(m) = hi for some i collision in h∎
Otherwise, h(m) ≠ hi Π ∎

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Based on identification schemes
Fiat-Shamir Transform
Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) and Elliptic Curve Digital
Signature Algorithm ( ECDSA) – NIST-1991
Based on hash functions
Lamport’s Signature Scheme (on-time)
Chain-based Signatures (many-time)
Tree-based Signature
see more in textbook

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Problem: Signer denies issuing a signature
Private key is not secure
Use wrong public key
Untill now, we only dicused how to use public key
But, how are public key securely distributed?

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Recall: Key Distribution Problem

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How to only use public-key cryptosystems to
securely distribute public keys?

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No, we didn’t.
And the key notion here is a digital certificate.

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Is a signature binding an entity to some public key
Example
Alice has generated a pair of keys (puA, prA)
Bob has also generated a pair of keys (puB, prB)
𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐴→𝐵 ≝ S(prA, “Bob’s public key is puB”)
𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐴→𝐵 is called a certificate for Bob’s public key issued by Alice

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Assumptions
A certificate authority (CA) who is completely trusted by Alice and
Bob.
Bob obtains puCA
Alice asks the CA to sign the binding <Alice, puA>
𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐴→𝐴 ≝ S(prCA, <Alice, puA>)
Bob obtains <Alice, puA> and 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐴→𝐴
If V(puCA, 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐴→𝐴, <Alice, puA>)=1 then Bob is assured that
puA is the Alice’s public key

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Assumptions
A certificate authority (CA) who is completely trusted by Alice and
Bob.
Bob obtains puCA
Alice asks the CA to sign the binding <Alice, puA>
𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐴→𝐴 ≝ S(prCA, <Alice, puA>)
Bob obtains <Alice, puA> and 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐴→𝐴
If V(puCA, 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐴→𝐴, <Alice, puA>)=1 then Bob is assured that
puA is the Alice’s public key
If Bob trusts CA, he can accept puA as Alice’s
legitimate public key.

37. How does Bob get puCA in the first place?

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A key idea
Once a single public key, belonging to a trusted party, is distributed
in a secure fashion, that key can be used to “bootstrap” the secure
distribution of arbitrary many other public keys.
Thus, at least in principle, the problem of secure key distribution
need only be solved once.
The solution is feasible!

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How does Bob get puCA in the first place?
Distributed as part of operating system, or web browser

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“Web of trust” Model
Alice can obtain public keys from her friends in person
Alice can issues certificates for public keys of her friends
Alice can obtain certificates on her public keys from her
friends.
If Alice knows Bob’s public key and Bob issued certificate
for Charlie, then Charlie can send this certificate to Alice. And
Alice can verify this certificate.

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Delegation and certificate chains

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PKI in practice
Is not as simple as in theory
Expiration
Revocation
Other issues
see more in textbook

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Who I can trust?

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Challenge: can trust without the trusted party?

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