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Tracing of palaeochannels of Bakulahi river system in Uttar Pradesh, India
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2. 1 23
Arabian Journal of Geosciences
ISSN 1866-7511
Volume 12
Number 9
Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:1-9
DOI 10.1007/s12517-019-4429-6
Tracing of palaeochannels of Bakulahi river
system in Uttar Pradesh, India
Shashi Shekhar Shukla & Mallikarjun
Mishra

3. 1 23
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4. ORIGINAL PAPER
Tracing of palaeochannels of Bakulahi river system in Uttar
Pradesh, India
Shashi Shekhar Shukla1
& Mallikarjun Mishra1
Received: 1 January 2019 /Accepted: 20 March 2019
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2019
Abstract
Palaeochannels can be good possible reservoirs of groundwater and are good rechargeable aquifers. Bakulahi is a plain-fed
tributary of the Sai River flowing from north-west to south-east direction with about 177-km length and about 841-km2
catchment area. It emanates from interconnected series of tals (large- to medium-sized shallow depressions) situated in the
Raebareli district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Course of the Bakulahi River is shifted laterally and left many fluvial landforms—
palaeochannels, oxbow lakes, meander cutoff, etc. The present study is based on the on-screen digitization of the Bakulahi
River basin boundary, drainage network, palaeocourses, and other surface water bodies from high-resolution remote-sensing data
(1 m × 1 m) available at Google Earth. The digitized details from remote sensing data are validated with some field
observations. Different thematic maps are prepared by converting Google Earth feature files (.kmz/.kml) into GIS feature files
(.shp) and importing layers into the GIS environment. There are about 115 palaeochannels covering about 137-km2
area
(16.29%); about 6000 surface water bodies in forms of ponds/tanks having 23.36-km2
area (2.74%) and 40 oxbow lakes are
mapped within the basin. This is the first scientific attempt to trace palaeocourses of the Bakulahi River. The present paper also
answers the question about the origin of the Bakulahi River. Demarcation of precise basin boundary through manual method by
using high-resolution remotesensing data is another contribution of this exercise which is otherwise a difficult task without the
availability of high resolution DEM.
Keywords Flood plain . Google Earth . Mapping . Oxbow lake . River course
Introduction
The word Bpalaeochannel^ comes from the word BPalaeo^
meaning Bold,^ so palaeochannels means old channels.
These palaeochannels do not carry water except during peak
flood periods (Wray, 2009) and are considered as lost drainage
having an underflow of groundwater (Nair et al. 1997). These
channels are good rechargeable aquifers and are being looked
upon as a possible reservoirs of groundwater (Qunghai et al.
1996) having an excellent and rich source of groundwater
(Gautam 1990; Narshimhan 1990; Singh, 1996a, b).
Geomorphic features in the Gangetic plains are the result of
climatic fluctuations and fluvial adjustments during the late
Pleistocene-Holocene period. Large rivers in their floodplains
leaving clear signatures of shifting in the form
of palaeochannels, oxbow lakes, cut-offs etc. Fluvial archives
combined with remote-sensing technique (Hayakawa et al.
2010) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating
(Jain et al. 2005; Juyal et al. 2006; Jaiswal Manoj et al.,
2009; Kale et al., 2004a, b, 2014) have great potential to
provide information on the evolution history of fluvial sys-
tems particularly with reference to the channel migration and
understanding the factors that have influenced its evolution
through the geological time. Satellite remote sensing due to
synoptic, multispectral, and multi-temporal coverage helps in
identification, delineation, and reconstruction of the
palaeochannels. Palaeochannels appears as linear to curvilin-
ear on remote sensing data products. Since extensive recent
and archival Landsat imagery is now freely available, the op-
portunities to employ its data for palaeochannel research with-
out cost have become particularly advantageous (Zani and
Rossetti 2012). Landsat images provides good opportunities
for identifying and mapping buried palaeochannels over large
Editorial handling: Broder J. Merkel
* Mallikarjun Mishra
mallikarjungeobhu2016@gmail.com
Shashi Shekhar Shukla
shashishekharno1@gmail.com
1
Department of Geography, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi 221005, India
Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2019) 12:304
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4429-6
Author's personal copy

5. spatial extents without the cost inherent with the GPR and
aerial activities (Wray 2009). Remote-sensing techniques are
a widely used technology for acquiring spatial data
concerning soil dynamics, soil moisture, geomorphology, sed-
imentology, and depositional characteristics, surface drainage,
and subsurface palaeodrainage regime. Digital elevation
models (DEMs) with recent data collection techniques such
as aerial laser survey (ALS) referred as light detection and
ranging (LiDAR), stereo imaging, and DGPS and with im-
proved horizontal and vertical accuracies not only provide
elevation information but also derive terrain shape, topograph-
ic position, and topographic context. Palaeochannels are use-
ful in reconstruction of mechanics of temporal channel
shifting and fluvial system development (Gregory 2003), in
modeling of palaeoclimatic changes (Srivastava 2001; Kale
et al., 2004a, b), exploration of past geological deformation,
and distribution and location of archaeological sites
(Karmanov et al., 2013).
Nandini et al. (2013) present an integrated approach
using multi-sensor remote-sensing data, digital image pro-
cessing, and sedimentology to accurately identify and map
palaeochannels for utilization of groundwater and mineral
resources. In the present scenario, the development of re-
mote sensing and GIS made geomorphic mapping quite
easy by removing the need of field survey. According to
Napieralski et al. (2013), remote surveying techniques and
digital data are valuable for the contemporary fluvial geo-
morphologist where analyzing and mapping the temporal
and spatial scaling and organization of fluvial processes
and landform because of the far-reaching capabilities in
river science and rapid development of geo-information
technology. Remote sensing technique has also played a
unique role in studying dynamic aspects of fluvial geo-
morphic features and their changes in time and space
(Philip, 1994). Presently available high-resolution re-
mote-sensing data are very useful, even for mapping at a
very large scale. Many online platforms provide the high-
resolution remote-sensing data in the form of satellite im-
ages. Potential of microwave synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) data (Blumberg et al., 2004), archaeological (Roy
and Sahu, 2016), archaeo-geomorphological approach,
and information of ancient human settlements
(Karmanov et al., 2013) are useful in detection, identifica-
tion, and re-establishment of palaeo-geomorphological
characteristics and palaeochannels. Image fusion method
of different resolution satellite imageries, GPR survey,
normalized difference vegetation index, and normalized
difference water index (Jana et al., 2018; Roy and Sahu,
2016) are used for the identification of the palaeochannels.
Spatial database generation of geomorphic units especially
for palaeochannels are essential to understand the fluvial
process in terms of locating groundwater sources, possible
aquifers, and minerals of any river system. Geomorphic
mapping is a very effective way to understand the physical
setting of an area with its changing nature in respect to
active agents. The main objective of the geomorphic map-
ping of river is to provide a picture of long-term river
behavior, which is useful for providing a comprehensive
picture of river processes, placing recent channel changes
into a long-term context. It provides a basic and valuable
database for landscape, environmental researches, land
management, etc. It has a great applicability in mitigation
and controlling of spatial problems, hazards, and in geo-
morphological risk management. This type of work reviles
the active agents or processes in the area and their degree
of dynamism. It is very helpful for understanding the ba-
ses of cultural development of area and provides further
insights for human activity in future.
Mapping of palaeochannels is important for the locat-
ing possible surface as well as groundwater resources
and minerals. Rivers situated in the floodplains of the
Ganga River basin has now been shifted laterally due
to very less relief, Bakulahi River is one of the example.
Bakulahi River has developed a complex pattern of ox-
bow lakes, meanders, and palaeocourses. There are innu-
merous number of palaeocourses extending from north-
west to south-east direction with different shapes and
sizes; not only palaeocourses but also there are several
other geomorphic features—Oxbow lakes, meanders, me-
ander cutoff etc., are situated within the basin. The main
objective of research work is to identify, and delineate
palaeochannels and to generate permanent digital data-
base by using remotely sensed high-resolution satellite
imageries and GIS. The study is also focussed on the
demarcation of the Bakulahi River basin boundary and
its drainage network from the 2-D satellite imagery.
Study area
Bakulahi, with shallow-depth laterally shifted river situated
between Sai River basin and Ganga River basin in upper
Ganga floodplain with about 841 km2
area. The length of
the present Bakulahi River is about 177 km. It is one of the
tributary of Sai River (the tributary of Gomati River) flowing
from north-west to south-east joining Sai river in the south-
east of Pratapgarh city. Basin area is covered by seven topo-
graphic maps—63F/8, 63G/5, 63G/9, 63G/10, 63G/13, 63G/
14, 63K/1. This river basin receives about 800 mm average
annual rainfall. The Bakulahi River originates from intercon-
nected series of tals—Khair tal, Barna tal, Garhi tal, Panhi tal,
and Manjhihar tal and collects headwaters from the surround-
ing highlands, flowing through southern part of Raibareli dis-
trict (Figs. 1 and 2). It is more dynamic and complex in nature
compared to other plain fed rivers (Gomati, Varuna, Sai,
Kalyani etc.) in its vicinity having many geomorphic features
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6. created a unique pattern of meanders, oxbow lakes, buried
channels, and palaeochannel, attracting the authors’ mind for
mapping its characteristics (Table 1). The present basin has a
moderately dense population having mainly agricultural-
based economy due to fertile lands and sufficient surface
and groundwater. The Bakulahi river flows mainly in
Pratapgarh district (148 km) and some part of Allahabad dis-
trict (10 km) originating from Raibareli district (19 km) of
Uttar Pradesh. The soil is alluvium with a special type of dark
grey clay in the channel of Bakulahi, which is locally called
Fig. 1 Location map showing the Bakulahi River system in India
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7. Piror, very different from the fine sand found in Sai River
channel.
Data and methodology
Drainage network, basin boundary, surface water bodies,
palaeochannels, oxbow lake, and meander cutoffs of the
Bakulahi River are mapped manually through on-screen
online digitization over high-resolution remote-sensing
data (1 m) available on Google Earth platform. Field ob-
servation of some parts are made to validate the digitized
details. On screen, digitization is purely based on the vi-
sual image interpretation by the using of elements of the
interpretation—shape, size, texture, tone, and association
of the landforms and moisture content. Further, SRTM (30
Fig. 2 Bakulahi River–manually and automatically derived basin
boundaries; Survey of India topomap coverage of Bakulahi River
Basin—63F/8, 63G/5, 63G/9, 63G/10, 63G/13, 63G/14, and 63 K/1
(upper right). Present Bakulahi drainage network and some important
places (bottom left); and digital elevation model (SRTM 30 m) showing
general topographic relief of the Bakulahi River Basin (bottom right)
Table 1 Brief information about
Bakulahi river system, Ganga
Plains, India
Parameters Figures
Length of the river ~ 177 km Raebareli = 19 km
Allahabad = 10 km
Pratapgarh = 148 km
Basin area
(total and district-wise)
~ 841 km2
Raebareli = 120 km2
Allahabad = 50 km2
Pratapgarh = 671 km2
Perimeter of the Bakulahi River basin boundary ~ 236 km
Segments of palaeo-channels ~ 115 segments (137 km2
)
Oxbow lakes ~ 40 segments (26.88 km2
)
Ponds ~ 6000 (23.36 km2
)
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8. m) DEM is also used to show the topographic character-
istics of the Bakulahi river basin. The impressions of the
palaeochannel segments are clearly visible at some places
and other palaeochannels are delineated through field in-
vestigation and interpreted with the help of alignment of
the pond and settlement pattern.
Balukahi River system and its palaeocourses
The Bakulahi River is mentioned as BBalkuni River^ in one
of the old religious text (Valmic Ramayana). It is a medium- to
small-sized tributary of a tributary (Sai) of the Gomti River.
The total relief of the basin is about 40−50 m and relative
relief is about 3–5 m (Fig. 2). Basin demarcation in floodplain
river basins is very difficult from coarse to medium resolution
digital elevation models (DEMs), especially because the
derivativesfrom DEMs are dependent not only on
horizontaland vertical resolutions but also on some
inputparameters such as flow accumulation, pour point,flow
length, stream length, basin, etc. If theseparameters change,
boundaries and drainage networkwill change
(Mallikarjun et al., 2019). So authors tried with high-
resolution 2D remote-sensing data coupled with validation
from Topo maps and field observation of some part of
the basin boundary. It is an interesting fact that there is no
match between the automatic extracted Bakulahi River basin
boundaries from the medium to coarse resolution DEMs and
manually extracted Bakulahi River boundary from the 2D
remote-sensing data available on Google Earth. There is a
huge lateral shift between boundaries of Bakulahi River ex-
tracted from both methods and basin areas are also different
(Fig. 2, upper left). Drainage network is mapped by onscreen
digitization and topographic analysis is being carried out for
the finding of the origin point of the Bakulahi River system.
The Bakulahi River originates from interconnected series of
tals—Khair tal, Barna tal, Garhi tal, Panhi tal, and Manjhihar
tal and collect headwaters from the surrounding highlands,
flowing through southern part of Raibareli district (Fig. 2).
Fig. 3 Meanders of Bakulahi
river and its palaeochannels
Fig. 4 Distribution of oxbow
lakes within the Bakulahi River
basin
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9. 304 Page 6 of 9 Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:304
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10. A large number palaeochannels (115 segments with total
occupying area 137 km2
) of different shapes and sizes of the
Bakulahi River system is mapped by using 2D remote-sensing
data (Fig. 3). Some palaeochannels are clearly visible on sat-
ellite imagery but others are partially recognizable and are
interpreted with the help of settlement patterns, pond align-
ment, and soil moisture content. Most of the palaeochannels
are concentrated in the upper and middle areas of the basin on
the left side of the river. In the upper and middle basin
palaeochannels are more in number and has significant width;
but in the lower part of the basin, width of river and the width
and number of palaeochannels also decrease. The width of
palaeochannels in the basin is varying from 60 to 450 m.
Palaeochannels of the Bakulahi river have occupied 137 km2
area which covers about 16.29% of the total area of the basin.
Many palaeo-segments lies outside of present Bakulahi River
basin as the basin has shrunken due to human construction
especially because of the two major canals in the north and
south of the basin.
There are innumerous numbers of small to medium sized
surface water bodies are created due to presence of
palaeochannels of the Bakulahi River. Spatial distribution of
ponds and its pattern is unique. Insets A and B (Fig. 4) shows
an enlarged view of natural ponds with 100–120 m width
within palaeochannels. Shape, size, and pattern of the ponds
are matching with palaeo course. About 40 major oxbow lakes
and about 6000 ponds/tanks and medium- to large-sized de-
pressions are mapped for showing the relation between the
existence of palaeocourses and surface water storage ponds
(Figs. 4 and 5).
The present Bakulahi stream network with its
palaeocourses and oxbow lakes indicate the significant shift
of present channels of the Bakulahi River (Fig. 6). Since the
palaeo courses are clear enough, it can be presumed that they
are of very recent phenomenon. Fig. 7 which is a composition
of Google Earth imageries and field photographs shows the
oxbow lakes, segments of the palaeochannels, and current
flow of the Bakulahi river system, aqueducts, and its tribu-
taries. Several Google Earth images shows the headwater re-
gion and tributary going outside the present basin (Fig. 7a),
meander cutoff (Fig. 7d), oxbow lakes (Fig. 7e, f), and at-
tached supporting field photographs (Fig. 7b, c) showing the
current flow of the Bakulahi River, aqueducts passing under
the canal that is helpful during demarcation of boundary of the
Bakulahi River (Fig. 7 g, h), and confluence of the Sai and
Bakulahi Rivers in Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 7i) for the
field of the remote-sensing data.
Results and discussions
Remote sensing data of finer resolution freely available at
Google Earth platform provides great opportunity to the
scholars for detailed geomorphic mappings to understand the
earth surface processes. Present research work is the first sci-
entific reporting on the origin of the Bakulahi River system,
about its length, basin area, palaeochannels and basin bound-
ary. Different thematic maps are prepared to understand the
dynamic nature of this river because these maps are helpful to
scholars, administration, and local people for better prevention
during the floods and drought. This study is also useful to
locate potential groundwater and rechargeable zones.
Mapping of geomorphological features—palaeochannels, ox-
bow lakes, and meander scars indicate the large-scale lateral
shifting of the Bakulahi River system in Ganga plains where
ƒFig. 5 Inset A and B (enlarged view); spatial distribution and pattern of
surface water bodies in form of ponds/tanks showing clear cut relation
between the concentration of ponds and existing palaeochannel segments
within the Bakulahi River system
Fig. 6 Bakulahi drainage
network; oxbow lakes; segments
of palaeochannels; and large-scale
meandering
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11. the relative and total relief is very less. The Bakulahi river
seems to have shifted not only due to natural processes like
neo-tectonic deformation; but also because of anthropogenic
activities. In the present study, the authors found that the
Bakulahi River is about 177 km length with a basin area of
841 km2
. This length and area are at variance with those
reported (lenght-148.5 km and basin area-706.8 km2
) by
Singh and Singh (2016) . It is attempted here in the paper to
solve the question of the origin of the Bakulahi Rivera and
also demarcate the basin boundary, and its palaeochannels.
Results found that it originates from the interconnected series
of tals (large to shallow depressions) situated in the Raebareli
district, Uttar Pradesh, India, having large number of surface
water bodies and palaeocourses. There are about 115
palaeochannels segments covering about 137 km2
area
(16.29%); about 6000 surface water bodies in form of
ponds/tanks having 23.36 km2
area (2.74%) and 40 oxbow
lakes are mapped within the basin to understand the
dynamicity of the river. This is the first scientific reporting
of Bakulahi palaeochannels.
Acknowledgements The Authors are thankful to the Head, Department
of Geography, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
India, for providing GIS lab facility to carry out this research work. The
authors are also thankful to the editor and anonymous reviewers whose
suggestions have immensely helped us to improve our paper.
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