This presentation gives a brief idea about the development and contribution of geography in Arab. How Arabs scholar help to devloped the geography discipline and how this subject grows and develop over the period of time.Here is a detailed and elaborated version of your presentation content expanded to approximately 4000 words: --- Title: Development and Contribution of Geography in the Arab World Introduction Geography, as a discipline, has been shaped and molded by numerous cultures throughout history. Among these, the contributions of Arab scholars during the Islamic Golden Age stand out for their depth, innovation, and lasting impact. From the 8th to the 14th centuries, Arab geographers and scholars advanced geographic knowledge through translation, exploration, cartography, and original research. This presentation explores how geography developed in the Arab world, highlighting the works of key scholars such as Al-Biruni, Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battuta, and others. We will also examine the methods, tools, and philosophies that underpinned their work and how their legacy influenced both Islamic and European geographic thought. --- 1. Historical Background: The Rise of Islamic Geography Geography in the Arab world flourished under the influence of the Islamic Golden Age, a period that stretched roughly from the 8th to the 14th century. The expansion of the Islamic Empire across Asia, Africa, and parts of Europe created a cultural melting pot where knowledge from the Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Indians was collected, translated, and enhanced. The need to determine prayer direction (qibla), create accurate calendars, calculate the distance for pilgrimage (Hajj), and administer a vast empire spurred the study of geography. Furthermore, the Quran itself includes descriptions of landscapes and natural phenomena, which encouraged scholarly exploration of the Earth. The establishment of institutions like the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad in the 9th century by Caliph Al-Ma'mun provided a hub for scholarly activities. Greek texts were translated into Arabic, including Ptolemy’s Geographia, which played a significant role in shaping early Arab geographic thought. --- 2. Key Contributions of Arab Scholars to Geography A. Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni was a Persian polymath who made significant contributions to various fields, including geography, astronomy, mathematics, and geology. His most notable geographic work is Kitab al-Hind (Book of India), where he applied rigorous scientific methods to describe the Indian subcontinent's geography, customs, and culture. Major Contributions: Determination of Earth’s Radius: Al-Biruni used trigonometric methods and precise measurements from mountain tops to calculate the Earth's circumference. His value was very close to modern measurements. Mathematical Geography: He developed methods to calculate latitudes and longitudes using celestial observations. Cultural Geographica

1. CONTRIBUTION OF ARAB
SCHOLARS
PRESENTED BY:
Chetna Vij
Himani Manohar
Iqbal Ahmad
Karishma Yadav (L)
Vidya Joshi
GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT PRESENTATION

2. GEOGRAPHY IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD
 During medieval period many changes took place all
over the world . Roman empire was at its peak and
with the fall of roman empire, the era of DARK AGE
came into existence
 The development in the history of geographical
thought beginning from the end of roman empire to
the beginning of industrial revolution
 This development may be studied under sub phases
of :
FALL OF ROMAN
EMPIRE (476AD)
DARK AGE AND RISE OF
ARAB SCHOOL OF
THOUGHT (800-
1400AD)
AGE OF DISCOVERY
(1400-1750)

3. RISE OF ARAB SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
 RISE OF ISLAM – Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) founded Islam in 7th
century .
 The followers of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) took control over the regions of Persia ,
Egypt , vast stretch of Saharan desert to Iberian peninsula
 INTERCONNECTION AND SPREAD : The land of Arabia was connected with
Mediterranean sea , Black sea , Caspian sea , Indian ocean and Red sea
 The whole sea route connectivity give the people of Arab an advantage to travel around the
world that’s why the people of Arab became the great explorers of their time period .

4. Fig: Location and Extent

5.  PATTRONAGE OF ABBASID CALIPHS AND BAGHDAD AS THE NEW SEAT OF
KNOWLEDGE
 With the pattronage of caliph Harun-al Rashid , Baghdad came up as a new intellectual city of that
time
 He established an academy called BAITUL HIKMA .
MILLETUS alExandriA BAGHDAD
FIG: CHANGING SEAT OF KNOWLEDGE OVER THE TIME
MAIN SOURCES OF THEIR INFORMATION WERE
LITERATURE
PERSONAL
OBSERVATION
INFO.
COLLECTED

6. FIG: THE SURVIVORS OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

7. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE GROWTH OF
GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE AMONG ARABS
1. OPEN MIND AND INQUISITIVE NATURE
2. LARGE EXTENT OF ARABIAN EMPIRE
3. PILGRIMAGE
4. ISLAMIC BROTHERHOOD
5. MARINE ADVENTURE
6. TRADE AND COMMERCE

8. MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN GEOGRAPHY
 MAPS & GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES: Arab geographers were among the first to incorporate mathematical accuracy in
mapmaking. They worked on mapping latitudes and longitudes with high precision.
 DIVIDED THE WORLD INTO 14 CLIMATIC REGIONS :The Arab geographer who divided the world into 14 climatic regions
is Ibn Hawqal His climatic classification was based on observations of temperature, precipitation, and other environmental factors
 SHAPING OF LAND : "Kitab al-Hind" (The Book of India), Al-Biruni discussed the geography of India but also made important
contributions to the study of the Earth's shape and how landforms are shaped by natural processes, such as erosion, earthquakes, and
volcanic activity.
 DETERMINATION OF LATITUDES The Arab geographer who is credited with determining the latitude of a location using the
shadow method is Ibn Yunus (950–1009 CE).
 UNDERSTANDING INDIAN MONSOON : Al Masudi an Arab explorer from Baghdad, gave an account of the reversal of ocean
currents and the monsoon winds over the north Indian plain. The term monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word mousim or
the Malayan word monsin which means season.

9. PROMINANT ARAB SCHOLARS

10. CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE
• Al-Balakhi (850-934 AD)
• Al- Maqdisi (945-988AD)
• Al-Masudi (896-956 AD)
• Ibn-Hawkal (912-978AD)
• Al-Biruni (973-1039AD)
• Ibn-Sina (980-1037AD)
• Al-Idrisi (1099-1165AD)
• Ibn-Batuta (1304-1368AD)
• Ibn-Khaldun (1332-1406AD)

11. AL- BALKHI (850-934 AD)
 He was a geographer, mathematician, physician, psychologist and
scientist
 ‘World’s First Climatic Atlas’ – “Kitab-al-Ashkal” (921 CE) (based
on collected data from travellers)
 One of the earliest to explore “mental health conditions”
 Pioneer of Mental Health Treatment and Cognitive Therapy
 Contribution- Geography, Islamic Theology and philosophy
 Famous book- “ Masalih Al-Abdan wa al-Anfus” (Sustenance for
bodies and souls)
 His works had a significant contribution to ‘Islamic Gold Age’

12. Fig: Reference map of Islamic world

13. AL-MAQDISI (945-988AD)
 Born in Jerusalem
 He was a geographer, radical Islamist, arab traveller and an author
 His famous work – Ahson at- taqasim fi marifat al-aqalim (985)
– (The Best of Classification for the knowledge Regions)
 1st
geographer to produce maps in natural colours
 Arab-Muslim maps point upwards to the south and downwards
to the north
 Idea of southern hemisphere – an open ocean
 Idea of northern hemisphere – world’s land area
• He divides the Islamic world into 14 “Iqlim-s” (climes or regions)
Fig: Map point upwards to the south and downwards
to the north

14. AL-MASUDI (896-956 AD)
 Born in Baghdad
 He was a geographer, historian ,a world traveller and prolific writer
 Known as “Herodotus of Arabs”
 Major book “Muruj-ul-Zahab” (Meadows of Gold)
 Important works- Mehraj-al-Duhab
Kitab-ul-aswat
Kitab Akhbar-Zaman
 Describes ‘weather conditions’ of the places he visited or sailed through
 He travelled to Persia, Syria, Armenia, Central Asia, Oman, India, Ceylon,
Madagascar
 Coined the term ‘monsoon’

15.  Pointed out- Salt in sea comes from land
Spherical shape of earth
Caspian sea is not connected with any of the sea
Source of Nile in the Mt. of Abyssinia
Surface of sea is curved
Atlantic Ocean as ‘Dark-Green Sea’
 Recognised ‘Role of process of erosion and adjustment to
streams’ to structure in the evolution of landforms
 Changing relationship b/w land and sea
 Identifies 3 stages of rivers – youth, maturity and old age
 Human geography- * Relationship b/w human beings and
environment
* ‘Concept of Environmental Determinism’
*explain impact of environment on life and attitude of people
 Divided world into 7 regions on the basis of languages – Persia ,
Arabs, Greek, Egyptians and Libyans, Chinese and Hindus

17. IBN-HAUKAL (912-978AD)
• Earliest of the great Arab travelers was Ibn-Haukal.
• Spent the last 30 years of his life between 943 and 973 visiting most of the remote parts of
Africa and Asia.
• His Surat al-Ard improved earlier works —>new observations.
• He traveled across North Africa, Spain, the Middle East, Persia, and India.
• Approach—>focused on contemporary geography rather than copying old sources.
• Described the Sahara Desert, its trade routes, and oases.
• Mapped major rivers like the Nile, Euphrates, and Indus.
• Documented mountain ranges like the Atlas and Zagros.
• Analyzed soil types and their impact on farming. Recorded mineral resources, including
gold mines in Africa.
Fig: 10th century map of the World by Ibn Hawqal.

18. •Categorized climate zones by temperature and rainfall.
•Linked climate to agriculture, trade, and settlement.
•Observed monsoon winds and their impact on trade.
•Studied seasonal changes in North Africa.
•Explained how rivers supported irrigation and trade.
•Documented the Caspian Sea’s geography.
•Noted ocean currents and tides in the Indian Ocean.
•Corrected errors in earlier Islamic maps.
•His maps gave a clearer view of North Africa and Central Asia.
•Influenced later geographers like Al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.
Fig:10th century map of the Caspian sea by Ibn Hawqal

19. AL-BIRUNI(973-1039AD)
• Al-Biruni was a versatile scholar and scientist who had equal facility in
physics, metaphysics, mathematics, geography and history.
• Born in the city of Kheva near "Ural" in 973 C.E.
• Observations of India explained in his book Kitab al-Hind.
• Observed—>Indus valley must be considered as an ancient sea basin filled
up with alluvial.
• Calculated and given the correct values of latitudes and longitudes of earth
at various places.
• Determined that the earth rotates along its axis and that is how days and
nights are formed.
• Determined the diameter of earth way before.
• Difference in the Diameter of earth determined by Al- Biruni and that of
Meteorological satellite is of only few meters shows how accurate his
method was.

20. • Al Beruni wrote a number of books and treatises. On his return from India, al-Biruni wrote his famous book (Al-Qanun
al-Masudi, fi al-Hai'a wa al-Nujum)
• •Kitab-al- Hind (History and Geography of India).
• •Al-Athar al-Baqia (Ancient History and Geography)
• •Kitab al-Saidana (Materia Medica)
• •Kitab al-Jawahir (Precious Stones)
• •Al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina'at al-Tanjim (summary of mathematics and astronomy).
• •He has been considered as one of the very greatest scientists of Islam.
Fig: Illustration by Al-Biruni of different
phases of the moon

21. IBN-SINA:(980-1037AD)
• Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037)
• Primarily a physician and philosopher.
• Works—>geography, climatology, and earth sciences.
• Contributions found in works like Kitab al-Shifa (The Book of
Healing) and Kitab al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine).
• Ibn Sina wrote about geography in Kitab al-Shifa.
• He synthesized knowledge from Greek (Aristotle, Ptolemy) and
Islamic scholars (Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi)..
• He contributed by explaining how geographical conditions affect
human health (in canon of medicine).
• He proposed—>mountains were formed due to both tectonic forces
and erosion
Fig: Illustration of Avicenna’s “Sequence of Events to
the Formation of Mountains”, after Al-Rawi, 1983 CE.

22. • Explained that earthquakes occur due to movements within the Earth’s interior.
• Described the process of sedimentation..
• Recognized that valleys were carved by flowing water over long periods..
• Mentioned different types of soils and their formation under different climatic conditions.
• Accepted the spherical Earth theory.
• Discussed the concept of latitude and longitude.
• Contributed to the refinement of navigation by advocating for celestial navigation methods..
• Main focus on empirical observation and logical reasoning set the stage for later scientific geography.
“From the depth of the black earth up to Saturn's apogee,
All the problems of the universe have been solved by me.
I have escaped from the coils of snares and deceitsi;
I have unraveled all knots except the knot of Death.”
• A Poetry by Ibn-Sina

23. AL-IDRISI (1099-1165AD)
• Muslim geographer, cartographer, traveller & Egyptologist.
• Book: " Amusement for him who desired to travel around the world"
• Created silver globe (400 kg) for King Roger II. Globe was accompanied by his book "Al-Kitab al-Rujari" (Roger’s Book)
• Studied and corrected Ptolemy’s Work Created world map (rectangular projection) was his most important contribution to
Geography.
• Accurately mapped Danube & Niger rivers.
• Corrected Indian Ocean as open (not enclosed).
• Reclassified world’s 5 climate zones (beyond Greek ideas).
• Travelled: Spain, France, England, Morocco, Asia Minor, Interior parts of Africa.

24. Fig :Silver Map
Fig: Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al- Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154, was
one of the most advanced medieval world map.

25. IBN BATTUTA (1304-1368AD)
 Born in Tangier, Morocco (1304) Negro by origin & considered to be an Arab.
 Also known as “The Arab Marco Polo”.
 Left for Hajj in 1325 (Age 21)
 Travelled 75,000+ miles in 28 years
 Wrote "Rihlah" (Travelogue) in which he documented soil, agriculture, economy, political history of muslim world.
 Called Morocco the "Best of Countries“
 Gave description of House types & Building materials in desert.
 Near the end of his life he decided an account of his journeys titled “ A gift to those who contemplate the wonder of cities &
Marvels of Travelling”
 Reached India in 1334 via Afghanistan during times when “Tughlaq dynasty” was at its height Invited by Sultan Muhammad
Tughlaq & Served as Qazi (Judge) in Delhi.

26. Fig: Travel map of Ibn Battuta
North Africa → Middle East → Asia → India → China

27. IBN KHALDUN (1332-1406AD)
 Born on Mediterranean coast, lived in Algeria, Tunisia, Spain, & Egypt
 Supported Aristotle’s Concept of Uninhabitability of Torrid Zone
 Completed his masterpiece “The Muqaddimah” at the age of 45
 Work divided into six sections:
1. Civilization, Geography & Anthropology
2. Contrast between Nomadic vs. Sedentary Culture
3. Dynasties & Kingdoms
4. Village & City Life
5. Professions & Means of Livelihood
6. Classification of Sciences
 The work describes and discusses Human society in its various aspects.
Fig: The Muqaddimah

28. IBN KHALDUN'S IDEAS
 Social Evolution: Tribes → Cities: He studied tribes and cities as two distinct stages in evolution of
social organisation. To him tribes represented the pure untouched and primitive form while the
cities was the last in the social development of humans
 Environmental Determinism: As he tries to correlate man & his environment in a scientific way
 Northern Hemisphere more populated than Southern hemisphere & population along Equator is
sparse

29. THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS
CONTRIBUTIONS
Mathematics- The Arab scholars
are highly influenced by the Greek
ideas about the shapes and sizes of
the Earth , considering Earth as the
centre of the around which 7 planets
and sun revolves. For this purpose,
Ptolemy’s prime meridian was taken
into consideration which passes
through the Fortunate islands, Abu
Mashar .
Climatology- The first climatic atlas can be
credited to the Al-Balakhi who gathered the data and
information from Arab travelers and presented the
first climatic atlas of the world – Kitab-ul-Ashkal.
Al- Maqdisi divided the world into 14 climatic
regions . He presented the idea that the southern
hemisphere was mostly an open ocean and most of the
world’s area was in the northern hemisphere.
Al-Masudi described the Indian Monsoons and
elaborated the factors like location, height above the
sea, population distribution as per the soil and other
physical features etc.
Al-Masudi and Al Baruni described the influence of
climatic conditions on the lifestyle of the people.
Geographers like Al-Istakhri, Ibn Khordadbeh, Al
Maqdisi divided the world into different climatic
regions using the temperature and rainfall indices.
Geomorphology- Al Baruni in his
book Kitab-ul-Hind describe the
formation of finer texture soil further
away from mountains.
Ibn Sina observed the agents of
denudation and ascertained that
mountain streams erodes the slope.
Al Masudi refers to the dynamic
relationship between the land and sea.
He even pointed out the ‘geographical
cycle’ and categorically identifies the
3 stages of of the rivers- youth ,
mature and old age , relating it with
the organic nature.

30. Biogeography- Many Arab geographers like
Abu Zeid Al-Ansary, like Abu Zeid Al-asma’ai, Al-
Qazwini etc contributed to the field of geography
with an attempt to classify the distribution of the
natural vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula.
Cultural geography- Ibn Khaldun divide the population
of the world into 2 categories – nomadic and sedentary
and argued that nomadic life preceded sedentary life of
human beings.
Scholars like Al Maqadisi along with Al Ishtakhri wrote
how physical characteristics of man like their physique ,
color of skin, temperament and costume differs from
region to region.
Ibn Khaldun in his book related that as the Arabs started
travelling where they blended with the non-Arab
communities resulted in the distortion of their language.
Urban settlement- Al Khwarizmi in his book Surat Al-
Ard fixes the coordinates for nearly 539 towns.
Al-Qazwini and Ibn Khaldun wrote on relationship
existed in between environmental conditions and health in
relation to the establishment of new urban settlements
which directed their attention on the morphology of urban
settlements especially with regard to the internal structure
of the towns.
Economic Geography- Ibn Khaldun made an
attempt of defining trade and covered famous
marketing centers at the local, regional and
international levels.
There was also reference to the currencies ,and
the measures and weights in use.

31. CRITICISM
While Arab geographers made a significant contributions to the geography but still their work has faced some criticisms:
• 1)Regional focus:- Many Arab geographers focused majorly on the Islamic world with limited exploration beyond Africa,
the Middle East , and parts of Asia , leaving a gap in global geographical knowledge.
• 2)Religious and Cosmological influence:- The influence of religious ideologies with less reliable empirical evidences led
the interpretation of mixed religious and the cosmological ideas with scientific observations.
• 3)Reliance on earlier works :- Many geographers heavily relied on Greek , Roman and Persian sources which hindered
the development of new set of ideas along with theories. While some focused on preserving and translating knowledge
rather than exploring and challenging the knowledge.
• 4)Lack of Mathematical Precision in Mapping:- While Arab geographers like Al-Idrisi produced detailed map depicting
population settlements, routes etc, they still lacked mathematical accuracy and that’s why their cartographic did not always
match with the advancements in projection techniques.
• 5)Limited Scientific Methods:- Although Arab geographers emphasized observations, their methodologies were not
scientific. Some of the geographical descriptions were based on the travelogue without any field surveys. Despite all these
criticisms , Arab geographers played a crucial role in preserving, expanding, and transmitting the geographical knowledge ,
paving the way for later advancements in the fields.

33. CONCLUSION
• During the medieval period , Arab geographers made significant contribution to the field of
geography , blending it with the empirical observation with scholarly research. They not
only expanded and continued the legacy of geography but also preserved the classical Greek
and Roman geographical knowledge. Their emphasis on direct observation and logical
deduction laid the groundwork for the modern geographical thought and their efforts in map
making and regional studies .
• This period witnessed a rise of scientific temperament like Al Baruni made the significant
contributions to the understanding of gravitation, proposing that the objects are naturally
attracted towards the centre of the earth.
• This period showed the significant development of different fields of science based on
quantitative analysis and reasonable questioning the phenomenon through field surveys and
explorations.

34. THANKYOU