This document evaluates models for predicting thermophysical properties of foods. It summarizes the performance of different models for predicting ice fraction, apparent specific heat capacity, specific enthalpy, and thermal conductivity based on a comparison to experimental data. The best performing models were: Chen (1985b) for ice fraction prediction, Schwartzberg (1976) for apparent specific heat capacity, Chen (1985a) for specific enthalpy prediction, and Levy (1981) for thermal conductivity prediction.
The document summarizes a study on the thermal degradation of three natural polymers: sodium hyaluronate, xanthan, and methylcellulose. Thermogravimetric analysis showed sodium hyaluronate and xanthan had lower thermal stability than methylcellulose. Kinetic parameters like activation energy were determined using the Ozawa and Freeman-Carroll methods, which suggested changes in degradation mechanism with mass loss. Activation energies from Freeman-Carroll were higher, accounting for thermal history effects. Infrared spectroscopy observed scission of side groups at low temperatures and backbone links at high temperatures, agreeing with kinetic parameters.
Densitometric and viscometric study of diclofenac sodium in aqueous solution ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that measured the density and viscosity of diclofenac sodium in aqueous solution with and without additives like NaCl, dextrose, KCl, and sodium lactate. The density measurements were used to calculate apparent molar volumes, and viscosity measurements were used to determine Jones-Dole B-coefficients. Results showed that density and viscosity increased with concentration and decreased with increasing temperature. Apparent molar volumes were positive, indicating strong solute-solvent interactions. B-coefficients were negative, showing weak solute-solute interactions. The study analyzed molecular interactions in diclofenac sodium solutions using these simple physical properties.
The Standard Enthalpy of Solution, DH°sol, 298, is the heat change which takes place when one mole of a solute is completely dissolved in a solvent to form a solution of concentration 1 mol dm-3, measured under standard conditions.
Enthalpy of Solution can be measured experimentally. It can also be calculated; it is the sum of two imaginary steps: the reverse of the lattice enthalpy plus the sum of the hydration enthalpies of the ions.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in chemistry including:
- Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Common types of matter include elements, compounds, and mixtures.
- Energy is the ability to do work or transfer heat and exists in various forms like chemical, thermal, nuclear, and electrical.
- Chemical and physical properties can be used to describe matter. Chemical properties involve changes in composition while physical properties can be observed without composition changes.
- Important concepts in chemistry include the laws of conservation of mass and energy, the relationship between matter and energy described by Einstein's equation E=mc2, and endothermic and exothermic reactions. Measurements involve units, significant figures, and conversions between
Hess's law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the pathway between the initial and final states. To calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction, standard enthalpy change values can be used for the elementary steps that add up to the overall reaction through algebraic manipulation. For the reaction of 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g), using standard enthalpy change values for the elementary steps gives an overall exothermic enthalpy change of -906.3 kJ.
This document provides an overview of key concepts relating to matter and energy from a chemistry textbook. It defines the three common states of matter as solid, liquid, and gas. Matter is composed of atoms and molecules and can be classified as elements, compounds, or mixtures based on its composition. A physical property is one that does not change the composition of a substance, while a chemical property involves a change in composition. Energy and mass are conserved in physical and chemical changes. The document also discusses heat, temperature, and heat capacity, and provides formulas for calculating energy changes associated with temperature variations.
The document discusses Hess's law, which states that the heat of reaction is the same whether a chemical process occurs in one or multiple steps. Specifically:
- Hess's law allows adding together multiple chemical equations to determine the enthalpy change of the overall equation.
- Two examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the enthalpy change of an overall reaction by combining individual reaction enthalpies.
- In both examples, the individual reactions are rearranged and combined to produce the overall reaction, and the enthalpy terms are summed to find the enthalpy change of the overall reaction.
Hess's law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes of the steps that make up that reaction. This allows one to calculate the enthalpy of a reaction from standard enthalpy of formation values without directly measuring the enthalpy change experimentally. Enthalpy diagrams can be used to visually represent how individual reaction steps add together based on Hess's law.
The document summarizes a study on the thermal degradation of three natural polymers: sodium hyaluronate, xanthan, and methylcellulose. Thermogravimetric analysis showed sodium hyaluronate and xanthan had lower thermal stability than methylcellulose. Kinetic parameters like activation energy were determined using the Ozawa and Freeman-Carroll methods, which suggested changes in degradation mechanism with mass loss. Activation energies from Freeman-Carroll were higher, accounting for thermal history effects. Infrared spectroscopy observed scission of side groups at low temperatures and backbone links at high temperatures, agreeing with kinetic parameters.
Densitometric and viscometric study of diclofenac sodium in aqueous solution ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that measured the density and viscosity of diclofenac sodium in aqueous solution with and without additives like NaCl, dextrose, KCl, and sodium lactate. The density measurements were used to calculate apparent molar volumes, and viscosity measurements were used to determine Jones-Dole B-coefficients. Results showed that density and viscosity increased with concentration and decreased with increasing temperature. Apparent molar volumes were positive, indicating strong solute-solvent interactions. B-coefficients were negative, showing weak solute-solute interactions. The study analyzed molecular interactions in diclofenac sodium solutions using these simple physical properties.
The Standard Enthalpy of Solution, DH°sol, 298, is the heat change which takes place when one mole of a solute is completely dissolved in a solvent to form a solution of concentration 1 mol dm-3, measured under standard conditions.
Enthalpy of Solution can be measured experimentally. It can also be calculated; it is the sum of two imaginary steps: the reverse of the lattice enthalpy plus the sum of the hydration enthalpies of the ions.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in chemistry including:
- Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Common types of matter include elements, compounds, and mixtures.
- Energy is the ability to do work or transfer heat and exists in various forms like chemical, thermal, nuclear, and electrical.
- Chemical and physical properties can be used to describe matter. Chemical properties involve changes in composition while physical properties can be observed without composition changes.
- Important concepts in chemistry include the laws of conservation of mass and energy, the relationship between matter and energy described by Einstein's equation E=mc2, and endothermic and exothermic reactions. Measurements involve units, significant figures, and conversions between
Hess's law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the pathway between the initial and final states. To calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction, standard enthalpy change values can be used for the elementary steps that add up to the overall reaction through algebraic manipulation. For the reaction of 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g), using standard enthalpy change values for the elementary steps gives an overall exothermic enthalpy change of -906.3 kJ.
This document provides an overview of key concepts relating to matter and energy from a chemistry textbook. It defines the three common states of matter as solid, liquid, and gas. Matter is composed of atoms and molecules and can be classified as elements, compounds, or mixtures based on its composition. A physical property is one that does not change the composition of a substance, while a chemical property involves a change in composition. Energy and mass are conserved in physical and chemical changes. The document also discusses heat, temperature, and heat capacity, and provides formulas for calculating energy changes associated with temperature variations.
The document discusses Hess's law, which states that the heat of reaction is the same whether a chemical process occurs in one or multiple steps. Specifically:
- Hess's law allows adding together multiple chemical equations to determine the enthalpy change of the overall equation.
- Two examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the enthalpy change of an overall reaction by combining individual reaction enthalpies.
- In both examples, the individual reactions are rearranged and combined to produce the overall reaction, and the enthalpy terms are summed to find the enthalpy change of the overall reaction.
Hess's law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes of the steps that make up that reaction. This allows one to calculate the enthalpy of a reaction from standard enthalpy of formation values without directly measuring the enthalpy change experimentally. Enthalpy diagrams can be used to visually represent how individual reaction steps add together based on Hess's law.
Freezing is commonly used to preserve foods by reducing microbial and enzyme activity through lowering temperatures. The rate of freezing and temperature differences between the food and freezing medium impact properties and quality. Very rapid freezing results in significantly different properties than slow freezing due to differences in ice crystal formation within the food structure. Properties of frozen foods like water content and thermal properties affect freezing processes. Ice crystal formation and freezing point depression are important concepts, and controlling recrystallization through consistent low storage temperatures preserves quality. Common freezing equipment includes air blast, plate, and immersion freezers.
Measurement and model validation of specific heat of xanthan gum using joules...eSAT Journals
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to examine the concentration and temperature influence on the specific heat of xanthan gum and to propose a model equation for estimating the specific heat of xanthan gum at different concentration and temperature usingthe Joules calorimeter method. Joules calorimeter method was tested with distilled water for accuracy and reliability before applying to xanthan gum samples which varied in concentration. The specific heat of xanthan gum needs to be known for evaluating the design and modeling aspects of heat transfer processes of refrigeration, freezing, heating, pasteurization and drying. The specific heat of xanthan gum increases with an increase in temperature (293.15 - 333.15K) and concentration (0.1 - 0.6 %w/w). The minimum value of specific heat of xanthan gum was 4.133 KJ/kg K at 300.25K with a concentration of 0.2 %w/w, whereas the maximum value of specific heat of xanthan gum was 7.459 KJ/kg K at 333.95K with a concentration of 0.5 %w/w. The specific heat capacity of xanthan gum is compared with that of pure water at 308.15, 318.15 and 328.15 K and literature available model at 293.15 - 333.15 K for 0.1 - 0.6 %w/w concentration of xanthan gum. The influence of operating parameters on the specific heat of xanthan gum was determined by employing a central composite rotatable design in response surface methodology (CCRD-RSM). The new model equation obtained for estimating the specific heat using RSM possesses good agreement with experimental data with a regression coefficient of 0.9774. Index Terms: Specific heat, Xanthan gum, Pseudo plastic fluid and Response surface methodology etc.…
Thermal characteristics and state diagram of freeze dried broccoli 2017Lucía Cassani
study, state diagram of broccoli was developed considering freezing curve, glass line, maximal-freeze-concentration
conditions, solids-melting and BET-monolayer line. The freezing point, glass transition and solidsmelting
were measured and modeled by Chen’s model, Gordon-Taylor model, and Flory-Huggins model, respectively.
The ultimate maximal-freeze-concentration conditions (Tm′)u (i.e. end temperature of freezing) and
(Tg′′′)u [i.e. end glass transition at (Tm′)u] were found as −30.0 °C and −32.2 °C, respectively, and solids content
(i.e. Xs′) at this point was 0.70 g/g sample. The solids-water interaction (χ) during melting was estimated as 0.69
(dimensionless) from Flory-Huggins model, and BET-monolayer was observed as 0.089 g/g dry-solids at 20 °C.
This document provides instructions for determining the heat capacity of a calorimeter. It involves mixing known quantities of hot and cold water in the calorimeter and measuring the temperature change. From the temperatures before and after mixing, and the masses and specific heat of water, the heat capacity of the calorimeter can be calculated using the formula provided. The experiment is carried out twice to obtain two values of heat capacity, which are then averaged to determine the final heat capacity.
This document describes a study that measured the specific heat of xanthan gum solutions using a Joules calorimeter method. The specific heat was measured over a range of temperatures (293.15-333.15 K) and concentrations (0.1-0.6% w/w). The results showed that the specific heat increased with both increasing temperature and concentration. A response surface methodology was used to develop a new model equation to estimate the specific heat based on temperature and concentration, which showed good agreement with experimental data. The specific heat of the xanthan gum solutions was higher than that of water and increased more than the specific heat of its components alone.
1) The document analyzes the thermal degradation of three natural polymers - sodium hyaluronate, xanthan, and methylcellulose - using thermogravimetric analysis and infrared spectroscopy.
2) The results show sodium hyaluronate and xanthan, which are charged polysaccharides, have lower thermal stability than the neutral polysaccharide methylcellulose.
3) Kinetic parameters like activation energy were determined using the Ozawa and Freeman-Carroll methods, which suggest changes in the degradation mechanism with increasing mass loss. Activation energies are generally higher for methylcellulose indicating greater thermal stability.
The document provides an agenda and learning objectives for a unit on energetics. The agenda includes reading a textbook section, completing practice problems, an introduction to energetics, a Ziploc lab on calorimetry, and a calorimetry review. The learning objectives cover recalling and applying the heat transfer equation Q=mcΔT, explaining how chemical bond energy originates from the sun, and identifying reactants and products of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and hydrocarbon combustion. The document also provides textbook content on the law of conservation of energy, examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions, heat as a transfer of energy, and calculations involving specific heat, mass, and temperature change.
Unit operations are the fundamental physical, chemical, and biological processes used in food engineering to transform raw materials into final food products. Some key unit operations include filtration, drying, distillation, crystallization, grinding, and sedimentation. The properties of foods, such as thermal, optical, electrical, structural, mechanical, and mass transfer properties must be well understood to design effective unit operations. The main objectives of unit operations are to study the principles governing various food processing stages and the equipment used to carry them out industrially. Unit operations can be classified into physical, chemical, biochemical, momentum transfer, mass transfer, and heat transfer operations. Thermal properties of foods like specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity are
Freezing curve, freezing system & freezing timeMuneeb Vml
The document discusses freezing as an operation to preserve food by lowering its temperature below the freezing point. It describes the freezing process and freezing curve, including nucleation, crystal growth, and how solute concentration changes. It discusses factors that influence freezing time like thermal conductivity and size/shape of food pieces. Methods to calculate freezing time are presented, including Planck's equation and Pham's method. Different freezing systems are outlined like air blast freezers, plate freezers, and fluidized bed freezers.
This document discusses using thermal analysis techniques to monitor changes in physical properties of foods as temperature varies. It explains that temperature changes can cause alterations like evaporation, melting, crystallization or gelation that influence properties like taste, texture and stability. Thermal analysis techniques measure changes in mass, density, heat capacity and other physical properties during phase transitions or gelation processes as these are important for food manufacturers to optimize processing.
PR25_SeniorDesign_FallTermProposal_PRESENTATION COPYMathew Smith
This document presents a senior design proposal for a binary refrigerant refrigerator project. The objective is to design, build, and test an optimized domestic refrigerator that uses a binary refrigerant mixture to improve energy efficiency. A binary mixture offers potential efficiency advantages over a single refrigerant by allowing for temperature changes during boiling. Optimization algorithms will be used to select refrigerant mixtures that maximize the refrigerator's coefficient of performance (COP). Analytical and experimental methods will be used to test various refrigerant concentrations and measure the energy required to determine the mixture with the highest COP. The results will aim to provide energy savings for consumers while reducing environmental impacts.
Thermal analysis techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermal mechanical analysis (TMA) are used to determine the physical and chemical properties of materials as a function of temperature and time. TGA measures weight changes that occur as a material is heated, allowing determination of composition and thermal stability. DSC measures heat flow into or out of a material during phase transitions or chemical reactions. These techniques provide information on material properties and transformations useful for various applications including composite analysis, degradation studies, and quality control.
This document analyzes the properties of sucrose crystals formed through nucleation of amorphous sucrose solutions. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to investigate how temperature affects the heat capacity of amorphous sucrose solutions and the mass, melting point, and density of recrystallized sucrose crystals. The heat capacities of amorphous sucrose solutions decreased with increasing temperature. The mass of recrystallized crystals varied between trials. Melting points of crystals were about 10°C lower than pure sucrose due to impurities. Densities of crystals were also lower than pure sucrose likely due to residual solution and dissolution during measurement.
Food Processing and preservation 3 - Sterilization.pdfPeterJofilisi
The document discusses food sterilization and preservation through heat processing. It describes sterilization as using high heat to destroy microbes and enzymes, giving foods a shelf life over 6 months. The factors that influence sterilization time include heat resistance of microbes, heating conditions, food acidity, and container size. Proper sterilization requires knowledge of microbe concentrations and heat resistance. Microbe death through heat follows a logarithmic order and can be measured using D-values and Z-values. Different container types and the rate of heat penetration must also be considered for effective sterilization.
Food Processing and preservation 3 - Sterilization.pdfPeterJofilisi
The document discusses food sterilization and preservation through heat processing. It describes sterilization as using high heat to destroy microbes and enzymes, giving foods a shelf life over 6 months. The factors that influence sterilization time include heat resistance of microbes, heating conditions, food acidity, and container size. Proper sterilization requires knowledge of microbe concentrations and heat resistance. Microbe death through heat follows a logarithmic order and can be measured using D-values and Z-values. Different container types and the rate of heat penetration must also be considered for effective sterilization.
The document discusses different topics relating to temperature and heat transfer. It defines temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules. It describes how thermometers work using properties like thermal expansion. Common temperature scales like Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin are presented along with equations to convert between them. The document also discusses concepts such as heat, specific heat, latent heat and the phases of matter. It explains different methods of heat transfer including conduction, convection and radiation.
electric injera baking pan efficency analsisAmare Addis
This document presents a finite element model for simulating the heat transfer process during injera baking. The model uses Luikov's model for heat and mass transfer in porous media. The finite element model was developed and validated by comparing results to experimental data. The model can predict the impact of injera baking pan design parameters like thermal conductivity and plate thickness on energy efficiency. Modeling indicates that improving these parameters, such as using higher conductivity clay, could significantly improve energy efficiency. The document provides mathematical descriptions of the heat transfer models used for the baking pan and injera batter during the baking process.
1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and temperature changes that occur during physical and chemical processes.
2. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy in the universe is constant; energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or changed in form.
3. Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C. Water has a unusually high specific heat capacity, allowing it to absorb large amounts of heat with only small temperature changes.
4. Calorimetry involves measuring heat changes that occur during chemical reactions. The heat transferred during exothermic reactions causes temperature increases, while endothermic reactions cause temperature decreases.
1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and temperature changes that occur during physical and chemical processes.
2. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy in the universe is constant; energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or changed in form.
3. Calorimetry involves measuring the heat transferred during chemical reactions using a calorimeter. The heat transferred (q) can be calculated from the temperature change (ΔT) of the calorimeter using its heat capacity (c).
Iaii 9 transferencia de calor en estado no estacionarioJulio Tirado
The document discusses heat transfer in non-steady state conditions. It defines conduction as the transport of heat between molecules due to a temperature difference. Steady-state conduction occurs when heat transfer is constant and homogeneous over time. In non-steady state conduction, the temperature distribution in a body depends on location and time. The thermal conductivity of a material indicates how well it conducts heat from one point to another. The evolution of temperature over time is given by the heat diffusion equation.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Freezing is commonly used to preserve foods by reducing microbial and enzyme activity through lowering temperatures. The rate of freezing and temperature differences between the food and freezing medium impact properties and quality. Very rapid freezing results in significantly different properties than slow freezing due to differences in ice crystal formation within the food structure. Properties of frozen foods like water content and thermal properties affect freezing processes. Ice crystal formation and freezing point depression are important concepts, and controlling recrystallization through consistent low storage temperatures preserves quality. Common freezing equipment includes air blast, plate, and immersion freezers.
Measurement and model validation of specific heat of xanthan gum using joules...eSAT Journals
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to examine the concentration and temperature influence on the specific heat of xanthan gum and to propose a model equation for estimating the specific heat of xanthan gum at different concentration and temperature usingthe Joules calorimeter method. Joules calorimeter method was tested with distilled water for accuracy and reliability before applying to xanthan gum samples which varied in concentration. The specific heat of xanthan gum needs to be known for evaluating the design and modeling aspects of heat transfer processes of refrigeration, freezing, heating, pasteurization and drying. The specific heat of xanthan gum increases with an increase in temperature (293.15 - 333.15K) and concentration (0.1 - 0.6 %w/w). The minimum value of specific heat of xanthan gum was 4.133 KJ/kg K at 300.25K with a concentration of 0.2 %w/w, whereas the maximum value of specific heat of xanthan gum was 7.459 KJ/kg K at 333.95K with a concentration of 0.5 %w/w. The specific heat capacity of xanthan gum is compared with that of pure water at 308.15, 318.15 and 328.15 K and literature available model at 293.15 - 333.15 K for 0.1 - 0.6 %w/w concentration of xanthan gum. The influence of operating parameters on the specific heat of xanthan gum was determined by employing a central composite rotatable design in response surface methodology (CCRD-RSM). The new model equation obtained for estimating the specific heat using RSM possesses good agreement with experimental data with a regression coefficient of 0.9774. Index Terms: Specific heat, Xanthan gum, Pseudo plastic fluid and Response surface methodology etc.…
Thermal characteristics and state diagram of freeze dried broccoli 2017Lucía Cassani
study, state diagram of broccoli was developed considering freezing curve, glass line, maximal-freeze-concentration
conditions, solids-melting and BET-monolayer line. The freezing point, glass transition and solidsmelting
were measured and modeled by Chen’s model, Gordon-Taylor model, and Flory-Huggins model, respectively.
The ultimate maximal-freeze-concentration conditions (Tm′)u (i.e. end temperature of freezing) and
(Tg′′′)u [i.e. end glass transition at (Tm′)u] were found as −30.0 °C and −32.2 °C, respectively, and solids content
(i.e. Xs′) at this point was 0.70 g/g sample. The solids-water interaction (χ) during melting was estimated as 0.69
(dimensionless) from Flory-Huggins model, and BET-monolayer was observed as 0.089 g/g dry-solids at 20 °C.
This document provides instructions for determining the heat capacity of a calorimeter. It involves mixing known quantities of hot and cold water in the calorimeter and measuring the temperature change. From the temperatures before and after mixing, and the masses and specific heat of water, the heat capacity of the calorimeter can be calculated using the formula provided. The experiment is carried out twice to obtain two values of heat capacity, which are then averaged to determine the final heat capacity.
This document describes a study that measured the specific heat of xanthan gum solutions using a Joules calorimeter method. The specific heat was measured over a range of temperatures (293.15-333.15 K) and concentrations (0.1-0.6% w/w). The results showed that the specific heat increased with both increasing temperature and concentration. A response surface methodology was used to develop a new model equation to estimate the specific heat based on temperature and concentration, which showed good agreement with experimental data. The specific heat of the xanthan gum solutions was higher than that of water and increased more than the specific heat of its components alone.
1) The document analyzes the thermal degradation of three natural polymers - sodium hyaluronate, xanthan, and methylcellulose - using thermogravimetric analysis and infrared spectroscopy.
2) The results show sodium hyaluronate and xanthan, which are charged polysaccharides, have lower thermal stability than the neutral polysaccharide methylcellulose.
3) Kinetic parameters like activation energy were determined using the Ozawa and Freeman-Carroll methods, which suggest changes in the degradation mechanism with increasing mass loss. Activation energies are generally higher for methylcellulose indicating greater thermal stability.
The document provides an agenda and learning objectives for a unit on energetics. The agenda includes reading a textbook section, completing practice problems, an introduction to energetics, a Ziploc lab on calorimetry, and a calorimetry review. The learning objectives cover recalling and applying the heat transfer equation Q=mcΔT, explaining how chemical bond energy originates from the sun, and identifying reactants and products of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and hydrocarbon combustion. The document also provides textbook content on the law of conservation of energy, examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions, heat as a transfer of energy, and calculations involving specific heat, mass, and temperature change.
Unit operations are the fundamental physical, chemical, and biological processes used in food engineering to transform raw materials into final food products. Some key unit operations include filtration, drying, distillation, crystallization, grinding, and sedimentation. The properties of foods, such as thermal, optical, electrical, structural, mechanical, and mass transfer properties must be well understood to design effective unit operations. The main objectives of unit operations are to study the principles governing various food processing stages and the equipment used to carry them out industrially. Unit operations can be classified into physical, chemical, biochemical, momentum transfer, mass transfer, and heat transfer operations. Thermal properties of foods like specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity are
Freezing curve, freezing system & freezing timeMuneeb Vml
The document discusses freezing as an operation to preserve food by lowering its temperature below the freezing point. It describes the freezing process and freezing curve, including nucleation, crystal growth, and how solute concentration changes. It discusses factors that influence freezing time like thermal conductivity and size/shape of food pieces. Methods to calculate freezing time are presented, including Planck's equation and Pham's method. Different freezing systems are outlined like air blast freezers, plate freezers, and fluidized bed freezers.
This document discusses using thermal analysis techniques to monitor changes in physical properties of foods as temperature varies. It explains that temperature changes can cause alterations like evaporation, melting, crystallization or gelation that influence properties like taste, texture and stability. Thermal analysis techniques measure changes in mass, density, heat capacity and other physical properties during phase transitions or gelation processes as these are important for food manufacturers to optimize processing.
PR25_SeniorDesign_FallTermProposal_PRESENTATION COPYMathew Smith
This document presents a senior design proposal for a binary refrigerant refrigerator project. The objective is to design, build, and test an optimized domestic refrigerator that uses a binary refrigerant mixture to improve energy efficiency. A binary mixture offers potential efficiency advantages over a single refrigerant by allowing for temperature changes during boiling. Optimization algorithms will be used to select refrigerant mixtures that maximize the refrigerator's coefficient of performance (COP). Analytical and experimental methods will be used to test various refrigerant concentrations and measure the energy required to determine the mixture with the highest COP. The results will aim to provide energy savings for consumers while reducing environmental impacts.
Thermal analysis techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermal mechanical analysis (TMA) are used to determine the physical and chemical properties of materials as a function of temperature and time. TGA measures weight changes that occur as a material is heated, allowing determination of composition and thermal stability. DSC measures heat flow into or out of a material during phase transitions or chemical reactions. These techniques provide information on material properties and transformations useful for various applications including composite analysis, degradation studies, and quality control.
This document analyzes the properties of sucrose crystals formed through nucleation of amorphous sucrose solutions. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to investigate how temperature affects the heat capacity of amorphous sucrose solutions and the mass, melting point, and density of recrystallized sucrose crystals. The heat capacities of amorphous sucrose solutions decreased with increasing temperature. The mass of recrystallized crystals varied between trials. Melting points of crystals were about 10°C lower than pure sucrose due to impurities. Densities of crystals were also lower than pure sucrose likely due to residual solution and dissolution during measurement.
Food Processing and preservation 3 - Sterilization.pdfPeterJofilisi
The document discusses food sterilization and preservation through heat processing. It describes sterilization as using high heat to destroy microbes and enzymes, giving foods a shelf life over 6 months. The factors that influence sterilization time include heat resistance of microbes, heating conditions, food acidity, and container size. Proper sterilization requires knowledge of microbe concentrations and heat resistance. Microbe death through heat follows a logarithmic order and can be measured using D-values and Z-values. Different container types and the rate of heat penetration must also be considered for effective sterilization.
Food Processing and preservation 3 - Sterilization.pdfPeterJofilisi
The document discusses food sterilization and preservation through heat processing. It describes sterilization as using high heat to destroy microbes and enzymes, giving foods a shelf life over 6 months. The factors that influence sterilization time include heat resistance of microbes, heating conditions, food acidity, and container size. Proper sterilization requires knowledge of microbe concentrations and heat resistance. Microbe death through heat follows a logarithmic order and can be measured using D-values and Z-values. Different container types and the rate of heat penetration must also be considered for effective sterilization.
The document discusses different topics relating to temperature and heat transfer. It defines temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules. It describes how thermometers work using properties like thermal expansion. Common temperature scales like Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin are presented along with equations to convert between them. The document also discusses concepts such as heat, specific heat, latent heat and the phases of matter. It explains different methods of heat transfer including conduction, convection and radiation.
electric injera baking pan efficency analsisAmare Addis
This document presents a finite element model for simulating the heat transfer process during injera baking. The model uses Luikov's model for heat and mass transfer in porous media. The finite element model was developed and validated by comparing results to experimental data. The model can predict the impact of injera baking pan design parameters like thermal conductivity and plate thickness on energy efficiency. Modeling indicates that improving these parameters, such as using higher conductivity clay, could significantly improve energy efficiency. The document provides mathematical descriptions of the heat transfer models used for the baking pan and injera batter during the baking process.
1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and temperature changes that occur during physical and chemical processes.
2. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy in the universe is constant; energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or changed in form.
3. Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C. Water has a unusually high specific heat capacity, allowing it to absorb large amounts of heat with only small temperature changes.
4. Calorimetry involves measuring heat changes that occur during chemical reactions. The heat transferred during exothermic reactions causes temperature increases, while endothermic reactions cause temperature decreases.
1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and temperature changes that occur during physical and chemical processes.
2. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy in the universe is constant; energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or changed in form.
3. Calorimetry involves measuring the heat transferred during chemical reactions using a calorimeter. The heat transferred (q) can be calculated from the temperature change (ΔT) of the calorimeter using its heat capacity (c).
Iaii 9 transferencia de calor en estado no estacionarioJulio Tirado
The document discusses heat transfer in non-steady state conditions. It defines conduction as the transport of heat between molecules due to a temperature difference. Steady-state conduction occurs when heat transfer is constant and homogeneous over time. In non-steady state conduction, the temperature distribution in a body depends on location and time. The thermal conductivity of a material indicates how well it conducts heat from one point to another. The evolution of temperature over time is given by the heat diffusion equation.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
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1. VOL. 7, NO. 4 HVAC&R RESEARCH OCTOBER 2001
311
Evaluation of Thermophysical Property
Models for Foods
Brian A. Fricke, Ph.D., E.I.T. Bryan R. Becker, Ph.D., P.E.
Member ASHRAE
The thermophysical properties of foods are required in order to calculate process times and to
design equipment for the storage and preservation of food. There are a multitude of food items
available, whose properties are strongly dependent upon chemical composition and tempera-
ture. Composition-based thermophysical property models provide a means of estimating prop-
erties of foods as functions of temperature. Numerous models have been developed and the
designer of food processing equipment is faced with the challenge of selecting appropriate ones
from those available. In this paper selected thermophysical property models are quantitatively
evaluated by comparison to a comprehensive experimental thermophysical property data set
compiled from the literature.
For ice fraction prediction, the equation by Chen (1985b) performed best, followed closely by
that of Tchigeov (1979). For apparent specific heat capacity, the model of Schwartzberg (1976)
performed best, and for specific enthalpy prediction, the Chen (1985a) equation gave the best
results, followed closely by that of Miki and Hayakawa (1996). Finally, for thermal conductiv-
ity, the model by Levy (1981) performed best.
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of the thermal properties of foods is required to perform the various heat transfer
calculations that are involved in the design of food storage and refrigeration equipment and esti-
mating process times for refrigerating, freezing, heating or drying of foods. The thermal proper-
ties of foods are strongly dependent upon chemical composition and temperature, and there are a
multitude of food items available. It is difficult to generate an experimentally determined data-
base of thermal properties for all possible conditions and compositions of foods. The most via-
ble option is to predict the thermal properties of foods using mathematical models that account
for the effects of chemical composition and temperature.
Composition data for foods are readily available in the literature from sources such as Hol-
land et al. (1991) and USDA (1975, 1996). These data consist of the mass fractions of the major
components found in food items. Food thermal properties can be predicted by using these com-
position data in conjunction with temperature-dependent mathematical models of the thermal
properties of the individual food constituents.
Thermophysical properties of foods that are often required for heat transfer calculations
include ice fraction, specific heat capacity, specific enthalpy, and thermal conductivity. In this
paper, prediction methods for estimating these thermophysical properties are quantitatively
evaluated by comparing their calculated results with an extensive, experimentally determined,
thermophysical property data set compiled from the literature.
Constituents commonly found in food items include water, protein, fat, carbohydrate, fiber,
and ash. Choi and Okos (1986) have developed equations presented in Tables 1 and 2 for
Brian A. Fricke is a research associate and Bryan R. Becker is professor and associate chair with the Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering Department, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri.
2. 312 HVAC&R RESEARCH
predicting the thermal properties of these components and ice as functions of temperature in the
range of −40°C to 150°C. Choi and Okos (1986) report that the equations presented in Tables 1
and 2 produce an error of 6% or less.
Composition-based prediction methods for estimating the thermal properties of foods require
detailed knowledge of the mass fractions of the various components that make up the food.
Composition data for foods are readily available in the literature and can be obtained from
sources such as Holland et al. (1991) and USDA (1975, 1996).
In general, the thermophysical properties of a food item are well behaved when the temper-
ature is above the initial freezing point. However, below the initial freezing point, the thermo-
physical properties of a food item vary greatly due to the complex processes involved during
freezing. Prior to freezing, sensible heat must be removed from the food to decrease its
Table 1. Thermal Property Equations for Food Componentsa (−40°C ≤ t ≤ 150°C)
Thermal Property Food Component Thermal Property Model
Thermal Conductivity,
W/(m·K)
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrate
Fiber
Ash
k = 1.7881 × 10−1 + 1.1958 × 10−3t – 2.7178 × 10−6t2
k = 1.8071 × 10−1 – 2.7604 × 10−3t – 1.7749 × 10−7t2
k = 2.0141 × 10−1 + 1.3874 × 10−3t – 4.3312 × 10−6t2
k = 1.8331 × 10−1 + 1.2497 × 10−3t – 3.1683 × 10−6t2
k = 3.2962 × 10−1 + 1.4011 × 10−3t – 2.9069 × 10−6t2
Thermal Diffusivity,
m2/s
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrate
Fiber
Ash
α = 6.8714 × 10−8 + 4.7578 × 10−10t – 1.4646 × 10−12t2
α = 9.8777 × 10−8 – 1.2569 × 10−10t – 3.8286 × 10−14t2
α = 8.0842 × 10−8 + 5.3052 × 10−10t – 2.3218 × 10−12t2
α = 7.3976 × 10−8 + 5.1902 × 10−10t – 2.2202 × 10−12t2
α = 1.2461 × 10−7 + 3.7321 × 10−10t – 1.2244 × 10−12t2
Density,
kg/m3
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrate
Fiber
Ash
ρ = 1.3299 × 103 – 5.1840 × 10−1t
ρ = 9.2559 × 102 – 4.1757 × 10−1t
ρ = 1.5991 × 103 – 3.1046 × 10−1t
ρ = 1.3115 × 103 – 3.6589 × 10−1t
ρ = 2.4238 × 103 – 2.8063 × 10−1t
Specific Heat,
J/(kg·K)
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrate
Fiber
Ash
cp = 2.0082 × 103 + 1.2089t – 1.3129 × 10−3t2
cp = 1.9842 × 103 + 1.4733t – 4.8008 × 10−3t2
cp = 1.5488 × 103 + 1.9625t – 5.9399 × 10−3t2
cp = 1.8459 × 103 + 1.8306t – 4.6509 × 10−3t2
cp = 1.0926 × 103 + 1.8896t – 3.6817 × 10−3t2
aFrom Choi and Okos (1986).
Table 2. Thermal Property Equations for Water and Icea (−40°C ≤ t ≤ 150°C)
Thermal Property Thermal Property Model
Water Thermal Conductivity, W/(m·K)
Thermal Diffusivity, m2/s
Density, kg/m3
Specific Heat, J/(kg·K)b
Specific Heat, J/(kg·K)c
kw = 5.7109 × 10−1 + 1.7625 × 10−3t – 6.7036 × 10−6t2
αw = 1.3168 × 10−7 + 6.2477 × 10−10t – 2.4022 × 10−12t2
ρw = 9.9718 × 102 + 3.1439 × 10−3t – 3.7574 × 10−3t2
cw = 4.0817 × 103 – 5.3062t + 9.9516 × 10−1t2
cw = 4.1762 × 103 – 9.0864 × 10−2t + 5.4731 × 10−3t2
Ice Thermal Conductivity, W/(m·K)
Thermal Diffusivity, m2/s
Density, kg/m3
Specific Heat, J/(kg·K)
kice = 2.2196 – 6.2489 × 10−3t + 1.0154 × 10−4t2
αice = 1.1756 × 10−6 – 6.0833 × 10−9t + 9.5037 × 10−11t2
ρice = 9.1689 × 102 – 1.3071 × 10−1t
cice = 2.0623 × 103 + 6.0769t
aFrom Choi and Okos (1986).
bFor the temperature range of −40°C to 0°C.
cFor the temperature range of 0°C to 150°C.
3. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 313
temperature to that at which pure ice first begins to crystallize. This initial freezing point is
somewhat lower than the freezing point of pure water due to dissolved substances in the mois-
ture within the food. At the initial freezing point, as a portion of the water within the food
crystallizes, the remaining solution becomes more concentrated. Thus, the freezing point of
the unfrozen portion of the food is further reduced. The temperature continues to decrease as
the separation of ice crystals increases the concentration of the solutes in solution and
depresses the freezing point further. The ice and water fractions in the frozen food depend
upon temperature. Since the thermophysical properties of ice and water are quite different, the
thermophysical properties of the frozen food vary dramatically with temperature.
PREDICTION METHODS
Ice Fraction
The thermophysical properties of frozen foods depend strongly on the fraction of ice within
the food and it is necessary to determine the mass fraction of water that has crystallized. Foods
can be considered to consist of three constituents: water, soluble substances, and insoluble sub-
stances. Below its initial freezing temperature, the item contains ice, unfrozen water, soluble
solids, and insoluble solids. As the temperature decreases further there is an increase in the mass
fraction of ice, wice, and a decrease in the mass fraction of unfrozen water, ww. The mass frac-
tions of ice and water are then related as follows:
(1)
where wwo is the total mass fraction of water.
High moisture content food items have been modeled as ideal dilute solutions (Heldman
1974; Schwartzberg 1976; Chen 1985a, 1987, 1988; Pham 1987; Pham et al. 1994; Murakami
and Okos 1996), assuming that Raoult’s law is valid. The freezing point depression equation is
then given by
(2)
which can be integrated to yield
(3)
where xw is the mole fraction of water in solution, Mw is the molar mass of water, Lo is the latent
heat of fusion of water, R is the ideal gas constant, To is the freezing point of water, and T is the
freezing point of the food.
In addition, the mole fraction of water in solution, xw, is given by
(4)
An effective molar mass Ms for the solids is used since it would be difficult to determine the
actual molar mass of the soluble solids. This effective molar mass is empirically determined
from freezing point data so as to correlate with experimentally determined ice content data.
wwo wice ww+=
d
dT
------ ln xw( )
MwLo
RT
2
--------------=
ln xw
MwLo
R
-------------- 1
To
-----
1
T
---–
=
xw
ww Mw⁄
ww Mw⁄ ws Ms⁄+
-------------------------------------------=
4. 314 HVAC&R RESEARCH
By manipulating Equations (1) through (4), the mass fraction of ice within high moisture con-
tent food items is obtained. Chen (1985b) proposed the following model for predicting the mass
fraction of ice in a food item:
(5)
Based upon experimental data, Chen (1985a) developed the following equation for estimating
the effective molar mass of the soluble solids in lean beef and cod muscle:
(6)
where n = 535.4 for lean beef and n = 404.9 for cod muscle. A similar equation was developed
to estimate the effective molar mass of the soluble solids in orange juice and apple juice:
(7)
where n = 200 for both orange juice and apple juice.
Schwartzberg (1976), however, suggested that the effective molar mass of the soluble solids
within the food item can be approximated by
(8)
where wwo is the mass fraction of water in the unfrozen food item and wb is the mass fraction of
“bound water” within the food. Bound water is that portion of the water within a food item
which is bound to solids within the food, and thus is unavailable for freezing. The mass fraction
of bound water may be estimated as follows:
(9)
where wp is the mass fraction of protein in the food item.
By combining Equations (5) and (8), a simple expression for predicting the ice fraction was
developed (Miles 1974):
(10)
Equation (10) underestimates the ice fraction at temperatures near the initial freezing point
and overestimates the ice fraction at lower temperatures. Tchigeov (1979) proposed an empirical
relationship to estimate the mass fraction of ice:
(11)
wice
ws RTo
2
MsLo
-------------------
tf t–( )
tft
---------------
=
Ms
n
1 ws–
---------------=
Ms
n
1 0.25ws+
--------------------------=
Ms
ws RTo
2
wwo wb–( )Lotf–
----------------------------------------=
wb 0.4wp=
wice wwo wb–( ) 1
tf
t
---–
=
wice wwo
1.105
1
0.7138
ln tf t– 1+( )
------------------------------+
---------------------------------------=
5. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 315
Fikiin (1996) notes that Equation (11) is applicable to a wide variety of food items and provides
satisfactory accuracy.
Specific Heat
In unfrozen foods, specific heat is relatively constant with respect to temperature. However,
for frozen foods, there is a large decrease in specific heat capacity as the temperature decreases.
The specific heat capacity of a food item at temperatures above its initial freezing point is
obtained from the mass average of the specific heat capacities of the food components:
(12)
where ci is the specific heat capacity of the individual food components and wi is the mass frac-
tion of the food components. If detailed composition data are not available, a simpler equation
for the specific heat capacity of an unfrozen food item, presented by Chen (1985a), can be used:
(13)
where cu is the specific heat capacity of the unfrozen food item J/(kg·K) and ws is the mass frac-
tion of the solids in the food item.
Below the freezing point the sensible heat due to temperature change and the latent heat due
to the fusion of water are important. Latent heat is released over a range of temperatures, and an
apparent specific heat capacity can be used to account for both the sensible and latent heat
effects. Then, the specific enthalpy of a frozen food can be modeled as the sum of the constitu-
ent enthalphies:
(14)
The apparent specific heat capacity, ca, is given as
(15)
Schwartzberg (1976) assumed that high moisture content food items can be modeled as ideal
dilute solutions and developed the following equation for the apparent specific heat capacity of
high moisture content food items:
(16)
The term ∆c is the difference between the specific heat capacities of water and ice (∆c =
cw – cice), E is the ratio of the molar masses of water, Mw, and food solids, Ms, (E = Mw/Ms),
R is the ideal gas constant, To is the freezing point of water (To = 273.2K), and t is the food tem-
perature (°C).
Schwartzberg (1981) expanded his earlier work and developed an alternative method for
determining the apparent specific heat capacity of a food item below the initial freezing point:
cu ciwi∑=
cu 4190 2300ws– 628ws
3
–=
h hsws hwww hicewice+ +=
ca
∂h
∂T
------ csws cwww cicewice hw
∂ww
∂T
---------- hice
∂wice
∂T
-------------+ + + += =
ca cu wb wwo–( ) c∆ Ews
RTo
2
Mwt
2
------------- 0.8 c∆–
+ +=
6. 316 HVAC&R RESEARCH
(17)
Equation (17) has been simplified by Delgado et al. (1990) for the specific heat during thaw-
ing as
(18)
and during freezing as
(19)
where the parameters a′, b′, m′, and n′ are determined via a non-linear least squares fit to empir-
ical calorimetric measurements. Delgado et al. (1990) have determined these parameters for two
cultivars of strawberries.
A slightly simpler apparent specific heat capacity equation, which is similar in form to that of
Schwartzberg (1976), was developed by Chen (1985a) as an expansion of Siebel’s equation
(Siebel 1892) for specific heat capacity:
(20)
If the effective molar mass of the soluble solids is unknown, Equation (8) may be used to esti-
mate the effective molar mass and Equation 20 becomes
(21)
Enthalpy
Above the freezing point, specific enthalpy consists of sensible energy, while below the freez-
ing point, specific enthalpy consists of both sensible and latent energy. Equations for specific
enthalpy may be obtained by integrating expressions of specific heat capacity with respect to
temperature:
(22)
For food items that are at temperatures above their initial freezing point, the specific enthalpy
may be determined by integrating Equation (12) to yield
(23)
ca cf wwo wb–( )
Lo To Tf–( )
To T–
----------------------------+=
ca a′
b′
To T–( )
2
----------------------+=
ca m′ n′ To T–( )+=
ca 1550 1260ws
wsRTo
2
Mst
2
-------------------+ +=
ca 1550 1260ws
wwo wb–( )Lotf
t
2
-------------------------------------–+=
cp
∂h
∂T
------
p
=
h hiwi∑ ciwi Td∫∑= =
7. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 317
Integration of Chen’s (1985a) specific heat correlation yields
(24)
This equation, however, would predict zero specific enthalpy at the initial freezing point of the
food item. Typically, in the literature for food refrigeration, the reference temperature for zero
specific enthalpy is –40ºC. In order to make Equation (24) consistent with zero specific enthalpy
at –40ºC, an additional term must be added to Equation (24):
(25)
where hf is the specific enthalpy at the initial freezing point and may be estimated as discussed
in the following section.
For food items that are at temperatures below the initial freezing point, mathematical expres-
sions for specific enthalpy are also obtained by integrating the specific heat equations. Integra-
tion of Equation (16) between a reference temperature, Tr, and the food temperature, T, leads to
the following expression for the specific enthalpy of a frozen food item (Schwartzberg 1976):
(26)
Pham et al. (1994) have rewritten Schwartzberg’s specific enthalpy model, Equation (26), as
follows:
(27)
where the specific heat is
(28)
(29)
and A2 is an integration constant. Pham et al. (1994) have performed experiments to determine
the specific enthalpy of 27 food items for the temperature range –40°C to 40°C and found that
Equation (26) provided a good fit to their experimental data. Thus, they presented their experi-
mental specific enthalpy data in terms of the coefficients A2, cf , and B2, in Equation (27), rather
than in tabular temperature-enthalpy form.
By integrating Equation (20) between a reference temperature, Tr, and the food temperature,
T, Chen (1985a) obtained the following expression for specific enthalpy below the initial freez-
ing point:
(30)
h t tf–( ) 4190 2300ws– 628ws
3
–( )=
h hf t tf–( ) 4190 2300ws– 628ws
3
–( )+=
h T Tr–( ) cu wb wwo–( ) c∆ Ews
RTo
2
Mw To Tr–( ) To T–( )
--------------------------------------------------- 0.8 c∆–
+ +=
h A2 cf t
B2
t
------+ +=
cf cu wb wwo– 0.8Ews–( ) c∆+=
B2 Ews– RTo
2
Mw⁄=
h t tr–( ) 1550 1260ws
wsRTo
2
Msttr
-------------------+ +
=
8. 318 HVAC&R RESEARCH
By substitution of Equation (8) for the effective molar mass of the soluble solids, Ms, Equation
(30) becomes
(31)
Miki and Hayakawa (1996) developed a semi-theoretical equation for the specific enthalpy of
frozen food items that takes the following form:
(32)
where the empirical coefficients A1, B1, and C1 are given as
(33)
(34)
(35)
As an alternative to the specific enthalpy equations developed by integration of specific heat
capacity equations, Chang and Tao (1981) developed empirical correlations for specific
enthalpy. Their correlations are given as functions of water content, initial and final tempera-
tures, and food type (meat, juice, or fruit/vegetable) and have the following form:
(36)
where is a reduced temperature, [ = (T – 227.6)/(Tf – 227.6)], and y and z are correlation
parameters. In the method by Chang and Tao (1981), the reference temperature is –45.6°C
(–50°F), which corresponds to zero specific enthalpy. By performing a regression analysis on
experimental data available in the literature, Chang and Tao developed the following expres-
sions for the correlation parameters, y and z, used in Equation (36) for the meats group, given as
(37)
(38)
and for the fruit, vegetable, and juice group, given as
(39)
(40)
Correlations were also developed for the initial freezing temperature, Tf , for use in Equation
(36) as a function of water content. For the meat group,
h t tr–( ) 1550 1260ws
wwo wb–( )Lotf
trt
-------------------------------------+ +
=
h A1
1
tr
---
1
t
---–
B1ln
t
tr
---
C1 t tr–( )+ +=
A1 333290wwotf–=
B1 –2088cw cice–( )wwotf=
C1 cice 3.45tf+( )wwo cs 1 wwo–( )+=
h hf yT 1 y–( )T z
+=
T T
y 0.316 0.247 wwo 0.73–( )– 0.688 wwo 0.73–( )
2
–=
z 22.95 54.68 y 0.28–( )– 5589.03 y 0.28–( )
2
–=
y 0.362 0.0498 wwo 0.73–( )– 3.465 wwo 0.73–( )
2
–=
z 27.2 129.04 y 0.23–( )– 481.46 y 0.23–( )
2
–=
9. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 319
(41)
and for the fruit/vegetable group,
(42)
and for the juice group,
(43)
The specific enthalpy of a food item at its initial freezing point is also required for use in Equa-
tion (36). Chang and Tao (1981) suggest the following correlation for determining the specific
enthalpy of the food item at its initial freezing point:
(44)
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a food item depends upon the composition, structure, and tem-
perature of the food item. Early work in the modeling of the thermal conductivity of foods
includes Eucken’s adaption of Maxwell’s equation (Eucken 1940). This model is based upon the
thermal conductivity of dilute dispersions of small spheres in a continuous phase:
(45)
In an effort to account for the different structural features of foods, Kopelman (1966) devel-
oped thermal conductivity models for both homogeneous and fibrous food items. The differ-
ences in thermal conductivity parallel and perpendicular to the food fibers are taken into
account. For an isotropic, homogeneous two-component system composed of continuous and
discontinuous phases, in which the thermal conductivity is independent of the direction of heat
flow, Kopelman (1966) developed the following expression for thermal conductivity, k:
(46)
In developing Equation (46), it was assumed that the thermal conductivity of the continuous
phase is much larger than the thermal conductivity of the discontinuous phase. However, if the
thermal conductivity of the discontinuous phase is much larger than the thermal conductivity of
the continuous phase, then the following expression is used to calculate the thermal conductivity
of the isotropic mixture:
(47)
For an anisotropic, fibrous two-component system in which the thermal conductivity is
dependent upon the direction of heat flow, Kopelman (1966) developed two expressions for
Tf 271.18 1.47wwo+=
Tf 287.56 49.19wwo– 37.07wwo
2
+=
Tf 120.47 327.35wwo 176.49wwo
2
–+=
hf 9792.46 405.096wwo+=
k kc
1 1 a kd kc⁄( )–[ ]b–
1 a 1–( )b+
------------------------------------------------=
k kc
1 L
2
–
1 L
2
1 L–( )–
--------------------------------=
k kc
1 M–
1 M 1 L–( )–
-------------------------------=
10. 320 HVAC&R RESEARCH
thermal conductivity. For heat flow parallel to the food fibers, Kopelman (1966) proposed the
following expression for thermal conductivity, , given as
(48)
and for heat flow perpendicular to the food fibers where N 2 is the volume fraction of the discon-
tinuous phase in fibrous food product:
(49)
Levy (1981) introduced a modified version of the Eucken-Maxwell equation as follows:
(50)
where Λ is the thermal conductivity ratio (Λ = k1/k2), k1 is the thermal conductivity of compo-
nent 1, and k2 is the thermal conductivity of component 2. The parameter, F1, introduced by
Levy (1981) is given as
(51)
where
(52)
and φ1 is the volume fraction of component 1:
(53)
When foods consist of more than two distinct phases, the two-component methods for the pre-
diction of thermal conductivity must be applied successively to obtain the thermal conductivity
of the food product. For example, in the case of frozen food, the thermal conductivity of the ice
and liquid water system is calculated first using one of the above mentioned methods. The
resulting thermal conductivity of the ice/water system is then combined successively with the
thermal conductivity predicted for each remaining food constituent to determine the thermal
conductivity of the food product.
For multi-component systems, numerous researchers have proposed the use of parallel and
series thermal conductivity models based upon the analogy with electrical resistance (Murakami
and Okos 1989). The parallel model is simply the sum of the thermal conductivities of the food
constituents multiplied by their volume fractions:
k
k kc 1 N
2
1
kd
kc
-----–
–=
k⊥ kc
1 P–
1 P 1 N–( )–
------------------------------=
k
k2 2 Λ+( ) 2 Λ 1–( )F1+[ ]
2 Λ+( ) Λ 1–( )– F1
---------------------------------------------------------------=
F1 0.5
2
σ
--- 1– 2φ1+
2
σ
--- 1– 2φ1+
2 8φ1
σ
---------–
1 2⁄
–
=
σ
Λ 1–( )
2
Λ 1+( )
2 Λ
2
----+
-------------------------------=
φ1 1
1
w1
------ 1–
ρ1
ρ2
-----
+
1–
=
11. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 321
(54)
where the volume fraction of constituent i is given by
(55)
The series model is the reciprocal of the sum of the volume fractions divided by their thermal
conductivities:
(56)
These two models have been found to predict the upper and lower bounds of the thermal conduc-
tivity of most food items. Saravacos and Kostaropoulos (1995) suggest that the parallel structural
model can be used to calculate the thermal conductivity of porous food items including granular,
puffed, or freeze-dried foods, while the series model can be used to calculate the thermal conduc-
tivity of low-porosity food items, including gelatinized starchy foods or high-sugar foods.
A thermal conductivity model that is intermediate to the series and parallel models can be
obtained from the weighted geometric mean of the constituents as follows (Rahman et al. 1991):
(57)
Rahman et al. (1997) have noted that the series and parallel thermal conductivity models do
not take into account the natural arrangement of component phases within a food item. They
developed the following model to account for the residual effects of temperature and structure of
a food item:
(58)
Rahman et al. (1997) experimentally determined the values of α for numerous fruits and vegeta-
bles and correlated them as
(59)
This model is limited to moisture content between 14% and 88%, porosity between 0.0 and 0.56,
and temperature between 5°C and 100°C.
k φiki
i=1
n
∑=
φi
wi
ρi
-----
wj
ρj
-----
j=1
n
∑
-------------=
k
1
φi
ki
----
i=1
n
∑
------------=
k ki
φi
i=1
n
∏=
α
k φaka–
1 φa– φw–( )ks φwkw+
--------------------------------------------------------=
α
1 φa–
ka
kw( )r
-------------+
---------------------------------- 0.996
T
Tr
-----
0.713
ww
0.285
=
12. 322 HVAC&R RESEARCH
COMPARISION OF MODELS AGAINST DATA
The values from the thermophysical property models were compared with an extensive
empirical thermophysical property data set compiled from the literature, shown in Table 3. The
composition data for the food items listed in Table 3 were obtained from the USDA (1996).
The specific enthalpy, apparent specific heat, and ice content with respect to temperature for a
variety of foods have been established by the well-known enthalpy-moisture content-tempera-
ture diagrams from Riedel (1951, 1956, 1957, 1960). Numerous researchers have used these
data to validate their thermophysical property models (Chen 1985a, 1985b, Pham 1987,
Schwartzberg 1976) and these data can also be found in other sources such as ASHRAE (1981),
Charm (1971), and Rolfe (1968).
To obtain the enthalpy-moisture content-
temperature data, Riedel (1951) constructed
an elaborate calorimeter, shown in Figure 1.
The upper portion of the device contains a
conic copper box (K), containing a small food
sample (3 to 5 g), that is brought into close
contact with a copper cylinder (G). The tem-
perature of the copper cylinder is held con-
stant through the use of liquid air (D) and
heating coils (not shown). The upper portion
of the apparatus is contained within a dewar
vessel (B) to ensure that it is thermally insu-
lated from the surroundings. Once the food
sample has reached the desired temperature,
the small conical box containing the food
sample is released into the lower portion of
the calorimeter, which consists of a copper
cylinder (X) in which the conical copper sam-
ple box rests.
The copper cylinder is surrounded by a
large iron block (Y) that provides a constant
ambient temperature and the lower portion is
insulated by a large dewar vessel (R). Tem-
perature changes of the copper cylinder are
measured with a platinum resistance ther-
mometer (U) and are used to obtain specific
heat and specific enthalpy data. Riedel
(1951) claims that calibration experiments
performed with this calorimeter, using water
as the test substance, yielded specific heat capacity and latent heat of fusion values that agreed
within 0.2% of the best data given in the literature. Additional apparent specific heat data
were obtained from Fleming (1969) using adiabatic calorimeter that agreed within 4% of the
best data given in the literature.
The thermal conductivity data used in this evaluation were obtained from Pham (1990),
who conducted a critical analysis of data available in the literature. The criteria for the selec-
tion of these data included that the product composition (or at least water content) be known,
that there should be no obviously unusual trend that contradicts the majority of other data, and
that the measuring equipment must have been calibrated against a material with a known ther-
mal conductivity value. The thermal conductivity data selected by Pham were originally
Figure 1. Calorimeter from Riedel (1951)
13. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 323
obtained by either the guarded hot plate method or the line source method. The evaluation by
Pham resulted in the selection of 203 thermal conductivity data points from 11 sources. These
thermal conductivity measurement techniques produced an error of 5% or less with a standard
deviation of 5% or less when tested with substances of known thermal conductivity.
Food composition data in the USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference were com-
piled from published and unpublished sources. Published sources include the scientific and tech-
nical literature while the unpublished data are from the food industry, other government
agencies and research conducted under contracts initiated by the Agricultural Research Service
(ARS) (USDA 1999). Protein content was calculated from the level of total nitrogen in the food,
using conversion factors recommended by Jones (1941). Fat content was determined by gravi-
metric methods, including extraction methods that employ ether or a mixed solvent system con-
sisting of chloroform and methanol, or acid hydrolysis. Carbohydrate content was determined as
the difference between 100% and the sum of the percentages of water, protein, fat, and ash
(USDA 1999). Although the analysis of error associated with the measurement of the composi-
tion data reported by the USDA is not complete, when such analysis is available, the error in the
amount of each food constituent is generally less than 10%.
Tables 4 through 7 summarize the statistical analyses that were performed on the thermo-
physical property models discussed in this paper. For each of the models, the average absolute
Table 3. Empirical Thermophysical Property Data Set
Thermal
Property
No. of Data
Points Material Reference
Ice Fraction 13 Orange Juice (wwo = 0.89) Riedel (1951)
14 Lean Beef (wwo = 0.74) Riedel (1957), Rolfe (1968)
14 Cod Muscle (wwo = 0.82) Riedel (1960), Rolfe (1968)
Apparent Specific Heat Capacity 10 Cod Muscle (wwo = 0.82) Riedel (1956)
10 Lean Beef (wwo = 0.82) Riedel (1957)
7 Lamb Kidneys (wwo = 0.798) Fleming (1969)
7 Lean Lamb Loin (wwo = 0.649) Fleming (1969)
7 Moderately Fatty Lamb Loin
(wwo = 0.525)
Fleming (1969)
7 Fatty Lamb Loin (wwo = 0.444) Fleming (1969)
7 Veal (wwo = 0.775) Fleming (1969)
Specific Enthalpy 5 Apple Juice (wwo = 0.872) Riedel (1951)
5 Orange Juice (wwo = 0.89) Riedel (1951)
16 Cod (wwo = 0.80) Riedel (1956)
16 Haddock (wwo = 0.84) Riedel (1956)
16 Perch (wwo = 0.79) Riedel (1956)
18 Lean Beef (wwo = 0.74) Riedel (1957)
16 Cod Muscle (wwo = 0.82) Riedel (1960)
Thermal Conductivity 32 Beef Pham (1990)
8 Fish Pham (1990)
20 Lamb Pham (1990)
9 Poultry Pham (1990)
14. 324 HVAC&R RESEARCH
prediction error (%), the standard deviation (%), the 95% confidence range of the mean (%), the
kurtosis, and the skewness are presented.
Ice Fraction
As shown in Table 4, the method by Chen (1985b) for calculating ice fraction, in conjunction
with the empirical correlations by Chen (1985a) for effective molar mass, Equations (6) and (7),
produced an average absolute prediction error of 4.04%, with a 95% confidence range of
±3.00%, as shown in Table 4. In addition, the distribution of prediction errors was sharply
peaked around the average absolute prediction error as evidenced by the large, positive value for
the kurtosis, 31.2. The method by Chen (1985a) predicted ice fractions for beef and orange juice
very well, producing average absolute prediction errors of less than 1.8%. The average absolute
prediction error for the fish data set was considerably larger, 8.2%.
Using Equation (8) (Schwartzberg 1976) to approximate effective molar mass reduces the
method by Chen (1985a) to that reported by Miles (1974). Thus, when using Equation (8) for
effective molar mass, both the method by Chen and Miles’ method produce identical results
with a large average absolute prediction error of 10.6% and a 95% confidence range of ±7.45%.
The average absolute prediction errors for these two methods ranged from 4.5% for the beef data
set to 20% for the orange juice data.
The ice fraction equation of Tchigeov (1979) produced an average absolute prediction error
of 4.75% with a 95% confidence range of ±2.89%. In addition, the distribution of prediction
errors was sharply peaked around the average absolute prediction error as evidenced by the
large, positive value for the kurtosis, 12.7. Tchigeov’s equation performed consistently for all
the food types tested. Best results were with the fish data set, producing an average absolute pre-
diction error of 2.3%. The average absolute prediction error for the beef data set was 5.3% while
for the orange juice data set, the average absolute prediction error was 7.1%.
Both Chen’s method and Tchigeov’s equation underestimated the ice fraction, and the error
tended to decrease as the temperature of the food item decreased. The maximum error occurred
near the initial freezing point of the food item. The method of Miles (1974) exhibited uniform
error as a function of temperature.
The performance of both the ice fraction method by Chen (1985b) and the simple ice fraction
equation reported by Miles (1974) validate the primary assumption upon which these models
were derived, namely, that high moisture content food items can be considered to behave as
ideal dilute solutions. Thus, these methods would be expected to produce acceptable results for
foods of high moisture content.
Specific Heat
As shown in Table 5, the three apparent specific heat models produced large average absolute
prediction errors along with large prediction variations. All the models produced relatively small
Table 4. Statistical Analysis of Ice Fraction Models
Prediction Method
AverageAbsolute
Prediction
Error, %
Standard
Deviation, %
95%
Confidence
Range, % Kurtosis Skewness
Chen (1985a)a 4.04 8.86 ±3.00 31.2 5.44
Chen (1985b)b 10.6 7.45 ±2.52 –1.32 0.639
Miles (1974) 10.5 7.43 ±2.51 –1.32 0.653
Tchigeov (1979) 4.75 8.55 ±2.89 12.7 3.60
aIce fraction model of Chen (1985a) using Equations (6) and (7) to calculate molar mass.
bIce fraction model of Chen (1985b) using Equation (8) to calculate molar mass.
15. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 325
prediction errors for the fish and beef data sets and very large prediction errors for the lamb and
veal data sets. The two models by Schwartzberg (1976, 1981) performed similarly, exhibiting
average absolute prediction errors of approximately 20% with large standard deviations of
approximately 25%. Their best performance was obtained with the fish data set, resulting in
average absolute prediction errors of 10%, while their worst agreement was obtained with the
veal data set, producing average absolute prediction errors of 24%. The method by Chen (1985a)
produced a slightly larger average absolute prediction error of 20.5% with a standard deviation
of 25.6%. The method by Chen performed best with the fish data set, producing an average
absolute prediction error of 6.9% and worst with the veal data set, yielding an average absolute
prediction error of 27%.
All of the apparent specific heat models exhibited large variations in prediction error, and the
absolute value of the prediction error decreased as the temperature decreased. The maximum
errors tended to occur near the initial freezing point of the food item.
Enthalpy
The specific enthalpy equation developed by Chen (1985a) produced an average absolute pre-
diction error of 5.09% along with a standard deviation of 3.98%, as shown in Table 6. The aver-
age absolute prediction errors for the method by Chen method (1985b) ranged from 4.2% for the
fish data set to 15% for the orange juice data set. On average, the method by Chen (1985b)
tended to underpredict the specific enthalpy of foods.
The specific enthalpy equation developed by Miki and Hayakawa (1996) produced an abso-
lute average prediction error of 5.86% and exhibited more consistency for all the food types
tested as compared with the equation by Chen (1985a). For example, the specific enthalpy equa-
tion by Chen produced a very large absolute average prediction error for the orange juice data
set of 15%, while the Miki and Hayakawa method predicted the orange juice data very well, pro-
ducing an average absolute prediction error of 1.3%. The method of Miki and Hayakawa tended
to underpredict slightly the specific enthalpy for orange juice and overpredict the specific
enthalpy for all other food types tested.
The average absolute prediction error of the empirical specific enthalpy equation by Chang
and Tao (1981) was found to be 7.56% and the spread of the absolute prediction errors was
large, as evidenced by the relatively large standard deviation of 6.61%. The equation by Chang
and Tao performed consistently for all the data sets tested.
The specific enthalpy model presented by Schwartzberg (1976) produced an average absolute
prediction error of 6.48% with a moderate standard deviation of 4.64%. The model by
Schwartzberg (1976) model performed consistently, with average absolute prediction errors
ranging from 2.6% for the orange juice data set to 7.0% for the fish data set.
The specific enthalpy equation by Chen (1985a) produced its greatest errors near the initial
freezing point and the error was reduced as the temperature decreased. The specific enthalpy
equation by Miki and Hayakawa (1996) produced the greatest errors just below the initial freez-
ing point and near –30°C. The Schwartzberg (1976) specific enthalpy model tended to underes-
timate near the initial freezing point and near –40°C and overestimated temperatures between
Table 5. Statistical Analysis of Apparent Specific Heat Capacity Models
Estimation Method
AverageAbsolute
Prediction
Error, %
Standard
Deviation, %
95%
Confidence
Range, % Kurtosis Skewness
Chen (1985a) 20.5 25.6 ±6.93 23.0 4.19
Schwartzberg (1976) 19.3 25.4 ±6.87 24.6 4.39
Schwartzberg (1981) 19.7 25.1 ±6.80 25.5 4.51
16. 326 HVAC&R RESEARCH
–40°C and the initial freezing point. The equation of Chang and Tao (1981), however, overesti-
mated near the initial freezing point and near –40°C, while underpredicting at temperatures
between –40°C and the initial freezing point.
The specific enthalpy equation by Chen (1985a) produced good results for apple juice, fish,
and beef, but large prediction errors for orange juice. The specific enthalpy equation of Miki and
Hayakawa (1996) agreed well for both apple juice and orange juice and produced good results
for the fish and beef data sets. The model by Schwartzberg (1976) performed very well for both
apple and orange juice. It also produced good results for the beef and fish data sets. The equation
of Chang and Tao (1981) produced good results for apple juice and performed adequately for
fish, beef, and orange juice.
The good agreement for the specific enthalpy models of Chen (1985a), Miki and Hayakawa
(1996), and Schwartzberg (1976) validates the primary assumption upon which these models
were derived, namely, that high moisture content food items can be considered to behave as
ideal dilute solutions. Thus, these models would be expected to produce acceptable results for
foods of high moisture content. The empirical specific enthalpy equation of Chang and Tao
(1981) is based upon correlations developed from the analysis of data collected on high moisture
content foods, and thus, it too would be expected to produce acceptable results for foods of high
moisture content (wwo ≥ 0.70).
Thermal Conductivity
As shown in Table 7, the thermal conductivity model developed by Levy (1981) produced an
average absolute prediction error of 6.86% and a standard deviation of 4.89%. The average
absolute prediction errors for the method by Levy (1981) ranged from 4.4% for the lamb data set
to 9.5% for the poultry data set. The model by Levy produced good results for the lamb, beef,
and fish data sets.
The Kopelman (1966) isotropic model produced an average absolute prediction error of
8.08% with a 95% confidence range of ±1.47%, and this model performed consistently for all
data sets except for poultry. For the poultry data set, the Kopelman (1966) isotropic model
exhibited an average absolute prediction error of 12.6% while for the rest of the data sets, the
model produced average absolute prediction errors of 8.3% or less.
The Kopelman (1966) perpendicular model produced an average absolute prediction error of
8.98% with a 95% confidence range of ±1.42%. Similar to the isotropic model, the perpendicu-
lar model performed consistently for all data sets except poultry. Thermal conductivity was
underpredicted by 4.3% on average for the poultry data set, while overpredicting by no more
than 8.5% for the rest of the data sets.
The Eucken-Maxwell (1940) model and the Kopelman (1966) parallel model performed simi-
larly overall and these two models achieved their best results with the poultry data set. The abso-
lute average prediction error for the poultry data set for both these models was 10%. Overall, the
Eucken-Maxwell (1940) model and the Kopelman (1966) parallel model produced average
absolute prediction errors of approximately 16% with a 95% confidence range of ±2.5%.
Table 6. Statistical Analysis of Specific Enthalpy Models
Estimation Method
AverageAbsolute
Prediction
Error, %
Standard
Deviation, %
95%
Confidence
Range, % Kurtosis Skewness
Chen (1985a) 5.09 3.98 ±0.828 4.85 1.83
Chang and Tao (1981) 7.56 6.61 ±1.38 0.813 1.11
Miki and Hayakawa (1996) 5.86 3.03 ±0.632 –0.232 –0.0511
Schwartzberg (1976) 6.48 4.64 ±0.966 2.30 1.10
17. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 327
The parallel and series models produced very large average prediction errors. The parallel
model overpredicted thermal conductivity for all foods tested and yielded an average absolute
prediction error of 21.7%, while the series model underpredicted thermal conductivity with an
average absolute prediction error of 33.9%. The spread of predictions was also quite large, with
standard deviations of 13.6% and 20.3%, respectively. The large prediction errors for these
models may be attributed to the fact that the direction of heat flow is not necessarily oriented
with respect to the food fibers as assumed.
The Levy (1981) model and Kopelman (1996) isotropic model both tended to predict the ther-
mal conductivity of frozen foods with less error than that of unfrozen foods. The remaining
models, however, predicted unfrozen food thermal conductivity with less error than that of fro-
zen food thermal conductivity.
CONCLUSIONS
A quantitative evaluation of selected composition-based, thermophysical property models for
high moisture content foods is presented. The performance of each of the models was deter-
mined by comparing calculated results with a comprehensive empirical thermophysical property
data set compiled from the literature.
For ice fraction prediction, the method by Chen (1985b) performed the best against all the
food types tested. However, the method incorporates an empirical estimate for molar mass,
which, at the current time, is limited to beef, cod, apple juice, and orange juice. Further develop-
ment is required to extend the applicability of the method by Chen (1985) to other foods. For all
the food types tested, the equation of Tchigeov (1979) performed nearly as well as the method
by Chen (1985a) and has the added benefit of being easy to implement. The ice fraction equation
of Miles (1974) produced the largest prediction errors.
The three apparent specific heat equations (Chen 1985a, Schwartzberg 1976, 1981) per-
formed similarly, producing large average absolute prediction errors of approximately 20% and
large prediction variations. Of the three equations tested, the Schwartzberg (1976) model
yielded a slightly lower average absolute prediction error than the other two. The implementa-
tion of the Schwartzberg (1981) model could be difficult because it relies on values for the spe-
cific heat capacity of a fully frozen food item, which may not be readily available. Of the three
equations tested, the equation of Chen (1985a) is the easiest to use, although it produced the
largest average absolute prediction error.
The specific enthalpy equation of Chen (1985a) performed the best, while the relations of
Miki and Hayakawa (1996) were nearly as good. These latter two methods are easy to imple-
ment. The performance of the specific enthalpy equations of Schwartzberg (1976) and Chang
and Tao (1981) had greater error.
Table 7. Statistical Analysis of Thermal Conductivity Models
Prediction Method
AverageAbsolute
Prediction
Error, %
Standard
Deviation, %
95%
Confidence
Range, % Kurtosis Skewness
Eucken-Maxwell (1940) 16.0 10.6 ±2.55 –0.751 0.551
Kopelman Isotropic (1966) 8.08 6.12 ±1.47 –0.687 0.604
Kopelman Parallel (1966) 16.4 10.4 ±2.49 –0.690 0.516
Kopelman Perpendicular (1966) 8.98 5.90 ±1.42 –0.117 0.564
Levy (1981) 6.86 4.98 ±1.20 0.633 1.00
Parallel 21.7 13.6 ±3.26 –0.900 0.354
Series 33.9 20.3 ±4.87 –1.61 –0.0561
18. 328 HVAC&R RESEARCH
The thermal conductivity model of Levy (1981) exhibited the lowest average absolute pre-
diction error. The Kopelman (1966) isotropic and perpendicular thermal conductivity models
exhibited poorer agreement, but are less cumbersome to implement. The Kopelman parallel
model (1966) and the Eucken-Maxwell model (1940) produced large overprediction errors, of
16% on average. The parallel and series electrical-resistance-analogy thermal conductivity
models produced the largest prediction errors, with the parallel model overpredicting by 21%
and the series model underpredicting by 34%.
In summary, for ice fraction prediction, the equation of Chen (1985b) performed best, fol-
lowed closely by Tchigeov’s (1979). For apparent specific heat, the model of Schwartzberg
(1976) performed best, and for specific enthalpy prediction, the Chen (1985a) equation gave the
best results, followed closely by Miki and Hayakawa (1996). Finally, for thermal conductivity,
the Levy (1981) model performed best.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This project is based upon research project 888-RP performed under a grant from the Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The authors
wish to acknowledge the support of ASHRAE Technical Committee 10.9, Refrigeration Appli-
cation for Foods and Beverages.
NOMENCLATURE
a parameter in Equation (45): a = 3kc /(2kc + kd)
a′ parameter in Equation (18)
A1 parameter given by Equation (32), J(K/kg)
A2 parameter in Equation (27)
b parameter in Equation (45): b = Vd/(Vc + Vd)
b′ parameter in Equation (18)
B1 parameter given by Equation (32), J/kg
B2 parameter in Equation (27)
ca apparent specific heat capacity, J/(kg·K)
cf specific heat capacity of fully frozen food,
J/(kg·K)
ci specific heat capacity of ith food component,
J/(kg·K)
cice specific heat capacity of ice, J/(kg·K)
cp constant pressure specific heat capacity,
J/(kg·K)
cs specific heat capacity of food solids, J/(kg·K)
cu specific heat capacity of unfrozen food,
J/(kg·K)
cw specific heat capacity of water, J/(kg·K)
C1 parameter given by Equation (32), J/(kg·K)
E ratio of the molar masses of water and solids:
E = Mw /Ms
F1 parameter given by Equation (51)
h specific enthalpy, J/kg
hf specific enthalpy at initial freezing tempera-
ture, J/kg
hi specific enthalpy of the ith food component,
J/kg
hice specific enthalpy of ice, J/kg
hs specific enthalpy of food solids, J/kg
hw specific enthalpy of water, J/kg
k thermal conductivity, W/(m·K)
k1 thermal conductivity of component 1,
W/(m·K)
k2 thermal conductivity of component 2,
W/(m·K)
ka thermal conductivity of air, W/(m·K)
kc thermal conductivity of continuous phase,
W/(m·K)
kd thermal conductivity of discontinuous phase,
W/(m·K)
ki thermal conductivity of the ith component,
W/(m·K)
ks thermal conductivity of food solids, W/(m·K)
(kw)r thermal conductivity of water at the reference
temperature, Tr, W/(m·K)
thermal conductivity with heat flow parallel to
food fibers, W/(m·K)
k⊥ thermal conductivity with heat flow perpen-
dicular to food fibers, W/(m·K)
L3 volume fraction of discontinuous phase
Lo latent heat of fusion of water at 0°C;
Lo = 333 600 J/kg
m′ parameter in Equation (19)
M parameter in Equation (47):
M = L2(1 − kd /kc)
Ms effective molar mass of food solids
(kg/mol)
Mw molar mass of water (kg/mol)
n parameter in Equations (6) and (7)
n′ parameter in Equation (19)
N2 volume fraction of discontinuous phase
P parameter in Equation (49): P = N(1 − kd /kc )
k
19. VOLUME 7, NUMBER 4, OCTOBER 2001 329
R ideal gas constant: R = 8.314 J/(mol·K)
t food temperature, °C
tf initial freezing temperature of food, °C
tr reference temperature, °C
T food temperature, K
Tf initial freezing point of food item, K
To freezing point of water: To = 273.2 K
Tr reference temperature, K
reduced temperature
Vc volume of continuous phase, m3
Vd volume of discontinuous phase, m3
w1 mass fraction of component 1
wb mass fraction of bound water
wi mass fraction of ith food component
wice mass fraction of ice
wp mass fraction of protein
ws mass fraction of solids
wso mass fraction of soluble substances
wu mass fraction of insoluble substances
ww mass fraction of unfrozen water
wwo mass fraction of water in unfrozen food
xw mole fraction of water in solution
y correlation parameter in Equation (36)
z correlation parameter in Equation (36)
α Rahman-Chen structural factor
∆c difference in specific heat capacities of water
and ice; ∆c = cw − cice, J/(kg·K)
φ1 volume fraction of component 1
φa volume fraction of air within food item
φi volume fraction ith food component
φw volume fraction of water within food item
Λ thermal conductivity ratio; Λ = k1/k2
ρ1 density of component 1, kg/m3
ρ2 density of component 2, kg/m3
ρi density of ith food component, kg/m3
σ parameter given by Equation (52)
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ASHRAE. 1981. ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. Atlanta, Georgia: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Chang, H.D. and L.C. Tao. 1981. Correlations of Enthalpies of Food Systems. Journal of Food Science
46(5):1493-1497.
Charm, W.E. 1971. Fundamentals of Food Engineering, 2nd edition, Westport, Connecticut: Avi Publish-
ing Co.
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