The document provides an overview of the Paris Climate Accord, including its key goals and mechanisms. The Accord aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C by requiring countries to establish emission reduction targets through nationally determined contributions. It also establishes a transparency and review process to track progress. While an important step forward, some criticisms note the Accord's non-binding nature and lack of sanctions for non-compliance may limit its effectiveness in achieving long-term temperature goals.

1. The Paris Climate
Accord
Murray Lee Eiland

2. Kyoto Protocol
 The Kyoto Protocol is linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, which commits parties by setting internationally binding
emission reduction targets.
 The Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the
principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities."
 The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and entered into force in February
2005. Rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at
Conference of the Parties (COP) 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, and are referred to as
the "Marrakesh Accords." Its first commitment period started in 2008 and
ended in 2012.
http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php

3. Introduction
 The Paris Agreement was adopted on 12 December 2015.
 It entered into force (as the Paris Climate Accord) on 4 November 2016, thirty
days after the date on which at least 55 Parties to the Convention accounting
in total for at least an estimated 55% of the total global greenhouse gas
emissions have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession with the Depositary.
 175 Parties have ratified of 197 Parties to the Convention.
 The primary objective of the agreement is to coordinate efforts of the
members in tackling climate change.

4. Science of Climate Change
 Statement on climate change from 18 scientific associations:
 "Observations throughout the world make it clear that climate change is
occurring, and rigorous scientific research demonstrates that the greenhouse
gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver.“
 Since 1970, CO2 emissions have increased by about 90%, with emissions from
fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes contributing about 78% of the
total greenhouse gas emissions increase from 1970 to 2011. Agriculture,
deforestation, and other land-use changes have been the second-largest
contributors.
https://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/

5. Highlights of the Paris Agreement
 The Accord aims in the short term to hold the global temperature at 2°C
above industrial levels of carbon production. The long term aim is to limit
warming to 1.5°C pre-industrial levels (Dimitrov, 2016).
 To achieve this goal, member countries are required to develop goals that
ensure that warming is limited to 1.5°C.
 In 2014, the top CO2 emitters were China, the U.S., the EU, India, the Russian
Federation, and Japan.

6. Cont..
 The second issue emphasized by the agreement is the need to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Global emissions need to peak as soon as possible (this will take longer for
developing countries). Rapid reductions will take place thereafter, in
accordance with the best available science.
 Member countries are expected to develop plans on how to mitigate climate
change.
 These plans must be communicated to the Secretariat of the Convention.

7. Cont.…
 The Paris Climate Accord focuses more on the processes of mitigating climate
change rather than the defined goals (Du Pont et al., 2017).
 As compared to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Climate Accord does not
stipulate the greenhouse emissions recommended for each member country.
 The agreement focuses on the individual and collective strategies of
mitigating climate change.
 According to the EU, developed countries intend to continue their existing
collective goal to mobilize USD 100 billion per year by 2020 and extend this
until 2025. A new and higher goal will be set for after this period.
 The agreement aims at achieving net-zero emissions at the second half of the
century.

8. Nationally Determined Contributions
 Member countries are required mitigate climate change based on nationally
determined contributions (NDCs) (Rogelj et al., 2016).
 Following limited participation in the Kyoto Protocol and the lack of
agreement in Copenhagen in 2009, the EU has been building a broad coalition
of developed and developing countries in favor of the Paris Accord.
 The EU was the first major economy to submit its intended contribution to
the new agreement in March 2015. It is already taking steps to implement its
target to reduce emissions by at least 40% by 2030.
 In July 2017, France announced a five-year plan to ban all petrol and diesel
vehicles by 2040.

9. NDCs
 The Conference of the Parties (COP) also played a central role in the
development of this agreement.
 The agreement accompanying the Paris Accord has various complementary
functions.
 The first function is to provide a structured approach under which the Paris
Climate Accord is adopted.
 The second function is the guidelines on the actions recommended to deal
with climate change pre-2020.
 The third function is to regulate the actions that are recommended to address
climate change before the Paris Agreement comes to full force.
 Finally, it entails the guidelines and suggestions of best strategies for
developing the nationally determined contributions (NDCs).

10. National Action
 Each member party of the Paris Agreement is required to prepare nationally
determined contributions (NDCs).
 These NDCs must be communicated to the secretary of the convention and
maintained.
 The agreement recommends that the NDCs should be communicated and
reviewed at a minimum every five years (Hulme, 2016).
 The reviewed NDCs must indicate progress from the previously communicated
NDCs.
 The Paris Climate Accord allows the member parties to collaborate in the
development and assessment of the NDCs.

11. Cont..
 The parties are urged to use regional economic organizations (such as EU) to
develop these NDCs.
 Two parties can also collaborate, but each party remains responsible for
communicating the mitigation strategies to the secretary of the convention
(Rogelj et al., 2017).
 Parties are also allowed to issue and transfer carbon units.
 The Accord allows public and private entities to support mitigation projects.
 In the process, tradable carbon units can be issued.
 One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide.

12. Buying and Selling Carbon
 The Kyoto Protocol provides for three mechanisms that enable countries or
operators in developed countries to acquire greenhouse gas reduction credits:
 Joint Implementation (JI): a developed country can set up a project in
another developed country.
 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): a developed country can sponsor a
greenhouse gas reduction project in a developing country. The developed
country would be given credits for meeting its emission reduction targets,
while the developing country would receive the capital investment and clean
technology or beneficial change in land use. This system is open to abuse.
 Under International Emissions Trading (IET) countries can trade in the
international carbon credit market. The EU might prohibit international
trading after 2020.

13. New Mechanism?
 The Paris Agreement is silent on markets, in that the term does not feature in
the text (Kyoto did not include the term but allowed the practice).
 Paris considers markets broadly under Article 6, and notes “voluntary
cooperation” between parties in achieving their NDCs.
 The future of the Kyoto carbon trading mechanisms is unclear, in particular
whether the new mechanism will succeed the CDM and JI, or will sit alongside
either of these.
 An EC report of 2016 suggests that buying and selling emissions credits for
overseas projects should be limited to an approved list and only then as part
of a “transition” to more effective policies for mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions.
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/ets/docs/clean_dev_mechanism_en.pdf

14. Article 5: Save the Forests
 1. Parties should take action to conserve and enhance, as
appropriate, sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases as referred to in
Article 4, paragraph 1 (d), of the Convention, including forests.
 2. Parties are encouraged to take action to implement and support,
including through results-based payments, the existing framework as
set out in related guidance and decisions already agreed under the
Convention for: policy approaches and positive incentives for
activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable
management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in
developing countries; and alternative policy approaches, such as
joint mitigation and adaptation approaches for the integral and
sustainable management of forests, while reaffirming the importance
of incentivizing, as appropriate, non-carbon benefits associated with
such approaches.

15. Article 5
 The first paragraph of the article defines United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC’s) mandate in conserving and sustaining the environment
(Schleussner et al., 2016).
 The second paragraph explores some of the previous decisions that have been
made with the objective of addressing climate change.
 In this section, other strategies such as the role of “non-carbon benefits” (like
forest conservation) are also recognized.
 The Accord endorses previous decisions by UNFCCC on REDD+.
 REDD+ stands for countries' efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation, and foster conservation, sustainable management of forests,
and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
 The primary objective of this endorsement is to inspire the member countries to
support REDD+.

16. Assessment Process
 The Conference of the Parties (COP) and individual parties are mandated to
check on the progress of the other parties and ensure that individual parties
achieve the nationally determined contributions (NDCs)
 The COP will continuously assess the progress of the agreement to ensure that
it is effective.
 The Paris Agreement has a “bottom up” structure in contrast to most
international environmental law treaties which are “top down.”
 Climate goals are politically encouraged, rather than legally bound.

17. cont..
 The assessment (by the COP) is aimed at evaluating the accumulated progress
in mitigating climate change (Schleussner et al., 2016).
 For instance, article 13 of the accord explores: “enhanced transparency
framework for action and support.”
 This ensures that all member parties have the financial support required to
achieve the goal of addressing climate change.
 The majority of the member parties supported the idea of an independent
body evaluating the progress of each party in actions to mitigate climate
change (Rajamani, 2016).
 On the other hand, developing countries were against this idea of using
external bodies.

18. Reactions
 Rhea Suh, the President of Natural Resources Defense Council, is one of the
prominent personalities who reacted to the adoption of the Paris Climate
Accord.
 In his words, Suh stated:
 “A great tide has turned. Finally, the world stands united against the central
environmental challenge of our time, committed to cutting the carbon
pollution that’s driving climate change. This agreement sets us on a course of
verifiable gains we can build on over time” (Klein et al., 2017).
 This is a clear indication of great support of the agreement for its anticipated
success in dealing with climate change and its implications.

19. The strengths of the Paris Agreement
 One of the main strengths of the agreement is its diplomatic success. The
Paris Climate Accord outlines a transparent and inclusive process of
mitigating climate change. Formal and informal sessions are also supported.
Large and small groups are involved in the achievement of the overall goal of
addressing climate change (Peters et al., 2017).
 Secondly, the agreement acknowledges that international processes cannot
deliver more. There is a special emphasis is on the individual party actions
(Jayaraman & Kanitkar, 2016).
 Thirdly, the international community takes climate change seriously.
 Finally, the actions of the parties are reviewed every five years.

20. Weaknesses
 The Accord has some weaknesses:
 It is unlikely to achieve the 2°C target.
 The second challenge is that there is minimal plan regarding how each party
achieves the stated goals.
 The third weaknesses are that non-compliance is not sanctioned (Rajamani,
2016).
 Finally, there is no mention of the sources of greenhouse gases. There is also
no consideration of structural, economic, social implications and causes of
climate change.

21. Loss & Damages: No Effective
Mechanism
 At COP19 (November 2013) in Warsaw, Poland, the COP established the
Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate
Change Impacts (Loss and Damage Mechanism), to address loss and damage
associated with impacts of climate change, including extreme events and slow
onset events. Developing countries are particularly vulnerable.
 The L&D Mechanism will:
 Enhance knowledge and understanding of comprehensive risk management.
 Strengthen dialogue, coordination, coherence and synergies.
 Enhance action & support, including finance, technology and capacity–
building.
http://unfccc.int/adaptation/workstreams/loss_and_damage/items/8132.php

22. Conclusion
 The Paris Agreement has played a crucial role in tackling climate change.
 The focus is also on ensuring that global warming is maintained below 1.5°C.
 Its strengths include diplomatic success, mandatory transparency, and five year
period consistent review.
 Challenges include unlikeliness of achieving 2°C target, minimal plans, and
minimal explanation on non-compliance.
 In June 2017 President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the U.S.
from the agreement. Under the agreement, the earliest effective date of
withdrawal is November 2020.
 According to the United Nations Environment Programme the emission cut targets
in November 2016 will result in temperature rise by 3°C above preindustrial
levels. Other scientific studies show that all major industrialized nations are
failing to meet their Paris Accord goals.

23. References
 Dimitrov, R. S. (2016). The Paris agreement on climate change: Behind closed doors. Global Environmental
Politics, 16(3), 1-11.
 Du Pont, Y. R., Jeffery, M. L., Gütschow, J., Rogelj, J., Christoff, P., & Meinshausen, M. (2017). Equitable
mitigation to achieve the Paris Agreement goals. Nature Climate Change, 7(1), 38.
 Hulme, M. (2016). 1.5 C and climate research after the Paris Agreement. Nature climate change, 6(3), 222.
 Jayaraman, T., & Kanitkar, T. (2016). The Paris Agreement. Economic and Political Weekly, 51(3).
 Klein, D., Carazo, M. P., Doelle, M., Bulmer, J., & Higham, A. (Eds.). (2017). The Paris Agreement on
Climate Change: Analysis and Commentary. Oxford University Press.
 Peters, G. P., Andrew, R. M., Canadell, J. G., Fuss, S., Jackson, R. B., Korsbakken, J. I., & Nakicenovic, N.
(2017). Key indicators to track current progress and future ambition of the Paris Agreement. Nature Climate
Change, 7(2), 118.
 Rogelj, J., Den Elzen, M., Höhne, N., Fransen, T., Fekete, H., Winkler, H., & Meinshausen, M. (2016). Paris
Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2 C. Nature, 534(7609), 631.
 Rogelj, J., Fricko, O., Meinshausen, M., Krey, V., Zilliacus, J. J., & Riahi, K. (2017). Understanding the origin
of Paris Agreement emission uncertainties. Nature Communications, 8, 15748.
 Rajamani, L. (2016). Ambition and differentiation in the 2015 Paris Agreement: Interpretative possibilities
and underlying politics. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 65(2), 493-514.
 Schleussner, C. F., Rogelj, J., Schaeffer, M., Lissner, T., Licker, R., Fischer, E. M., & Hare, W. (2016). Science
and policy characteristics of the Paris Agreement temperature goal. Nature Climate Change, 6(9), 827.