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Theories behind Gamification of Learning and Instruction.pptx
- 1. THEORIES BEHIND GAMIFICATION OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION Isra A. Lawgali
- 2. Outline: • What is motivation? • Intrinsic Motivation and External Motivation • ARCS Model • Malone’s Theory of Intrinsically Motivating Instruction • Operant Conditioning • Cognitive Apprenticeship • Social Learning Theory • Flow
- 4. Intrinsic Motivation • Comes from within the person • This is when a person undertakes an activity for its own sake. • Intrinsic motivation is when the rewards come from carrying out an activity and not the result of the activity.
- 5. External Motivation • This is when the behavior takes place for the receive a particular reward or avoid punishment. • It is when a person seeks to earn something that is not directly related to the activity
- 6. ARCS Model • A four-factor model developed by John Keller. • This model is well known in the field of instructional design. • It is used as a framework in creating e-learning and courseware • The model focuses on designing instruction, but its elements can be applied to various aspects of game- based learning.
- 8. Malone’s Theory of Intrinsically Motivating Instruction • Developed in the 1980s by Thomas Malone . • He discovered three elements that make games motivational. • These elements are: challenge, fantasy, and curiosity.
- 9. Operant Conditioning • Another way of motivating people. • Developed by B.F Skinner. • Came as a result of disagreement with Pavlov’s “Classical Conditioning theory”.
- 10. immerged important concepts: • A variable ratio reinforcement schedule • A fixed ratio schedule Reinforcement for a behavior is provided in unpredictable intervals. Reinforcement is provided after a pre- selected number of times a behavior is exhibited.
- 11. - Fixed interval • Variable interval Reinforcement for a behavior is provided after a variable amount of time has elapsed. Reinforcement for a behavior is provided after a fixed amount of time has elapsed.
- 12. Cognitive Apprenticeship • The idea is that the person and the environment in which they are learning cannot be separated in any analysis of learning. • They are each part of a mutually constructed whole.
- 13. Social Learning Theory • Developed by Robert Bandora in the late 70s. • It states that learning takes place through observation and imitation. • The use of avatars.
- 14. Flow • Flow is a mental state of operation in which a person is fully immersed and focused in what they are doing. • it involves full mental involvement and continual engagement in the process of the activity. • It is that ideal state between boredom and anxiety or frustration
- 15. Eight components of making a flow possible: • Achievable Task • Concentration • Clear Goals • Feedback • Effortless involvement • Control over actions • Concern for self-disappear • Loss of sense of time
Editor's Notes
- Motivation is a key concept of game play. “Motivation is the desire to act in service of a goal”. “It is one of the driving forces behind human behavior. It fuels competition and sparks social connection”. Motivation can either come from within the person and be driven by internal factors “intrinsic motivation”, or come from external factors “external motivation”. It is important to understand these two elements as they are crucial for the concept of gamification.
- - This is when a person undertakes an activity for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feeling of accomplishment it evokes and not because of any external reward. - Intrinsic motivation is when the rewards come from carrying out an activity rather than from the result of the activity.
- - This can be a high grade, praise from a boss or supervisor, a certificate, badge, reward, prize, or admiration from others. - You’ve experienced extrinsic if someone says something like, “If you cook me food, I’ll give you $50.” You may not want to cook, but you want the money. So you get motivated by the reward which is the money.
- -Attention: as the name suggests, this is to get students’ attention. Perceptual arousal has to do with gaining attention through the means of specific, relatable examples, the use of incongruity and/or conflict, or the element of surprise. Inquiry arousal is the use of stimulating curiosity by presenting a question or problem the learner is interested in solving or providing a role play or hands-on experience for the learner. Variability also can be used to maintain learner attention through varying the delivery method periodically. -Relevance: The relevance of the material to be learned should be established using one of three methods: (1) goal orientation: orienting the learner to the importance of the goal by describing how the goal will help the learner now and in the future and by illustrating the importance of reaching the goal; (2) match the motive of the instruction with the motives of the learners, which might be achievement, risk taking, power, or affiliation; (3) familiarity, showing how new knowledge is related to the existing knowledge of the learners, and (4) modeling the results of learning the new knowledge. -Confidence: This is the learners’ expectation that they can achieve success. If the learners feel they can learn the material and are confident that they can do so, they tend to be more motivated to proceed. One way to help a learner be confident is to clearly state the learning requirements and expectations in the beginning. If the learners are able to accurately estimate the amount of time and effort they need to put into learning, they are more likely to put forth that effort. If they have no idea what it might take to be successful in terms of time and effort, they tend to be more reluctant. Next, learners like to be successful and success builds on success. Create small opportunities for success so the learner can work his or her way through the instruction by completing small milestones. Create a number of different and challenging experiences that build upon one another. Learners feel confident when they believe they are controlling their own success. Provide feedback and personal reinforcement to help them feel in control. -Satisfaction: Learners need to feel that the learning has value and is worth the continued effort. Provide learners the opportunity to successfully apply their new knowledge and skills in a real or simulated setting so they can “see” what they have learned being applied. Provide positive encouragement and reinforcement of the new learning as a strategy to motivate them throughout the learning process. Try to tap into the intrinsic motivation of the learners. Also, maintain a sense of equity with the learners by maintaining consistent standards and measures of success.
- Challenge: Challenge depends on goals with uncertain outcomes. An environment is not challenging if the individual is either certain to reach a goal or certain to not reach a goal. Ways of making outcomes uncertain include variable difficulty level, multiple level goals, hidden information, and randomness. Games should be challenging, not easy yet not difficult. Learners are not meant to be frustrated trying to play a game. Here the goal of the game and the feedback provided from it are important. Fantasy: this is when learners see images that are not actually present in the game. For Malone the use of fantasies can make instructional environments more interesting and more educational and that fantasy has both cognitive and emotional advantages for designing instructional environment Curiosity: Environments can evoke a learner’s curiosity by providing an optimal level of informational complexity and a novel and exciting environment. He separates curiosity into sensory and cognitive components. Sensory curiosity involves the attention-attracting value of changes in the light, sound, or other sensory stimuli of an environment. Malone states there is no reason why educational environments have to be impoverished sensory environments. Cognitive curiosity is evoked by the prospect of modifying higher level cognitive structures and Malone suggests that cognitive curiosity can be aroused by making learners believe their knowledge structures are incomplete, inconsistent, or unparsimonious. The learners are then motivated to learn more, in order to make their cognitive structures better-formed.
- Another way of motivating people is the use of operant conditioning Classical Conditioning: the process of creating a conditioned response based on a particular stimulus Skinner felt that the important event in changing behavior was the outcome produced by the specific behavior and that he could reinforce the behavior to achieve a desired outcome. Skinner showed that he could have an organism respond in a particular manner, that he could have an organism do something, manipulate an object, or operate a mechanism that was not part of its function or nature Skinner’s experiment was done on hungry animals. He placed them in a box to explore it. In doing so, the animal approaches a bar or a button and either presses or pecks it so that it gets rewarded with a food pellet. So when a tuning fork is sounded, pellets are made available when pressing the bar but when the tuning fork is not sounded, no pellets. As a result, after a while, the animal only presses the bar when the tuning fork sounds. The animal only responding when the tuning fork sounds is an example of operant conditioning.
- An example of “a variable ratio reinforcement schedule” is: when a game player Sometimes receives a gold coin when hitting a mushroom and sometimes not. Sometimes receiving a reward when stealing a hat from ten elves and sometimes receiving the reward when stealing it from three or fifteen. An example of “a fixed ratio schedule” is: Receiving a power-up or reward after collecting one hundred coins or fifty badges.
- An example of “fixed intervals” is: A magic shield always appears fifteen minutes after the last magic shield is destroyed An example of “variable interval” is: The magic carpet appears every so many minutes; sometimes it is every two minutes, sometimes every three minutes, and sometimes up to ten minutes
- -Therefore, the learning must take place in the environment in which it will be applied because the environment and the person’s perception of the it are part of the same learning process. -To grasp subjects, learners need more than abstract concepts and self-contained examples; they need to be exposed to the use of the information and cognitive tools in an authentic activity. - How can we do that? The answer to the problem of immersing the learner in an authentic learning experience is to create a cognitive apprenticeship. -A cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop, and use cognitive tools in an authentic activity. -here a teacher models a certain behavior and explain the thought processes and actions behind it. As the cognitive apprentice listens, observes, and models those same behaviors, they identify the relevant behaviors and develops a conceptual model of the processes involved. The apprentice is then given an opportunity to rehearse those behaviors and obtain feedback from the teacher, who provides coaching, tips, and pointers. The idea is that the apprentice learns to solve problems in the context that produced them.
- -Therefore, the use of avatars or agents for presenting the proper model of behavior does transfer learning. There are several advantages to implementing avatars as social models. First, an agent implemented as a social model can be available at any time the learner engages with the game. This means that desired behaviors can be projected whenever and wherever the instruction is needed. Second, the behaviors can be modeled in an environment in which they are desired to occur, as opposed to a classroom space. The game environment allows the creation of an unlimited number of contexts in which the behavior can be modeled. Third, given the ease of use and “re-playability” of games, the learning experience can be replayed many times to aid with retention. Finally, games provide the opportunity for the learner to practice the observed behavior in a safe and secure environment. Video games offer excellent conditions for learning to occur. They simultaneously expose the player to modeling, rehearsal, and reinforcement of the social behavior that is involved in the game’s theme.
- flow is something game designers want their players to achieve. And while a game designer cannot guarantee a flow state will occur for a player, the designer can create conditions under which a flow state could occur. Flow is experienced when the challenge facing a person is in almost perfect balance with the person’s level of skill and abilities—he or she can accomplish the task, but it will take concentration, blocking out distractions, and a high level of effort
- The task should be achievable and believed to be so by the player. Yet it shouldn’t be easy. However, it is should be challenging yet achievable. There should be no distractions so that the player’s mental and physical energies are applied with intense focus. The goal needs to be clear for the player so that they know exactly what to do to achieve the goal. The immediate and continual feedback helps the person to remain in the flow state. Therefore, after every action there should be a reaction so that the player knows whether they doing the right or wrong thing. Because of the high level of concentration, the level of feedback, and the ability to achieve the goal, the person perceives that involvement as effortless The person feels in complete control over what he or she is doing and believes that actions have immediate and purposeful results where a person is so absorbed in the activity that the only thing he or she is thinking about is the activity. When in the flow state, time doesn’t matter. A player may think he sat there for minutes but in fact he did for hours. *The ideal goal of game designers is to shape the instructional games they develop so it is possible for players to enter into a state of flow. The game needs to reach a balance between the challenges in the game and the player’s skill and ability level. This is a rare occurrence in instructional games. However, the concept of flow serves as a good guidepost for the gamification of learning. If a faculty member, trainer, or instructional designer can pro-vide the environment that encourages flow in the learner, he or she can move closer to putting learners into a flow state*
- And now we continue with my colleague Melek !