This document summarizes a study examining Ethiopian farmers' perceived impact of advice from agricultural extension agents. The study finds:
1) There is a positive perceived impact of most extension agent advice on both crop yields and income. However, the effectiveness of different types of advice depends on farmer and farm characteristics.
2) Advice on fertilizer use has a greater impact on crop yields than income, possibly because of cost factors. Some advice works better in drought-affected areas while other advice is more effective in non-drought areas.
3) A farmer's level of education increases their ability to implement advice effectively. The impact of advice also varies according to individual and farm characteristics.
Prompted by the 20th anniversary of the 1993 World Development Report, a Lancet Commission revisited the case for investment in health and developed a new investment frame work to achieve dramatic health gains by 2035. Our report has four key messages, each accompanied by opportunities for action by national governments of low-income and middle-income countries and by the international community.
This document discusses the lack of data on non-state healthcare providers in fragile states. It notes that while non-state providers play an important role, there is little research quantifying their contributions. The author plans to help address this "great void" by conducting fieldwork in Burma, Timor-Leste, and Cambodia to qualitatively assess healthcare provision at the margins of fragile states using a health systems framework. Understanding non-state providers is important for developing effective policy around universal access and regulation within pluralistic healthcare systems.
The document tracks the development of urban food security assessment tools from 2010 to 2015. It summarizes two key categories of initiatives: Category I attempts to deliberately develop urban food security assessment tools, while Category II consists of desk reviews. Relatively few efforts are devoted to Category I. The document analyzes tools and approaches for assessing key indicators of urban food security, including income, expenditures, food consumption, and coping strategies. It finds some progress in developing tools for income assessment, but notes the challenge of capturing comprehensive household income data in urban contexts remains. It recommends prioritizing deliberate development and testing of urban food security assessment tools through partnerships.
The document summarizes a team's project to assess the best and worst places to live in 2025 in terms of water resources. The team created a multivariate scale using 6 factors from the UN and Fund for Peace, including total renewable water resources, water withdrawals, population change, economic development, poverty, and public services. The scale assigns weights to compute a cumulative rank for each country. The team defined countries by UN standards and omitted 82 countries with insufficient data that comprise less than 1% of the global population.
Urban populations are facing increasing challenges from numerous natural and manmade pressures such as rapid urbanisation, climate change, terrorism and increased risks from natural hazards. Cities must learn to adapt and thrive in the face of these diverse challenges - they must learn how to build resilience in an uncertain world. Armed with this knowledge and understanding, governments, donors, investors, policy makers, and the private sector will be able to develop effective strategies to foster more resilient cities.
Supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, the City Resilience Index (CRI) is being developed by Arup. It builds on extensive research undertaken by Arup to establish an accessible, evidence-based definition of urban resilience, which culminated in the publication of the City Resilience Framework (CRF) in April 2014 (www.arup.com/cri). This provides a holistic articulation of city resilience, structured around four dimensions and 12 goals that are critical for the resilience of our cities. This structure also forms the foundations of the CRI.
Who is the CRI for?
The CRI will measure relative performance over time rather than comparison between cities. It will not deliver an overall single score for comparing performance between cities, neither will it provide a world ranking of the most resilient cities. However, it will provide a common basis of measurement and assessment to better facilitate dialogue and knowledge-sharing between cities.
It is envisaged that the CRI will primarily be used by city governments who are in the best position to gather administrative data, but it can also be used by other interested organisations and individuals (for example, universities, non-governmental organisations, community groups). It is intended that the CRI process will also provide the means for cities to capture the views of the poor and vulnerable groups as they normally suffer more severely the impacts of disruptions and failures.
The document examines how MPs' allocation of Constituency Development Funds (CDF) in Kenya affected election outcomes in the 2007 parliamentary elections. Regression analysis found that increased education spending led to lower vote shares for incumbent MPs, while increased security spending led to higher vote shares. This suggests that rather than helping constituents, MPs may have used CDF as campaign funds to influence elections, warranting more research on CDF allocation patterns and effects.
Monitoring household coping strategies during complex crises finalUN Global Pulse
Executive summary of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) research: “Monitoring Household Coping Strategies during Complex Crises,” conducted as part of UN Global Pulse’s Rapid Impact and Vulnerability Assessment Fund (RIVAF). For more information: http://www.unglobalpulse.org/projects/rapid-impact-and-vulnerability-analysis-fund-rivaf
The Benefit Incidence of Public Spending in Ethiopiaessp2
Ethiopia Development Research Institute (EDRI) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Seminar Series, August 20, 2010 Addis Ababa, EDRI Meeting Room
Prompted by the 20th anniversary of the 1993 World Development Report, a Lancet Commission revisited the case for investment in health and developed a new investment frame work to achieve dramatic health gains by 2035. Our report has four key messages, each accompanied by opportunities for action by national governments of low-income and middle-income countries and by the international community.
This document discusses the lack of data on non-state healthcare providers in fragile states. It notes that while non-state providers play an important role, there is little research quantifying their contributions. The author plans to help address this "great void" by conducting fieldwork in Burma, Timor-Leste, and Cambodia to qualitatively assess healthcare provision at the margins of fragile states using a health systems framework. Understanding non-state providers is important for developing effective policy around universal access and regulation within pluralistic healthcare systems.
The document tracks the development of urban food security assessment tools from 2010 to 2015. It summarizes two key categories of initiatives: Category I attempts to deliberately develop urban food security assessment tools, while Category II consists of desk reviews. Relatively few efforts are devoted to Category I. The document analyzes tools and approaches for assessing key indicators of urban food security, including income, expenditures, food consumption, and coping strategies. It finds some progress in developing tools for income assessment, but notes the challenge of capturing comprehensive household income data in urban contexts remains. It recommends prioritizing deliberate development and testing of urban food security assessment tools through partnerships.
The document summarizes a team's project to assess the best and worst places to live in 2025 in terms of water resources. The team created a multivariate scale using 6 factors from the UN and Fund for Peace, including total renewable water resources, water withdrawals, population change, economic development, poverty, and public services. The scale assigns weights to compute a cumulative rank for each country. The team defined countries by UN standards and omitted 82 countries with insufficient data that comprise less than 1% of the global population.
Urban populations are facing increasing challenges from numerous natural and manmade pressures such as rapid urbanisation, climate change, terrorism and increased risks from natural hazards. Cities must learn to adapt and thrive in the face of these diverse challenges - they must learn how to build resilience in an uncertain world. Armed with this knowledge and understanding, governments, donors, investors, policy makers, and the private sector will be able to develop effective strategies to foster more resilient cities.
Supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, the City Resilience Index (CRI) is being developed by Arup. It builds on extensive research undertaken by Arup to establish an accessible, evidence-based definition of urban resilience, which culminated in the publication of the City Resilience Framework (CRF) in April 2014 (www.arup.com/cri). This provides a holistic articulation of city resilience, structured around four dimensions and 12 goals that are critical for the resilience of our cities. This structure also forms the foundations of the CRI.
Who is the CRI for?
The CRI will measure relative performance over time rather than comparison between cities. It will not deliver an overall single score for comparing performance between cities, neither will it provide a world ranking of the most resilient cities. However, it will provide a common basis of measurement and assessment to better facilitate dialogue and knowledge-sharing between cities.
It is envisaged that the CRI will primarily be used by city governments who are in the best position to gather administrative data, but it can also be used by other interested organisations and individuals (for example, universities, non-governmental organisations, community groups). It is intended that the CRI process will also provide the means for cities to capture the views of the poor and vulnerable groups as they normally suffer more severely the impacts of disruptions and failures.
The document examines how MPs' allocation of Constituency Development Funds (CDF) in Kenya affected election outcomes in the 2007 parliamentary elections. Regression analysis found that increased education spending led to lower vote shares for incumbent MPs, while increased security spending led to higher vote shares. This suggests that rather than helping constituents, MPs may have used CDF as campaign funds to influence elections, warranting more research on CDF allocation patterns and effects.
Monitoring household coping strategies during complex crises finalUN Global Pulse
Executive summary of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) research: “Monitoring Household Coping Strategies during Complex Crises,” conducted as part of UN Global Pulse’s Rapid Impact and Vulnerability Assessment Fund (RIVAF). For more information: http://www.unglobalpulse.org/projects/rapid-impact-and-vulnerability-analysis-fund-rivaf
The Benefit Incidence of Public Spending in Ethiopiaessp2
Ethiopia Development Research Institute (EDRI) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Seminar Series, August 20, 2010 Addis Ababa, EDRI Meeting Room
The Neglected Dimension of Global Security: A Framework to Counter Infectious...The Rockefeller Foundation
The Ebola crisis in West Africa was both a tragedy and a wakeup call, revealing dangerous deficiencies across global systems to prevent, prepare, and respond to infectious disease crises. To address these shortcomings and inform a more effective response in the future, the National Academy of Medicine convened the Commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future (GHRF Commission)—an independent, international group of experts in finance, governance, R&D, health systems, and the social sciences.
The Commission’s report highlights the essential role of pandemic preparedness in national security and economic stability—a critical but often under-examined dimension of the global conversation post-Ebola. Importantly, the report demonstrates that the impact of infectious disease crises goes far beyond human health alone—and that mitigation, likewise, requires the mobilization and long-term commitment of multiple sectors.
The document analyzes household income and minority population data in Tampa Bay counties to identify potential new locations for MedNet prescription assistance program sites. It finds that Hillsborough and Polk counties have many census tracts with both large minority populations and households earning less than $50,000 annually, meeting key eligibility criteria. The results highlight these and other counties for consideration of expanding the MedNet program, which could help provide access to medications for more low-income and uninsured residents.
This document provides a summary and reconstruction of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF). It begins with background on the origins and use of the SLF, noting that while it was widely used in the 1990s, its application has receded in recent times due to limitations. Specifically, it argues the SLF is too micro-level and household-focused. The document then reviews the evolution of concepts around sustainability and welfare that influenced the SLF. It proposes a reconstruction of the SLF to address its limitations, focusing on a more rigorous conceptualization of household assets and their influence on livelihoods and institutional evolution. The goal is to provide a more holistic and theoretically robust analytical framework.
Informal workers face substantial risks and vulnerabilities due to insecurity surrounding their employment status and
lack of control of the conditions of their employment. In addition, informal workers have limited access to affordable and
appropriate health care for themselves and their families, and they may not seek care if they have insecure legal status, or due to the potential expense or loss of income. The combination of high vulnerabilities and inadequate social protections (including insufficient access to affordable health services) results in high incidences of injury, illness, susceptibility to chronic diseases and poverty.
The document discusses two perspectives on water supply and sanitation in Africa: optimism and pessimism. It notes that while coverage is increasing, it is doing so incrementally and not through major leaps. A pessimistic view is suggested for sub-Saharan Africa where population growth is outpacing improvements and sustainability remains a challenge. However, some case studies from Ethiopia show positive economic and poverty impacts from improved access to water and sanitation, though benefits are complex and non-linear. The conclusion calls for a "pessoptimistic" view that acknowledges challenges but focuses on continued improvements to current situations through community-driven models and downward accountability.
Comments by Ina Ganguli on paper "Is Corruption Good for your Health?" presented by Guilherme Lichand at the SITE Corruption Conference, 31 August 2015.
Find more at: https://www.hhs.se/site
Political Economy of Vietnam's response to Avian Influenza by Tuong VuSTEPS Centre
In February 2009, an expert meeting co-hosted by the STEPS Centre and Chatham House and funded by DFID/the World Bank was held in Hove, Sussex, UK. The meeting reviewed country-level experiences of HPAI response in Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia. This is the presentation from the Vietnam work. Find out more at: http://www.steps-centre.org/ourresearch/avianflu.html
The document outlines a framework for analyzing sustainable urban livelihoods. It shows how vulnerability context, livelihood assets, policies/institutions, livelihood strategies, and outcomes are interconnected. It also lists the areas of research for Urban Harvest, including livelihoods & markets, stakeholder analysis, and urban ecosystem health.
This document outlines a framework for analyzing sustainable rural livelihoods. The framework shows how livelihoods are achieved through access to different livelihood resources (natural, economic, human, social capital) which are combined to pursue livelihood strategies like agricultural intensification/extensification, livelihood diversification, and migration. Central to the framework is the analysis of institutions that influence livelihood outcomes. Sustainable livelihoods are assessed based on indicators like employment creation, poverty reduction, well-being, resilience to stresses/shocks, and natural resource sustainability. The framework provides a way to investigate the key factors and tradeoffs involved in achieving sustainable rural livelihoods.
Vulnerable Groups and Communities in The Context of Adaptation and Developmen...Tariq A. Deen
Participants will be taken through the identification and targeting of vulnerable communities, groups and ecosystems at different scales, best available methods and data, best practices, in the context of adaptation and development planning and implementation. It will include introductory presentations on the topic and will engage participants in breakout group discussions.
An introduction to the sustainable livelihoods frameworkafrica-rising
Presented by Peter Thorne at the Training of Trainers workshop on the use of Livelihoods Characterization/Benchmarking Tool (SLATE), Jeldu, Ethiopia, 1-5 April 2013
This document provides an introduction to the sustainable livelihoods framework. It describes the framework as a tool to improve understanding of livelihoods, particularly those of poor people. The framework presents the main factors affecting livelihoods and their relationships. It can be used to plan development activities and assess how existing activities contribute to livelihood sustainability. The framework focuses on people and emphasizes the multiple interactions between factors influencing livelihoods. It does not present a linear model but aims to facilitate structured debate about livelihood issues.
This document proposes a microfinancing framework to improve access to rural water and sanitation services in Sub-Saharan Africa. Currently, many rural communities lack start-up capital needed for water and sanitation infrastructure. The framework involves rotating savings and credit associations, community water committees, village banks, and government support. Together these stakeholders could establish revolving loan programs to fund infrastructure development and maintenance in a sustainable, community-owned manner. The goal is to increase equitable access to safe water and sanitation through cooperative microfinancing models while sharing costs and benefits between communities and governments.
This document summarizes evidence on access to financial services across countries. It finds that while finance is important for economic development, use of financial services is far from universal, especially in developing countries. There are various barriers to access including lack of infrastructure, high costs, and lack of tailored products. Governments can facilitate greater access by strengthening legal and regulatory frameworks, liberalizing markets to encourage competition, and using technology innovatively. However, direct government interventions also carry risks such as high costs and failure to reach target groups. Improving data on access and further analysis of constraints is needed.
The sustainable livelihoods approach improves understanding of the livelihoods of the poor. It organizes the factors that constrain or enhance livelihood opportunities, and shows how they relate. It can help plan development activities and assess the contribution that existing activities have made to sustaining livelihoods.
Towards improving service delivery in local authorities. A case of Chegutu Mu...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
The document discusses the disproportionate impacts of the recession on minorities and calls for a more equitable recovery. It summarizes data showing higher unemployment rates among minorities, in areas with larger minority populations, and at the intersections of geography and race. While the stimulus provided relief, more targeted investments are needed to assist communities hardest hit and develop opportunities for minorities. The Kirwan Institute advocates for policies that combine universal goals with targeted approaches to promote a fair recovery.
Syringe access in the US: an overview of policy and programs following the lifting of the federal funding ban. Presented at the US Conference on AIDS, 9/13/10
This document provides information on syringe access services as a harm reduction and disease prevention intervention. It discusses the benefits of syringe access programs in reducing HIV and HCV transmission as well as their cost effectiveness. The document outlines different models of syringe access programs and considerations for starting a new program, including conducting a needs assessment, recommended equipment, and the importance of practicing drug user cultural competency. Contact information is provided for technical assistance from The Harm Reduction Coalition.
The document discusses the concept of livelihoods and provides definitions. A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets, and activities required to make a living. Livelihoods are sustainable when they can cope with stress and shocks, maintain assets without damaging resources. The framework analyzes livelihoods through five capital assets - financial, natural, physical, social, and human. Livelihood strategies utilize these assets to produce livelihood outcomes within the context of vulnerabilities. The sustainable livelihood approach is people-centered and considers multiple strategies across sectors to build on strengths and opportunities through evidence-based policies.
The document discusses various topics related to business and personal finances. It addresses the importance of understanding your financial status and creating a budget to avoid living paycheck to paycheck. It also discusses options for auto loans and small business financing. Maintaining financial fitness requires knowing your income and expenses.
1. Register for a payment code by visiting the nearest SAMSAT office or online. 2. Make the payment using the code through ATM, bank teller, or online. 3. The payment will be verified, completing the motor vehicle tax process.
The Neglected Dimension of Global Security: A Framework to Counter Infectious...The Rockefeller Foundation
The Ebola crisis in West Africa was both a tragedy and a wakeup call, revealing dangerous deficiencies across global systems to prevent, prepare, and respond to infectious disease crises. To address these shortcomings and inform a more effective response in the future, the National Academy of Medicine convened the Commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future (GHRF Commission)—an independent, international group of experts in finance, governance, R&D, health systems, and the social sciences.
The Commission’s report highlights the essential role of pandemic preparedness in national security and economic stability—a critical but often under-examined dimension of the global conversation post-Ebola. Importantly, the report demonstrates that the impact of infectious disease crises goes far beyond human health alone—and that mitigation, likewise, requires the mobilization and long-term commitment of multiple sectors.
The document analyzes household income and minority population data in Tampa Bay counties to identify potential new locations for MedNet prescription assistance program sites. It finds that Hillsborough and Polk counties have many census tracts with both large minority populations and households earning less than $50,000 annually, meeting key eligibility criteria. The results highlight these and other counties for consideration of expanding the MedNet program, which could help provide access to medications for more low-income and uninsured residents.
This document provides a summary and reconstruction of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF). It begins with background on the origins and use of the SLF, noting that while it was widely used in the 1990s, its application has receded in recent times due to limitations. Specifically, it argues the SLF is too micro-level and household-focused. The document then reviews the evolution of concepts around sustainability and welfare that influenced the SLF. It proposes a reconstruction of the SLF to address its limitations, focusing on a more rigorous conceptualization of household assets and their influence on livelihoods and institutional evolution. The goal is to provide a more holistic and theoretically robust analytical framework.
Informal workers face substantial risks and vulnerabilities due to insecurity surrounding their employment status and
lack of control of the conditions of their employment. In addition, informal workers have limited access to affordable and
appropriate health care for themselves and their families, and they may not seek care if they have insecure legal status, or due to the potential expense or loss of income. The combination of high vulnerabilities and inadequate social protections (including insufficient access to affordable health services) results in high incidences of injury, illness, susceptibility to chronic diseases and poverty.
The document discusses two perspectives on water supply and sanitation in Africa: optimism and pessimism. It notes that while coverage is increasing, it is doing so incrementally and not through major leaps. A pessimistic view is suggested for sub-Saharan Africa where population growth is outpacing improvements and sustainability remains a challenge. However, some case studies from Ethiopia show positive economic and poverty impacts from improved access to water and sanitation, though benefits are complex and non-linear. The conclusion calls for a "pessoptimistic" view that acknowledges challenges but focuses on continued improvements to current situations through community-driven models and downward accountability.
Comments by Ina Ganguli on paper "Is Corruption Good for your Health?" presented by Guilherme Lichand at the SITE Corruption Conference, 31 August 2015.
Find more at: https://www.hhs.se/site
Political Economy of Vietnam's response to Avian Influenza by Tuong VuSTEPS Centre
In February 2009, an expert meeting co-hosted by the STEPS Centre and Chatham House and funded by DFID/the World Bank was held in Hove, Sussex, UK. The meeting reviewed country-level experiences of HPAI response in Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia. This is the presentation from the Vietnam work. Find out more at: http://www.steps-centre.org/ourresearch/avianflu.html
The document outlines a framework for analyzing sustainable urban livelihoods. It shows how vulnerability context, livelihood assets, policies/institutions, livelihood strategies, and outcomes are interconnected. It also lists the areas of research for Urban Harvest, including livelihoods & markets, stakeholder analysis, and urban ecosystem health.
This document outlines a framework for analyzing sustainable rural livelihoods. The framework shows how livelihoods are achieved through access to different livelihood resources (natural, economic, human, social capital) which are combined to pursue livelihood strategies like agricultural intensification/extensification, livelihood diversification, and migration. Central to the framework is the analysis of institutions that influence livelihood outcomes. Sustainable livelihoods are assessed based on indicators like employment creation, poverty reduction, well-being, resilience to stresses/shocks, and natural resource sustainability. The framework provides a way to investigate the key factors and tradeoffs involved in achieving sustainable rural livelihoods.
Vulnerable Groups and Communities in The Context of Adaptation and Developmen...Tariq A. Deen
Participants will be taken through the identification and targeting of vulnerable communities, groups and ecosystems at different scales, best available methods and data, best practices, in the context of adaptation and development planning and implementation. It will include introductory presentations on the topic and will engage participants in breakout group discussions.
An introduction to the sustainable livelihoods frameworkafrica-rising
Presented by Peter Thorne at the Training of Trainers workshop on the use of Livelihoods Characterization/Benchmarking Tool (SLATE), Jeldu, Ethiopia, 1-5 April 2013
This document provides an introduction to the sustainable livelihoods framework. It describes the framework as a tool to improve understanding of livelihoods, particularly those of poor people. The framework presents the main factors affecting livelihoods and their relationships. It can be used to plan development activities and assess how existing activities contribute to livelihood sustainability. The framework focuses on people and emphasizes the multiple interactions between factors influencing livelihoods. It does not present a linear model but aims to facilitate structured debate about livelihood issues.
This document proposes a microfinancing framework to improve access to rural water and sanitation services in Sub-Saharan Africa. Currently, many rural communities lack start-up capital needed for water and sanitation infrastructure. The framework involves rotating savings and credit associations, community water committees, village banks, and government support. Together these stakeholders could establish revolving loan programs to fund infrastructure development and maintenance in a sustainable, community-owned manner. The goal is to increase equitable access to safe water and sanitation through cooperative microfinancing models while sharing costs and benefits between communities and governments.
This document summarizes evidence on access to financial services across countries. It finds that while finance is important for economic development, use of financial services is far from universal, especially in developing countries. There are various barriers to access including lack of infrastructure, high costs, and lack of tailored products. Governments can facilitate greater access by strengthening legal and regulatory frameworks, liberalizing markets to encourage competition, and using technology innovatively. However, direct government interventions also carry risks such as high costs and failure to reach target groups. Improving data on access and further analysis of constraints is needed.
The sustainable livelihoods approach improves understanding of the livelihoods of the poor. It organizes the factors that constrain or enhance livelihood opportunities, and shows how they relate. It can help plan development activities and assess the contribution that existing activities have made to sustaining livelihoods.
Towards improving service delivery in local authorities. A case of Chegutu Mu...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
The document discusses the disproportionate impacts of the recession on minorities and calls for a more equitable recovery. It summarizes data showing higher unemployment rates among minorities, in areas with larger minority populations, and at the intersections of geography and race. While the stimulus provided relief, more targeted investments are needed to assist communities hardest hit and develop opportunities for minorities. The Kirwan Institute advocates for policies that combine universal goals with targeted approaches to promote a fair recovery.
Syringe access in the US: an overview of policy and programs following the lifting of the federal funding ban. Presented at the US Conference on AIDS, 9/13/10
This document provides information on syringe access services as a harm reduction and disease prevention intervention. It discusses the benefits of syringe access programs in reducing HIV and HCV transmission as well as their cost effectiveness. The document outlines different models of syringe access programs and considerations for starting a new program, including conducting a needs assessment, recommended equipment, and the importance of practicing drug user cultural competency. Contact information is provided for technical assistance from The Harm Reduction Coalition.
The document discusses the concept of livelihoods and provides definitions. A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets, and activities required to make a living. Livelihoods are sustainable when they can cope with stress and shocks, maintain assets without damaging resources. The framework analyzes livelihoods through five capital assets - financial, natural, physical, social, and human. Livelihood strategies utilize these assets to produce livelihood outcomes within the context of vulnerabilities. The sustainable livelihood approach is people-centered and considers multiple strategies across sectors to build on strengths and opportunities through evidence-based policies.
The document discusses various topics related to business and personal finances. It addresses the importance of understanding your financial status and creating a budget to avoid living paycheck to paycheck. It also discusses options for auto loans and small business financing. Maintaining financial fitness requires knowing your income and expenses.
1. Register for a payment code by visiting the nearest SAMSAT office or online. 2. Make the payment using the code through ATM, bank teller, or online. 3. The payment will be verified, completing the motor vehicle tax process.
This document provides a user guide for the Suunto Ambit2 S 2.0 sports watch. It describes the watch's display icons, buttons and their functions, and guides the user through setup, customization, use of various features like timekeeping, navigation, sport modes, and care of the device. Key features covered include connecting to the Movescount app, updating firmware, customizing sport modes and apps, GPS navigation, heart rate monitoring, multisport training, swimming tracking, and device maintenance. Safety warnings are also provided at the beginning.
El documento discute los desafíos de seguridad en implementaciones de voz sobre IP y la necesidad de asegurar tanto la plataforma como su entorno de red. Señala que a pesar de la popularidad de la voz sobre IP, existe poca documentación sobre problemas de seguridad existentes y emergentes. El documento provee una visión general de los lineamientos que deben seguirse para brindar seguridad a plataformas de voz sobre IP.
O documento discute a natureza humana e a influência da educação e cultura no desenvolvimento do indivíduo. Aborda a dificuldade em aceitar que somos naturalmente indeterminados e que a educação e cultura moldam diferenças entre as pessoas, o que implica uma precariedade na condição humana.
1. The document discusses emotional intelligence, including defining it as the ability to monitor one's own emotions and the emotions of others.
2. It outlines seven types of intelligence according to Howard Gardner, including interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, which relate to understanding and managing people respectively.
3. Emotional intelligence is defined as involving regulating one's own emotions and managing others' emotions, and is linked to better social and work relationships as well as life success and leadership ability.
La Unión Europea ha acordado un embargo petrolero contra Rusia en respuesta a la invasión de Ucrania. El embargo forma parte de un sexto paquete de sanciones y prohibirá la mayoría de las importaciones de petróleo ruso en la UE a finales de este año. Algunos estados miembros aún dependen en gran medida del petróleo ruso y se les ha concedido una exención, pero se espera que el embargo reduzca de manera significativa los ingresos de Rusia por la venta de petróleo.
No matter in what corner of the world you are, you can easily find the acupuncture specialist clinic offering all sorts of acupuncture techniques, which are performed by manipulating the power points in a human body with the use of pointed needles. Even though the procedure seems a bit difficult, With acupuncture covering a great deal of market share with its magical. The imbalances in your chi distribution can be caused because of physical imbalances, poor diet and emotional disturbances.
Ψηφίστηκε από την βουλή ο Νέος Αναπτυξιακός Νόμος 4399/2016 που δημοσιεύθηκε στο ΦΕΚ 117/Α/22-6-2016 με τίτλο «Θεσμικό πλαίσιο για την σύσταση καθεστώτων Ενισχύσεων Επενδύσεων για την περιφερειακή και οικονομική ανάπτυξη της χώρας – Σύσταση Αναπτυξιακού Συμβουλίου και άλλες διατάξεις».
Δείτε περισσότερα εδώ >> https://goo.gl/Vszq6i
Επικοινωνία: info@wintowin.gr, 2103608609
Antonio Zarragosa has over 25 years of experience in mechanical maintenance and operations roles in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the UAE, and the Philippines. He has expertise in installing, maintaining, and repairing various rotating equipment including turbines, compressors, pumps, and more. He is skilled at pump-motor alignment and has a degree in Mechanical Engineering. Zarragosa has received safety training and an appreciation award for his work in quality and safety.
Este documento discute como o Espiritismo aborda o Evangelho, enfatizando as sementes divinas da verdade contidas nele, mas elucidando que Cristo não usufruiu de facilidades e sim obedeceu a Deus como humilde servidor. Também explica que o céu não é um lugar privilegiado, mas o espaço onde mundos evoluem sob leis divinas, e que anjos são espíritos que adquiriram sabedoria através do esforço.
El documento trata sobre la carrera de Cultura Física en la Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud de la Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo. Se refiere específicamente al quinto semestre de esta carrera y al tema de fútbol que se abordará en dicho semestre.
Este documento contiene un cuestionario de 25 preguntas sobre energía para un estudiante de noveno grado. El cuestionario cubre temas como las fuentes y tipos de energía, así como conceptos relacionados con la producción, transporte y distribución de energía. El estudiante debe responder las preguntas y realizar actividades adicionales en Microsoft Word, PowerPoint y plataformas en línea.
Los ácidos grasos son moléculas importantes que se usan en la síntesis de triacilgliceroles. El triacilgliceroles se sintetizan a partir de ácidos grasos o intermediarios de la glicólisis como el glicerol-fosfato. El glicerol también puede proceder de triacilgliceroles previamente hidrolizados.
Environmental sustainability and financial development in Africa; does instit...matthew ntow-gyamfi
This document summarizes a research article that examines the relationship between financial development, environmental sustainability, and institutional quality in Africa. It conceptualizes a "Financial Market Environmental Kuznets Curve" (FMEKC) to explain how financial development may initially increase environmental degradation but then reduce it after a certain threshold, similar to the traditional Environmental Kuznets Curve. The study tests this relationship with data from African countries, while also analyzing the moderating role of institutional quality. It finds an inverted U-shaped relationship between financial development and environmental degradation, and that strong institutions can help reduce the negative environmental impacts of financial development in the long run.
How do households balance risk and return when new economic opportunities arise? Can nancial-services interventions help households cope with the increased risk that often accompanies new, high-return opportunities? We randomly assigned rural households in Mozambique to subsidies for modern agricultural inputs, formal savings facilitation programs (either a \basic" or a \matched" savings program), or both sub-
sidy and savings programs. Households receiving only subsidies raised their subsequent consumption levels, but also faced greater risk (higher consumption variability). Households receiving both programs saw simi-
lar increases in consumption, but a much smaller increase in variability. This risk-reduction occurs alongside (and is possibly partly the result of) adjustments in broad \portfolios" of intertemporal activities (asset hold-
ings, borrowing, and investments). A program oering generous savings matches (without input subsidies) has similar impacts as the combination of basic savings and subsidies. While households appear willing to take
on the increased risk associated with high-return opportunities, facilitating formal savings can help households oset a substantial part of the increased risk.
What Constrains Smallholder Farmers Decisions to Participate and use Agricult...ijtsrd
Smallholder farmers contribute more to food security and poverty reduction in Rwanda. However, lack of agricultural finance is one of numerous challenges they face for improving productivity and increasing income along the value chain. The objectives of this paper were to determine the factors influencing the farmers’ decision to participate and use agricultural value chain financing in Rwanda and to analyse the constraints hindering smallholder farmers’ decision to participate and use agricultural value chain financing in Rwanda. Cross sectional data were collected from a random sample of 585 smallholder potato farmers in Musanze and Nyabihu Districts. Results of probit model revealed that sex, age, marital status, education, farming experience, membership to farming associations, household income and distance to market significantly influence the farmers’ decision to participate and use of agricultural value chain financing. The study also found that financing agricultural activities remain a key challenge for smallholder potato farmers. Fear of borrowing, lack of financial literacy, lack of skills in budgeting and unexpected production, interest rate and others loans charges, lack of collaterals, short repayment period and lack of financial literacy have been found to be the main factors constraining potato farmers’ participation and use of agricultural value chain financing. Nevertheless, potato productivity will always result from the interaction between all potato value chain actors. The study recommended the government and value chain stakeholders to formulate integrated policies that facilitate smallholder farmers to access to convenient financing products in order to improve productivity and to meet the customer demands. Patrice Mugenzi | George Owour | Hillary K. Bett "What Constrains Smallholder Farmers Decisions to Participate and use Agricultural Value Chain Financing in Rwanda? The Case of Smallholder Potato Farmers in Musanze and Nyabihu Districts" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38001.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/agricultural-engineering/38001/what-constrains-smallholder-farmers-decisions-to-participate-and-use-agricultural-value-chain-financing-in-rwanda-the-case-of-smallholder-potato-farmers-in-musanze-and-nyabihu-districts/patrice-mugenzi
An Overview of the Challenges of Decentralized Agricultural Extension Practic...Premier Publishers
This study, analyzes the challenges of decentralized agricultural extension system in Eritrea from political and organizational perspectives in relation to the major issues of responsiveness, accountability, efficiency, effectiveness, extension system coordination and capacity of service providers. The data for this study was taken from a study conducted in June 2017 in the Ministry of Agriculture. The study used both survey and case study methodologies. The study seeks to answer the following research question: what political and organizational factors have an effect on the delivery of extension services in a decentralized system? In this study, it is found that institutional, technical and managerial capacities have a great effect on the delivery of decentralized extension services. In Eritrea, there are capacity gaps among local government working units to deliver effective and efficient extension services that ensure participation of stakeholders and accountability of service providers. Agricultural extension has not yet developed enough capability to mobilize all stakeholders- research, farmer, input agency, private sector, NGO, finance institutions and professional body to sustain efficient and effective practice. Local institutions taking on responsibility for agricultural extension services require investment in institution building-staff development, facilities and management systems because decentralization cannot be created or accelerated by policy decisions alone.
• Atsu Seake-Kwawu (ICHD presents a study done in four West-African countries in 2012. The study aims at a better understanding of the organisational features of effective and efficient PHC delivery, including the identification and analysis of contextual variables as underlying causes & factors for successful service delivery and key health system bottle-necks to the delivery and scaling up of high impact interventions (HII).
Leisa Perch: Reconciling participation and benefits-sharing - policy implicat...AfricaAdapt
This document summarizes a paper on reconciling participation and benefit-sharing in relation to climate change adaptation policies in Africa. It finds that while existing frameworks acknowledge vulnerable groups, they do not adequately address structural inequalities or take a multidimensional approach. It recommends focusing on social technologies, risk management, learning across sectors, enhancing participation in resource allocation, and linking adaptation and development programs to better share both risks and benefits. A co-benefits framework that converges policies could help achieve more inclusive and transformative adaptation outcomes in Africa.
Reconciling Participation And Benefits Sharing 1Ln Perch
This document summarizes a paper on reconciling participation and benefit-sharing in approaches to climate change adaptation in Africa. It finds that current frameworks take a limited view of vulnerability that does not adequately consider social factors. National adaptation plans for African countries were analyzed and found to have some gaps in inclusiveness, such as not clearly identifying vulnerable groups or prioritizing gender and poverty. There are also disconnects between frameworks for participation in adaptation planning and actual practice in countries. The document calls for more holistic and socially-defined approaches to adaptation that better address structural inequalities.
RUNNING Head: IMPACTS ON FOOD SYSTEMS. 1
IMPACTS ON FOOD SYSTEMS 8
Impacts of Food Systems.
Students Name.
Institutional Affiliation.
Impacts on food systems.
Introduction
Sustainability in food systems entails the provision of the food security and nutrition which are essential to maintain and promote the living condition of the people under the earth (Ericksen, Ingram, & Liverman, 2009). The food system is according to the four pillar that defines its implication in any society. These four pillars are stability, availability, utilization and access. According to Food and Agriculture Organization, food security refers to “all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”(Source, FAO SOFI 2011).
When four pillars are conjoined together with the sustainability and nutrition, a desirable food system foundation is therefore achieved. With such food programs, they will mainly lead in making a multiple SDS (Sustainable Development Goals). Because of these to monitor and provide a desirable food system in any country, a Global Food System Index is crucial in tracking and monitoring progress. In the ultimate of the global food system, we address the six important dimensions by the GFSI which traces their progression. These critical dimensions are social sustainability, health and nutrition consumptions, environmental productivity, climate and ecological sustainability and market dynamics (Shown in Figure 1).
Therefore the ideal goal of a food system tries to effectively dialogue challenges to ecological and human welfare transversely in all of its phases. The dimension arrives from the theories and concepts involving food systems which will inform and guide the relevant managerial personnel in their decisions after the consideration of the report on the available data’s provided in concern of the behaviors portrayed by the target group like tourists in any environment when food is involved for life sustenance.
Global economic growth in investments, trade, food and Market Dynamic
Food system synthesis propels the global financial increase in investment, trade and food prices — they makeup all that happens and is the boundaries of the market dynamic as stated to be one of the critical dimensions guiding the food systems and its synthesis. To have a desirable food system, we require to have: an interaction in food supply chains which functions with all fundamental priors in the whole food system and also a well-operating trade and market dynamics (McCarthy, Lipper, & Branca, 2011). Using good trade and market strategies we can regulate and reduce the adverse effects caused by the market astonishment and hence drastically.
Ethiopia Health Sector Financing Reform/HFG: End-of-Project ReportHFG Project
The HSFR/HFG project worked with the Government of Ethiopia from 2013-2018 to improve Ethiopia's health care financing system and expand access to health services. Key achievements included increasing the proportion of health facilities managing funds and services through boards representing communities, expanding revenue retention at health centers and hospitals, and piloting community-based health insurance. The project aimed to increase utilization of primary health services, enroll more people in insurance, and reduce out-of-pocket costs through technical support across Ethiopia's decentralized health system. Challenges remained in expanding reforms and improving health indicators, but the project strengthened sustainability by building local capacity and engaging stakeholders.
Intersections between Poverty, Environment and Inclusive Growth: A Global Per...UNDP Policy Centre
Presentation by Ms. Leisa Perch from the International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG) at the II National Development Conference (CODE/IPEA). This presentation is based on largely on IPC-IG's Poverty in Focus magazine #23 and speaks to four key areas/messages: (i) Intersections of environmental risk and poverty and social risk and the environment are fundamental to the inclusiveness of growth; (ii) Both structural and situational in nature, they require solutions that focus on both participation and benefit-sharing; (iii)
Relevant policy innovations exist and need to be up-scaled; (iv) A focus on the quality of growth will be key in sustaining progress.
China’s economy
中国经济
http://worldmap.harvard.edu/chinamap/
How has China’s economy changed 1949-present?
What is the structure of PR China’s economy?
What are some major agricultural issues in China?
What are some industrial issues in China?
What is the Belt and Road Initiative?
What are the economic forces at work in China?
How has the economic reform policy progressed in China?
How has China’s economy changed 1949-present?
Economy Timeline
Mao 1950s Land reform, Collectivization, Great Leap Forward, 1960s Cultural Revolution
1976 Four Modernizations
Deng Reforms
1980s Agricultural Responsibility System
Socialist Economy with Chinese Characteristics
Exports
1992 Deng’s Southern tour
Regional Development, Coast, Interior
2000 Develop the West
2010 Moderate Prosperity, Technology, Green
2013 Third Plenum - China Dream
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-25033622
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-31744373
Videos
China in the Red
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/red/
http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xen5f7_pbs-china-in-the-red-9-11_news
What are the lives of people like?
Form of Economy
Mixed Economy
Market-Leninism
Transition: Elements of Socialism, Market & Capitalism
What is the structure of PR China’s economy?
Ownership types: State, Collective, Private and individual, Foreign
Economic Indicators
GDP Trillion $25.36
GDP per capita $18, 200
GDP growth 6.9% GDP Composition
Agriculture 8%, Industry 40% Service 52%
Labor Composition
Agriculture 28%, Industry 29% Service 43%
Poverty 3.3%, <RMB2300 ( US$400)
Trade
Exports (number 1):
US 19, Hong Kong 12, Japan 6, South Korea 5
Electrical, computers, apparel, furniture, textiles
Imports ( number 2):
South Korea 10, Japan 9, US 9, Germany 5, Australia 5
Electrical, oil, medical, ore, vehicle, soybean
Structure of China’s Transitional Economy 1
Structure of China’s Transitional Economy
Industrial structure (compare to Japan and S. Korea)
Enterprise groups – SOE State Operated Enterprise
state support/control, losing money, 25% industry
Collective enterprises – independent of state
manager bought company from state
40% industry
TVE Enterprises – Township and Village Enterprises (former collective)
Owned operated by rural - Dynamic element of economy
Structure of China’s Transitional Economy 2
Private Entrepreneurs - small business, 20% industry
services/manufactures Difficult taxes, legality, politics
Foreign Ventures – partnerships, 10% industry
– commerce, industry
Agriculture - backbone of economy 8% econ
employment / food supply
Responsibility system, state out of agriculture
have right to work land
Food price control and some subsidies still exist
Economic Dualism
Industrial v. non-industrial : worker - peasant
Coastal & open cities v. hinterland “backward”
City v. country
urban v. rural
China Inc?
Simplified form
CCP
Business Bureaucracy
(SOE, Coll., TVE) (State Council)
Rural .
China’s economy
中国经济
http://worldmap.harvard.edu/chinamap/
How has China’s economy changed 1949-present?
What is the structure of PR China’s economy?
What are some major agricultural issues in China?
What are some industrial issues in China?
What is the Belt and Road Initiative?
What are the economic forces at work in China?
How has the economic reform policy progressed in China?
How has China’s economy changed 1949-present?
Economy Timeline
Mao 1950s Land reform, Collectivization, Great Leap Forward, 1960s Cultural Revolution
1976 Four Modernizations
Deng Reforms
1980s Agricultural Responsibility System
Socialist Economy with Chinese Characteristics
Exports
1992 Deng’s Southern tour
Regional Development, Coast, Interior
2000 Develop the West
2010 Moderate Prosperity, Technology, Green
2013 Third Plenum - China Dream
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-25033622
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-31744373
Videos
China in the Red
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/red/
http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xen5f7_pbs-china-in-the-red-9-11_news
What are the lives of people like?
Form of Economy
Mixed Economy
Market-Leninism
Transition: Elements of Socialism, Market & Capitalism
What is the structure of PR China’s economy?
Ownership types: State, Collective, Private and individual, Foreign
Economic Indicators
GDP Trillion $25.36
GDP per capita $18, 200
GDP growth 6.9% GDP Composition
Agriculture 8%, Industry 40% Service 52%
Labor Composition
Agriculture 28%, Industry 29% Service 43%
Poverty 3.3%, <RMB2300 ( US$400)
Trade
Exports (number 1):
US 19, Hong Kong 12, Japan 6, South Korea 5
Electrical, computers, apparel, furniture, textiles
Imports ( number 2):
South Korea 10, Japan 9, US 9, Germany 5, Australia 5
Electrical, oil, medical, ore, vehicle, soybean
Structure of China’s Transitional Economy 1
Structure of China’s Transitional Economy
Industrial structure (compare to Japan and S. Korea)
Enterprise groups – SOE State Operated Enterprise
state support/control, losing money, 25% industry
Collective enterprises – independent of state
manager bought company from state
40% industry
TVE Enterprises – Township and Village Enterprises (former collective)
Owned operated by rural - Dynamic element of economy
Structure of China’s Transitional Economy 2
Private Entrepreneurs - small business, 20% industry
services/manufactures Difficult taxes, legality, politics
Foreign Ventures – partnerships, 10% industry
– commerce, industry
Agriculture - backbone of economy 8% econ
employment / food supply
Responsibility system, state out of agriculture
have right to work land
Food price control and some subsidies still exist
Economic Dualism
Industrial v. non-industrial : worker - peasant
Coastal & open cities v. hinterland “backward”
City v. country
urban v. rural
China Inc?
Simplified form
CCP
Business Bureaucracy
(SOE, Coll., TVE) (State Council)
Rural ...
1. The document discusses challenges facing public agricultural extension services in China, including farmers' dissatisfaction, government dissatisfaction, and extension staff dissatisfaction.
2. It then describes a policy experiment conducted in China to introduce a farmer needs-based extension system with bottom-up participation and incentive-based responsibility systems.
3. Initial evaluations found the reformed system improved farmers' access to extension staff and services, though there were still some differences compared to other regional initiatives.
The adverse impact of ecosystem degradation and poor governance on marginaliz...NAAR Journal
This document summarizes a research article that investigates how ecosystem degradation and poor governance negatively impact marginalized people in Bangladesh. It finds that households have lost on average 0.2636 hectares of cropland and 2.59 local fish species have disappeared from local water bodies. Over three-fourths of respondents also perceive that access to local ecosystem services is decreasing. However, over half of respondents pay bribes of $6.82 on average to access ecosystem services. The combination of ecosystem degradation and corruption negatively influences the income, employment, and spending of marginalized communities, making them even more vulnerable while wealthier groups benefit. The study aims to help identify more sustainable economic development approaches in coastal areas that reduce ecosystem impacts and
Influence of risk taking propensity among kenyan community health workersfredrickaila
This document discusses a study that examined how risk-taking propensity and entrepreneurial behavior among Kenyan community health workers influences various health indicators. The study found that community health workers with high risk-taking propensity, as an entrepreneurial trait, achieved better results for health indicators like facility delivery and water treatment compared to those with low entrepreneurial traits. Developing entrepreneurial skills in community health workers could help motivate them given challenges remunerating them through government budgets. The document provides background on community health workers, their important role in improving health access and coverage, and the potential for entrepreneurial activities and small businesses to stimulate rural development and thereby indirectly influence health status.
HFG Rapid Assessment of TB Payment and PFM Systems in Cambodia: Lessons Learn...HFG Project
Despite substantial funding for tuberculosis (TB) prevention and treatment over the last 10 years, both by donors and governments, the worldwide incidence of TB remains troubling. Across lower- and middle-income countries, access to TB services is limited, and the quality of TB services is often substandard. Many countries face questions over the long-term financial sustainability of their efforts to prevent and treat the disease. Cambodia has one of the highest rates of TB in the world, with prevalence and incidence rates sitting at roughly 660 and 437 per 100,000 people, respectively (WHO 2015). Meanwhile, donor funding for TB is declining, the government is struggling to generate new resources for TB, and out-of-pocket spending still accounts for a significant share of health and TB expenditures. Cambodia needs to identify mechanisms to improve the efficiency of TB spending (i.e., mechanisms for spending money wisely). In the short term, this may mean finding ways to improve outputs – such as access, use of services, and quality – for a given level of spending on TB. In the long term, Cambodia and countries facing similar challenges may be interested in finding ways to achieve better outputs with fewer resources.
Cambodia was the subject of one of several country case studies linking strategic TB purchasing with improved efficiency and better outcomes. In May/June 2016, HFG conducted a brief but in-depth assessment of health purchasing/provider payment and PFM systems in Cambodia, to identify rigidities and barriers.
This document summarizes innovative financing and investment in agriculture across Africa. It notes that while agriculture contributes significantly to African economies, the sector remains underdeveloped with small-scale subsistence farming. Innovative financing beyond traditional sources is needed to boost investment in agriculture given constraints like population growth, climate change impacts, and low productivity. Examples of innovative financing mentioned include rural leasing programs, financial education, bundling credit with services, and index insurance. The document also discusses experiences of success, including direct government financing of agriculture as well as public-private partnerships in countries like Nigeria, Kenya, and Ethiopia aimed at job creation, revenue, and food security. Cooperative models are also helping farmers pool resources.
Poverty alleviation and the environmental governancePari Doll
World population has grown significantly from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2003, and is projected to exceed 8 billion by 2025. This rapid population growth, combined with rising incomes in developing countries, is expected to place much greater demands on food and environmental resources. The UN has identified goals around reducing poverty and hunger and ensuring environmental sustainability. South Asia faces particular challenges due to high population density and limited natural resources per capita. Globalization is changing economies in South Asia from agriculture-based to more industrial and service-oriented. This integration risks increased environmental degradation if not managed properly. Strategic policy shifts are needed to empower the poor and engage them as partners in pro-poor environmental governance initiatives.
Factors Influencing Adoption of Improved Agricultural Technologies (IATs) amo...Premier Publishers
The study examined factors influencing adoption of improved agricultural technologies (IATs) among smallholder farmers in rural communities of Kaduna State.The study was conducted in Giwa and Sabon-gari Local Government Areas. Three objectives guided the study. The study adopted a descriptive research design. Purposive sampling technique was employed to select the farming communities for the study. Two rural communities (Bassawa and Shika) were purposely selected out of 16 villages primarily because of their age-long agricultural technologies. The sample size of the study was 200 smallholder farmers made up of 100 farmers from each of the communities which were purposively selected. Primary data were collected using a structured interview schedule, focus group discussion and in-depth interview while the secondary data which relate to the objectives of the study were collected from the office of the Kaduna State Agricultural Development Project (ADP) and National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS), ABU, Zaria. Data were analyzed using frequency and percentages. Results from the findings of the study revealed a positive significant (p<0.05) influence on adoption of agricultural technology and farmers’ educational levels, gender and age also had a positive significant influence on the adoption of technology. Therefore, the following recommendations were made: there is need to increase farmers’ capital and credit facilities and make funds accessible to the farmers. Also, it is therefore imperative for Government to ensure that policies that support the adoption of improved agricultural technologies are put in place.
Similar to The perceived impact of agricultural advice in Ethiopia (20)
The UK will provide up to £4.5 million over 3 years to fund the Sudan Evidence Base Programme. The programme aims to generate a more robust evidence base for decision-makers in Sudan by supporting the production of new statistics, independent monitoring of DFID Sudan programmes, and capacity building activities. It is expected to result in better quality data being available and used to design more effective humanitarian and development interventions that are targeted based on evidence. The programme will work to increase the availability and access to various types of data needed to inform policy and programme decisions in Sudan.
DFID spend on improving tax systems is an indicator that tracks UK development funding allocated to strengthening domestic revenue mobilization in partner countries. It is calculated based on expenditures tagged with the OECD purpose code for "domestic revenue mobilisation" across DFID bilateral and multilateral programs. The baseline data shows DFID spent £32,674,899 on tax system improvements in 2015. Quality assurance involves verifying that included programs match the scope of improving partner country tax administration and policy.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed geographic and socio-demographic correlates of attitudes toward female genital mutilation (FGM) in Sudan using survey data from 2012 to 2014. The study found that:
1) The proportion of respondents with pro-FGM attitudes decreased from 27.5% in 2012 to 18.3% in 2014, with significant variations between states.
2) People with pro-FGM attitudes were more likely to be uneducated, live in rural areas, have a strong tribal identity, and be from Darfur compared to other states.
3) Factors like education level, place of residence, and tribal identity influence cultural norms surrounding FGM and attitudes toward
1. The report assesses the validity and reliability of governance indicators in public financial management (PFM) and corruption using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.
2. For PFM, the Open Budget Survey indicators show reliability and validity, suggesting the data is of good quality. However, the Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability indicators measure similar constructs with weak validity, calling their quality into question.
3. For corruption, aggregate measures from different sources measure the same underlying concept of corruption, providing evidence of their validity. However, the Global Corruption Barometer indicators do not adequately measure the concepts they aim to, indicating room for improvement in their construction.
This document compares perceptions of corruption in Ethiopia and Sudan using two different data sets. In Sudan, the data focuses on identifying corruption as the most important problem facing the country. In Ethiopia, the data examines perceptions of corruption among local state agents. The analysis finds that concerns and perceptions of corruption increase with education and age, and are also influenced by local conditions like quality of services or drought. Regression analysis is used to examine factors influencing perceptions of corruption at the regional and individual levels in both countries.
This document analyzes attitudes toward tribes and tribal leaders in Sudan. It finds that almost half perceive their tribal leaders' decisions to be unfair, and many believe men are favored over women. Perceptions of fairness are linked to both individual and local levels of education. Trust in tribal leaders is associated with perceptions of fairness but not perfectly correlated. The provision of local services also shapes attitudes, with a greater impact from services that facilitate economic change versus only benefiting individuals. The researchers use survey data from over 4,700 Sudanese to examine determinants of attitudes toward tribes and fairness of tribal leaders' decisions.
The perceived impact of agricultural advice in Ethiopia
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The perceived impact of agricultural advice in
Ethiopia
Alexander Hamilton & John Hudson
To cite this article: Alexander Hamilton & John Hudson (2016): The perceived impact of
agricultural advice in Ethiopia, The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, DOI:
10.1080/1389224X.2016.1245151
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2016.1245151
Published online: 23 Oct 2016.
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3. There is evidence of an impact on agricultural efficiency. Dercon et al. (2009) showed
that one visit from a DA raised production growth by 7% and reduced poverty by 10%.
The posting of agricultural extension agents in local communities has improved their
attentiveness to farmers’ needs and constraints, and enhanced the working relationship
between them (Cohen and Lemma 2011). However, others have tended to be more scep-
tical about the impact of extension agents (Lefort 2012; Pender, Place, and Ehui 2006).
Davis et al. (2010) also note that agricultural productivity remains low, inputs are
scarce and expensive, and market and credit access are extremely limited and according
to Buchy and Basaznew (2005), women-focused extension is also limited.
In general, Ethiopia has tended to be viewed unfavorably in terms of agricultural pro-
ductivity (Dercon and Christiaensen 2011; Spielman et al. 2010). However in recent years,
certainly since 2008, there has been a substantial, even dramatic, improvement in cereal
yields. This has been accompanied by a 12.5% expansion in land under cereal production
between 2003 and 2012; hence it is not the case that more marginal land has disappeared
from the picture, raising the average productivity of what is left. Apart from the extensive
changes to the extension system, other changes impacting on Ethiopian agriculture
include substantial transport improvements which between 2000 and 2013 tripled the
length of all-weather surface roads, and a rapid increase in the urban population of
some 3.7 million (Bachewe et al. 2015). Together these have increased the market for com-
mercial crops and partly as a consequence output–input price ratios have increased sub-
stantially. There has also been increased access to credit, which saw the number of active
borrowers rise from about half a million in 2003 to approximately 3.5 million in 2014.
In this paper, we will be focusing on the potential role of the extension system in explain-
ing this recent success. Specifically, we analyze perceptions of the difference that the advice
made to the recipients of that advice with respect to (i) crop yields and (ii) income. Self-
perceptions data have the advantage that the focus is on the difference made by the exten-
sion service advice, whereas actual output and income can change for numerous reasons
unconnected with that advice. To include all the factors that might affect yields and
income is difficult and such data are also likely to be subject to measurement errors. We
assume that the farmers in evaluating the impact of the advice take account of all these
other factors. In addition, because the dependent variable relates to the impact of advice,
we can examine how that impact varies with variables such as the farmer’s age, education
and water resources. Other studies have tended to focus on the impact of variables such
as education on productivity, but not on the effectiveness of advice.
The main research question is whether extension advice benefits farmers both in terms
of their crop yields and income. We expect this to be the case, but the literature is ambig-
uous on the issue. A secondary question is what types of advice work best and in what
context. There is relatively little literature on this. However, there is a literature which
suggests that different types of technology, for example, fertilizers, work better in some
conditions rather than others (Dercon and Christiaensen 2011; Kassie et al. 2010). This
is of relevance, but advice on implementing a technology is different to the implemen-
tation of that technology. In addition part of this research relates to more than a
decade ago and, as already noted, in this time the extension system has substantially
changed, technology has changed and Ethiopia has changed. Hence, there is a need for
new research in this area.
2 A. HAMILTON AND J. HUDSON
4. We will be analyzing the impact of advice on (i) agricultural practices, (ii) land manage-
ment, (iii) fertilizers, (iv) marketing, (v) access to credit facilities and (vi) animal husban-
dry practices. We find that extension agent advice does lead to a perceived positive impact
on both crop yields and income. However, the effectiveness of the advice depends upon
the level of education of the farmer. It also differs between drought-affected and non-
drought-affected lands. The paper proceeds as follows. In the next section we discuss
the relevant literature. We then discuss, from a theoretical perspective, how advice
might impact on farmers and other methodological issues, and we also present the
data. The penultimate section presents the results and finally we conclude the paper.
Background
The literature on the extension program has been somewhat ambivalent in terms of its
impact. Extension services generally have positive impacts on nutrition and poverty
reduction (Dercon et al. 2009). However, their success has been said to be constrained
by weaknesses elsewhere in the system. Hence EEA/EEPRI (2006) argue that distribution
channels and institutions are flawed, the formal seed system has weaknesses, and there is a
lack of markets, both for inputs and outputs. Agents transfer knowledge to farmers, with
relatively little knowledge flow in the reverse direction (Buchy and Basaznew 2005), which
can lead to the knowledge not being tailored to the farmer’s needs. The literature argues
that the extension system has focused on the distribution of standard packages to farmers,
including seeds and commercial fertilizer, credit, soil and water conservation, livestock
and training. Efforts to promote other aspects of sustainable land management have con-
centrated on soil erosion without consideration of the underlying socioeconomic reasons
for low soil productivity (Kassie et al. 2010). As a consequence, advice has been given
which has been unprofitable, risky or irrelevant given the farmer’s resource constraints
(Pender, Place, and Ehui 2006). Lefort (2012) cites research which concludes the extension
program was not much use to farmers. However, Spielman et al. (2010) also note that a
series of reforms have been made to redress these weaknesses.
Berhanu and Poulton (2014) argue that the extension system is used to promote gov-
ernment control, with extension workers facilitating scrutiny and control of activities.
Extension workers engage in non-extension activities, such as administration, credit
repayment and tax collection (Kelemework and Kassa 2006). Apart from diverting their
attention from extension services, this can also strain relationships with local farmers.
In addition, it is claimed that in their allocation of seeds, fertilizers and credit, extension
workers prioritize farmers loyal to the governing coalition. It is also important to stress
that extension agents are not always transmitting knowledge and advice which can
immediately add to the farmer’s productivity. They may also be concerned with societal
impact. For example, in some cases the advice relates to environmental factors (Abegaz
and Wims 2015) for which the farmer may perceive little personal benefit, although
this is not to say that such benefit is absent.
More recent evidence is a little more positive, although still emphasizing that practices
could be better. Elias et al. (2013) found that participation in the extension program
increased productivity by about 20%. Other factors which influenced productivity
included age, male head of household and plot characteristics. Despite this, crop yields
were below the targets set by the extension program. Khan et al. (2014) conclude that
THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSION 3
5. woreda-level spending on agricultural extension workers is associated with higher yields
for major crops and increases the probability that farmers will improve their farming
techniques.
There is relatively little evidence on the relative impact of different forms of advice, but
some related work has been done on the different constraints facing, and the different
technologies used by, farmers. One of the reasons Dercon and Christiaensen (2011)
gave for the poor performance of Ethiopian agriculture was lack of fertilizer use. Lack
of knowledge and skills in adopting modern inputs was only a very minor constraint in
1999, which would suggest only a limited role for extension agent advice in this respect.
Nor was lack of credit deemed a major factor. Fertilized plots were characterized by
greater yields than non-fertilized plots, although not in periods of extreme droughts
and floods. Thus, Dercon and Christiaensen argued that fertilizer use is a high return,
but high risk technology. Kassie et al. (2010) find evidence of a strong impact of land man-
agement practices on agricultural productivity in the low agricultural potential areas. In
the high agricultural potential region, however, fertilizers have a very significant and posi-
tive impact on crop productivity, whereas land management practices have no significant
impact. Fertilizers may be less profitable in such areas due to a lack of soil moisture.
Hence, their analysis raises the important point that the impact of different forms of
advice and increasing knowledge may not be the same in all areas, but vary according
to local conditions.
Methods
We will be analyzing the impact of advice on both crop yields and inccome. For the
moment, we focus on the impact on crop yields (Y), although the analysis for income
follows a similar path. We assume Y to be a function of resources, which are in turn a func-
tion of knowledge:
Yit = Aig(Sit, Lit,Kit, Fit, Wit), (1)
where i denotes the ith farmer and t the time period. Ai denotes overall efficiency with
which the different factors of production are used, that is, it is total factor productivity
(TFP) defined at the level of the individual farmer. In our analysis, we assume that this
is the vehicle by which extension agent advice impacts on output. g(.) can be regarded
as the basic output of the farm independent of the characteristics and expertise of the
farmer. The production function is composed of land (S), labor (L), capital (K), fertilizer
(F) and water (W). The impact of extension agent advice to farmer i (Ei) on output is then
given by
∂Yi
∂Ai
∂Ai
∂Ei
Ei =
6
j=1
∂Yi
∂Ai
∂Ai
∂Eij
Eij = g(Sit, Lit,Kit, Fit, Wit)
6
j=1
∂A
∂Ej
Eij. (2)
This is the combined impact of the six specific types of advice in our analysis.2
Eij is a con-
tinuous measure of the advice given to individual i on advice type j, although we only have
a discrete measure of this, which takes a value of one if advice was given. It has a lower
bound of zero, which is operative when advice of this type is not given. The marginal
impact of any one piece of advice is composed of ∂Ai/∂Eij, the impact of this advice on
4 A. HAMILTON AND J. HUDSON
6. TFP, and secondly, the impact of TFP on output, which is from (1) just g(.). ∂Ai/∂Eij will
depend upon the characteristics of the farm (T). It may also depend upon the character-
istics of the farmer, with more knowledgeable farmers more able to implement the advice
efficiently, although at the same time more knowledgeable farmers may be less likely to
seek advice. In this case, we link knowledge to education (Ed) and age, the latter
through learning by doing. Thus,
∂Ai
∂Eij
= fj(Edi, Agei, Ti, Wi). (3)
The dependent variable is coded 1 if the extension agent advice was perceived as making
no difference, 2 if it made some difference and 3 if it made a lot of difference. The response
lies in the kth category if:
ak−1 , g(.)
6
j=1
fj(.)Eij , ak; k = 1, . . . , m. (4)
In our analysis m = 3. Note that α0 = −∞ and αm = +∞, and hence we estimate just a1 and
a2. Define Zi,k = 1 if g(.) 6
j=1 fj(.)Eij is in the kth category, and otherwise Zi,k = 0. Lin-
earizing g(.) 6
j=1 fj(.)) we can estimate both the coefficients and the dividing points (αk)
between the different categories by ordered probit. The independent variables will include
farm characteristics, individual characteristics and dummy variables operative if a particu-
lar type of advice was given. This suggests a number of hypotheses which we will be
testing:
H1: Extension agent advice impacts positively on both crop yields and income.
H2: The degree of the impact for different types of advice will depend upon the characteristics
of the farmer and the characteristics of their farm.
H3: The degree of impact of this advice will be greater for more educated individuals and also
for older individuals, although we can expect these individuals to be less likely to receive
advice.
H1 reflects our first research question, on whether extension advice benefits farmers in
terms of both income and crop yields. The other two hypotheses relate to our second
research question as to what types of advice work best and under which conditions.
Our theoretical analysis has helped inform both of our research questions. The advice
will make a difference if it is relevant advice and if the farmer, given their own and
their farm’s characteristics, will implement it efficiently. The analysis also emphasizes
that different types of advice will have different impacts, which are linked to differences
in ∂Ai/∂Eij.
Data
The data were obtained from the Woreda and City Benchmarking Survey (WCBS) col-
lected in 2014 using a multi-stage stratified sampling approach based on the remoteness
and food security levels of households. Within each region the sub-sample size was deter-
mined by population (based on census data). Data were collected on 326 kebele in 48
THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSION 5
7. woreda covering the whole of the country.3
In total 7429 individuals were interviewed.
This survey is focused on rural areas. The variables we use are defined in Table 1. Infor-
mation on the characteristics of the plot relates to whether the individual grew crops and
had animals. Most people sampled (60.8%) raised both animals and grew crops, a substan-
tial proportion just grew crops (31.3%) and an even smaller proportion just had animals
(7.9%).
The proportions receiving one, two, three, four, five and six types of advice as listed in
the appendix were 27%, 16%, 17%, 14%, 5% and 13%, respectively. Other advice is feasible,
which is why 8% received none of the types of advice specified. Table 2 shows the
summary data as it varies across individual characteristics. It is noticeable that the
young tend to be more likely recipients of advice, possibly reflecting that they will have
learnt less ‘by doing’. It is also noticeable how the highly educated are more likely to
have received advice on marketing and credit. The final two columns relate to the
impact this advice, in general, has had on crop yields and the individual’s income.4
The
responses ranged from 1 (none) to 3 (a lot). Thus, we assume that output and income
cannot fall as a result of the advice received. The responses to both questions were
fairly enthusiastic, although very slightly more so for crop yields than income. The
biggest gainers in both respects tend to be the better educated. An important question
relates to the role of the advice apparently not included for example, mechanization;
crop protection measures etc.? To an extent they may be subsumed within one of the
other categories, particularly agricultural practices, which as we note from Table 2 was
the most frequently cited form of advice. Any advice which still falls outside these cat-
egories would be picked up by the constant term in the regressions.
Regression results
In Table 3, we present the results relating to the impact on yields.5
Column 1 shows that
advice received on animal husbandry, marketing and land management were all signifi-
cant at the 1% level of significance and fertilizers at the 5% level. Advice on agricultural
Table 1. Data definitions.
Socioeconomic, demographic variables
Age Age in years
Education Coded from 1 (no schooling) to 24 (degree) and 25 above degree
Male Coded 1 ifa male
Family size Number of people currently living in the individual’s household
Plot characteristics
Grows crops Coded 1 if the individual grows crops, otherwise 0
Rears animals Coded 1 if the individual rears animals, otherwise 0
Drought Coded 1 if the individual suffers from regular periods of drought in the sense of a shortage of
drinking water, otherwise 0
Received advice on (coded 1 for yes and 0 no)
Agricultural practices; land management; fertilizer; marketing; credit facilities; animal husbandry
Impact
Crops improve/Income
improves
The difference the above advice has made to the crop yield/income
ranging from 1 (none) to 3 (a lot)
Kebele based variables (average of responses of others in the individual’s locality). Regional dummy variables relate to Tigray,
Amhara, Oromiya, SNNP, Binshangul Gumuz, Afar, Somali and Gambela. Because of the small numbers of people in our
sample who are in Gambela we join this region together with SNNP, the two being adjacent in the south west part of the
country. We also join the second smallest region, Afar, with Tigray, who are adjacent on the northern edge of Ethiopia
6 A. HAMILTON AND J. HUDSON
8. practices was not significant. However being in receipt of advice on credit was significantly
negative. This does not imply that output was lowered as a result of the advice. Rather, it
implies that being in receipt of advice on credit increases the probability of extension agent
advice having no impact. However, this does alert us to a potential problem of endogene-
ity. To the extent that the farmer is the one seeking this advice, rather than being proffered
it by the extension agent or some other person, then it could signal that the individual is in
financial problems. At the very least it reflects an interest by the farmer in gaining access to
credit. The negative sign in the regression may be picking this up. Another aspect of endo-
geneity is that it is possible that the individual selected for the advice is in some way more
able to use it.
Because of this possibility, in the second regression we instrument the advice variables
in a two-stage process. Firstly, we regress the advice variables on all the exogenous vari-
ables present in column 1 plus a series of variables relating to the extent others in the indi-
vidual’s kebele received different forms of advice. That is, taking credit as an example, for
each individual we calculate the average number of people in their kebele, excluding them-
selves, who received advice on credit. These effectively act as instruments. The second
stage of the estimation takes the predicted values from these regressions and re-estimates
the relationships shown in column 1. The results are shown in column 3.2. The main
change is the insignificance of advice on marketing and also on credit. A Hausman test
indicated that the two sets of coefficients were significantly different and hence the
need for an instrumental variable (IV) approach. This two-stage estimation technique is
similar to that employed by Adams, Almeida, and Ferreira (2009). The literature tends
to bootstrap the standard errors (Clarke and Windmeijer 2012) and this has been done.
On each of the 100 iterations of the bootstrap, both stages of the two-stage estimation tech-
nique were estimated. The t statistics reported are based on these standard errors.
In addition to the above, we also estimated the equations using IVs in the context of a
conditional mixed process (cmp) model (Roodman 2011), that is estimating a system
where the different equations can have different kinds of dependent variables. We
assume joint normality of the error terms of the different equations. It is a full system tech-
nique, which takes account of potential correlation between the different error terms in the
equations. There are potentially eight equations in the system, one for each of the advice
variables and two more for the impact variables, that is, the impact on crops and income.
However, this makes considerable demands on the data and we had to simplify the
equations in order to obtain estimates. Firstly, we estimated each of the policy impact
Table 2. Summary data relating to individual characteristics.
Animal
husbandry Credit Marketing Fertilizer
Land
management
Agricultural
practices
Crops
improve
Income
improves
All 0.62 0.291 0.329 0.679 0.524 0.817 2.36 2.3
Young <30 0.631 0.321 0.329 0.731 0.561 0.847 2.37 2.29
Older ≥30 0.612 0.264 0.326 0.634 0.488 0.787 2.35 2.29
Male 0.621 0.278 0.317 0.665 0.525 0.815 2.36 2.3
Highly
educated
0.585 0.342 0.447 0.707 0.523 0.845 2.51 2.41
No education 0.622 0.292 0.313 0.678 0.501 0.804 2.32
2.28
Notes: The final two columns relate to the average response which varied from 1 (none) to 3 (a lot) to the difference the
support has made. All other columns relate to the proportion receiving advice in the different headings.
THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSION 7
9. Table 3. Regression results: impact on crop yields.
Sample Probit: Full 3.1 IV 2 stage Full 3.2 Probit: Full 3.3 Drought 3.4 No drought 3.5 CMP: Full 3.6 Drought 3.7 No drought 3.8
Extension agent advice
Animal husbandry 0.255**
(5.35)
0.4696*
(2.41)
0.4695*
(2.41)
0.9789**
(4.07)
0.1662
(0.52)
0.6085**
(5.27)
0.6273**
(4.44)
0.648**
(3.22)
Credit −0.2344**
(4.77)
0.0069
(0.03)
−0.0284
(0.12)
−0.2431
(0.95)
0.9285*
(2.11)
−0.3592*
(2.42)
−0.1748
(1.03)
−0.2966*
(2.18)
Marketing 0.4172**
(8.76)
0.3156
(1.72)
0.4122*
(2.38)
−0.0737
(0.35)
0.9992**
(2.91)
0.5683**
(4.45)
−0.1576
(0.93)
1.452**
(13.77)
Fertilizers 0.0884*
(1.98)
0.8863**
(3.68)
1.006**
(4.24)
0.8349*
(2.46)
0.7405*
(2.01)
0.8513**
(7.69)
0.9966**
(8.28)
0.7314**
(4.29)
LM – land management 0.2874**
(6.47)
0.6833**
(3.09)
AG – agricultural practices 0.0756
(1.30)
0.1408
(0.61)
LM + AG 0.8374**
(2.69)
0.3536
(0.73)
2.378**
(4.74)
1.134**
(5.82)
0.3289
(0.74)
1.222**
(4.67)
Individual characteristics
Log age 0.2891**
(4.52)
0.1094
(1.62)
0.102
(1.51)
−0.0723
(0.83)
0.1991
(1.79)
0.0518
(0.78)
−0.0664
(0.75)
0.1341
(1.33)
Education 0.0264**
(5.26)
0.0244**
(4.05)
0.0249**
(4.16)
0.0192*
(2.34)
0.0236**
(2.91)
0.0276**
(5.61)
0.0262**
(3.86)
0.0122
(1.67)
Male −0.0538
(1.52)
Log family size −0.0785
(1.78)
Farm characteristics
Crops 1.316**
(12.81)
0.6006**
(3.43)
0.4652**
(3.04)
0.058
(0.26)
0.3388
(1.39)
−0.2539
(1.60)
−0.3369
(1.18)
0.279
(1.14)
Animals −0.0251
(0.51)
−0.3715**
(2.91)
−0.3685**
(2.83)
−0.3783*
(2.35)
−0.4832*
(2.50)
−0.1909*
(2.16)
−0.2073
(1.94)
−0.1815
(1.22)
Constant −1.562**
(5.20)
−1.232**
(2.97)
−2.250**
(4.99)
Estimated cutoff points
Cutoff point 1 ˆa1 0.2798
(1.06)
−0.7927**
(2.66)
−0.7646*
(2.56)
−0.9719*
(2.26)
−0.3325
(0.69)
Cutoff point 2 ˆa2 2.573**
(9.65)
1.477**
(4.91)
1.503**
(5.00)
1.570**
(3.65)
1.801**
(3.71)
Observations 5192 5185 5185 2928 2257 5192 2932 2260
Log likelihood −3733 −3768 −3770 −2010 −1534 −12516 −7489 −4612
X2
1228 1089 1089 380.9 850.8 355571 159143 6384
Notes: Equation 3.1 estimated by ordered probit, 3.2–3.5 by a two stage instrumental variable ordered probit with bootstrapped standard errors, 3.6–3.8 by a conditional mixed processor estimator
with a binary dependent variable. (.) denotes t statistics and **/* denotes significance at the 1% and 5% levels. Regional dummy variables included in all regressions.
8A.HAMILTONANDJ.HUDSON
10. variables separately. Secondly, we used binomial probit for the impact equations rather
than ordered probit, with the variable differentiated between a lot of impact (coded 1)
and some or no impact. Finally, we combined two of the advice variables together, that
is land management and agricultural practices. These potentially relate to all farmers
and also to farming per se rather than other aspects of the business and have a reasonably
high correlation. The cmp estimator is complex, but the interpretation of the coefficients
and t statistics is as with techniques such as OLS.
The results are shown in column 3.6 and are similar to previously. The main difference
is the significance, at the 1% level, of the advice variable relating to both agricultural prac-
tices and land management and also marketing advice. In column 3.3, we replicate these
using the two stage approach used in 3.2. Comparing 3.3 and 3.6, the only significant
difference relates to the negative coefficient on the credit advice variable. Using both tech-
niques provides a robustness check on the findings and the cmp results largely confirm
those of the two stage IV approach.6
Taking the equations as a whole, family size is
never significant, nor gender and were dropped after the first equation.7
More educated
people and older people tend to have benefited more from the advice than others, although
the latter only in 3.1. However, in the cmp regression the variable relating to crop growers
is no longer positively significant.
The literature has suggested that the impact of advice may vary according to the con-
ditions facing the individual, for example soil moisture. We do not have in the database a
measure of this nor rainfall in the kebele, but we do have a variable which asked the indi-
vidual whether they were usually subject to water shortages for drinking at some time in
the year. Slightly over 51% responded that they were subject to such shortages. We now
split the sample into those who were and were not subject to such water shortages.
Columns 3.4 and 3.5 relate to those who were and were not subject to water shortages.
The positive impact of marketing advice is limited to the latter as is that of land management
and agricultural practices. However, the negative impact of credit advice is evident only for
those in non-drought areas. Finally, we note that animal husbandry advice is only significant
for those in areas of drought and advice on fertilizers is significant in both areas. These
equations were estimated using the two stage approach. Columns 3.7 and 3.8 show the
results of using the cmp estimator. The main difference is the positive significance of
animal husbandry advice in both areas. In Table 4, we look at the results pertaining to
income. The results are very similar. This was to be expected, but it was always possible
that because of expenses incurred in implementing the advice, a positive impact on yield
would not translate into a positive impact on income. The main difference to Table 3 is
the significantly negative coefficient on credit advice in both areas, implying that receivers
of such advice are significantly less likely to have perceived a beneficial impact on income.
In addition, those with either crops or animals were also less likely to perceive benefits.
Because the regression is limited to those who received advice, the possibility exists for
sample selection bias. When we tested for this in the two-stage IV regressions the evidence
was mixed. The inverse Mills ratio is insignificant in the income regression, but significant
in the crop yield regression, although not in drought-affected areas. The significance of the
coefficients reported in Table 3 for the full sample for crop yields did not change and nor
did those in the non-drought regression. The main difference in both these regressions was
an increase in the size of the coefficient on animal husbandry advice. The sample selection
equation included a kebele based variable reflecting the number in the kebele, other than
THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSION 9
12. the respondent, receiving advice. Apart from this, older and more educated people were
less likely to receive advice. Men were more likely to receive advice, as were those in
large families and those with animals or crops. This is potentially consistent with those
who report a bias in extension advice towards men (Buchy and Basaznew 2005). A variable
differentiating drought from non-drought areas was insignificant.
In Table 5, we show the probabilities of the respondent finding that the advice made ‘a
lot of difference’ under different scenarios. These are obtained from the two stage instru-
mental ordered probit regressions. They are based on a 45-year-old individual with crops,
but no animals. The regional variables are averaged according to sample population. The
first element in the first column shows the probability for someone with the above charac-
teristics who receives none of the specific types of advice listed and has no schooling. The
second column relates to someone with an education corresponding to ‘grade 8’, and this
raises the probability to 0.0627. In the second row, we have the probabilities for someone
of the above characteristics who received advice on animal husbandry. These are consider-
able higher, reflecting the effective nature of this advice. However, the most effective forms
of advice are on fertilizers and the combined advice on land management and agricultural
practices. The next two columns relate solely to farmers in drought areas. The most impor-
tant forms of advice are on animal husbandry and fertilizers, with land management and
agricultural practices being third. This is in sharp contrast to the non-drought areas, where
the most effective advice is on agricultural planning and land management. The results for
income are also shown. The main difference is the increased impact of marketing advice.
Some of these impacts look quite small, although it should be borne in mind that they do
relate to the probability of having made ‘a lot of difference’ and also that multiple forms of
advice are often given which substantially increases this probability.
Conclusions and policy implications
With respect to the main research questions, we find that extension agent advice impacts
positively on both crop yields and income as reflected by the farmers’ own perceptions.
Table 5. Probabilities of advice have a ‘lot of difference’ under different scenarios.
Full sample Drought areas Non-drought areas
Education None Grade 8 None Grade 8 None Grade 8
Crop yield
None 0.040 0.063 0.059 0.082 0.0036 0.0067
Animal husbandry 0.099 0.144 0.280 0.341 0.0059 0.0105
Marketing 0.089 0.131 0.051 0.072 0.0458 0.0702
Credit 0.037 0.059 0.036 0.051 0.0394 0.0612
Fertilizer 0.226 0.299 0.233 0.289 0.0259 0.0415
Planning and land man. 0.179 0.243 0.113 0.150 0.3790 0.4620
Income
None 0.059 0.080 0.087 0.110 0.0146 0.0186
Animal husbandry 0.214 0.264 0.508 0.561 0.0445 0.0545
Marketing 0.129 0.166 0.088 0.110 0.1520 0.1760
Credit 0.050 0.069 0.031 0.041 0.0431 0.0529
Fertilizer 0.163 0.206 0.211 0.251 0.0325 0.0403
Planning and land man. 0.204 0.253 0.082 0.104 0.4430 0.4820
Notes: These probabilities are based on regressions 3.3–3.5 and 4.3–4.5. They relate to a 45-year-old individual with crops,
but no animals in a typical region. They show the probability of a single type of advice making ‘a lot of difference’ to crop
yield and income.
THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSION 11
13. This confirms the first hypothesis and confirms the more favorable findings of Elias et al.
(2013) and Khan et al. (2014), rather than, frequently older, research such as Pender, Place,
and Ehui (2006) and Lefort (2012). We also find such advice to have a varying impact
according to both the farmer’s characteristics, such as education, and the characteristics
of the farm. The pattern of significance suggests that agricultural advice yields its best
results when targeted at those with the ability to use it, that is, the better educated.
However, it is also suggestive perhaps that the advice given to less well educated people
needs to be different, made simpler or given in more detail. This helps answer the
second of our research questions and partially supports the third hypothesis, although
we find only limited evidence of impact being related to age.
There are also significant differences in the impact of advice between different areas.
This again relates to the second research question and provides confirmation of our
second hypothesis. In drought-affected areas, advice on animal husbandry and fertilizers
is most effective. In non-drought areas, advice on marketing and land management and
agricultural practices is best. The impact of marketing on crop yields is plausibly an indir-
ect one whereby farmers respond to increased prices and a greater ability to sell output by
increased effort. Our findings are consistent with our theoretical analysis which suggested
that advice had the greatest potential in areas and conditions most conducive to applying
the advice. This differential impact of advice in different areas is consistent with the results
of Kassie et al. (2010). However, they find that advice on land management practices
works best in low agricultural potential areas which is slightly at odds with our findings.
In addition, they found advice on fertilizers to have a very significant and positive impact
on crop productivity in high potential areas, whereas we found this advice worked well in
both types of areas. Why the differences with Kassie et al.? Firstly, there is the time period.
Their data relate to 1998 and 2001. Ours is more recent. Technology moves on and what
might have been the case over a decade ago may no longer be the case today. Secondly,
their analysis relates to usage of fertilizer, minimum tillage, etc. Our data relate to exten-
sion agent advice on these technologies. The advice may feasibly be to use less fertilizer, or
to use it in a different manner. Thirdly, some technologies may take several years before
they have an impact. Hence Schmidt and Tadesse (2014) conclude that that sustainable
land and water management infrastructure in the Ethiopian highlands has a positive
impact on the value of production only seven years after construction. This might be
too long a time frame for our results to be picking up. Finally, there may be a difference
between their split of high and low productivity areas and ours of drought and non-
drought areas.
In addition, more educated individuals and older people were significantly less likely to
receive advice. The kind of advice received also differed between drought and non-drought
areas and also varied with the size of the family, education and gender, suggesting that
advice is targeted rather than given randomly. Thus, this does not support the observation
made by Kassie et al. (2010) that the advice showed little variation across different
environments nor responded to household-specific factors. This again confirms part of
the third hypothesis. Thus in terms of the three hypotheses we set out to test, all three
have been largely substantiated.
Expanding further on our second research question, some advice has been found to
be more effective than others. In virtually, all the regressions, advice on credit appears
to have the least positive impact on both yields and income, especially the latter. This
12 A. HAMILTON AND J. HUDSON
14. may be linked to credit being heavily under the control of the government and possibly
being used for political purposes (Berhanu and Poulton 2014). Advice on credit is also
almost always given in tandem with other advice and the combined effect, as can be
seen from the coefficients in Tables 3 and 4, is generally positive, at least for yields.
Nonetheless, it does raise questions about the recent emphasis on credit (Bachewe
et al. 2015).
We did not have enough data to investigate whether different types of advice work
better in tandem. But a variable equal to the number of types of advice given, although
negative, gave only weak evidence for declining returns with respect to the amount of
advice given. Hence, advice appears best if given on several dimensions with the impact
being largely cumulative. This is consistent with Teklewold et al.’s (2013) conclusion
that different types of sustainable land practices work best when adopted in combination
rather than isolation.
There is an important policy issue in that extension system advice can be unsuccessful
either because the problem lies with the ‘extension message’ or in the way the message is
transmitted. Too often the latter tends to get the blame for lack of impact while the
problem may be with the ‘advice’ or message. In a sense that is the more serious
problem in indicating that the advice is flawed to begin with, whereas retraining can alle-
viate problems with the messenger. Our analysis may be the start of a process of determin-
ing where the problem lies, if indeed there is a problem. In this context, our results
tentatively show that with much of the advice being effective in at least some contexts
the messenger is at least partially exonerated. This also links in to the current debate on
the relative roles of R&D and technology transfer (Anandajayasekeram 2011). Our
results point to the importance of the latter, in the specific context of extension agents.
But often new knowledge comes from R&D and the roles of research centers remain of
potential importance and here perhaps the linkages between agricultural research
centers and extension agents could be improved (Abegaz and Wims 2015; Teshome, de
Graaff, and Kassie 2015). Similarly, the use of regression analysis to quantify the impact
of extension agent advice has provided results which may be potentially useful to improv-
ing and informing extension agents’ advice in part by internalizing the results of this type
of analysis within the formal education system.
Notes
1. http://www.farmingfirst.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Global-Forum-for-
Rural-Advisory-Services_Fact-Sheet-on-Extension-Services.pdf.
2. There are types of advice given in addition to the six specified, but for the purpose of the
theory we focus on the impact of these six types of advice.
3. The kebele is the lowest administrative tier in Ethiopia’s federal structure, below the woreda.
4. If the question had been on what had happened to yields and income, then just focusing on
those who received advice would be problematic. But, we cannot ask a similar question of
those who did not receive advice as the question we are analysing pertains to the impact
the advice had on yields and income. Obviously, this question cannot be asked of those
who did not receive advice.
5. The constant term has been absorbed into the cut-off points for the ordered probit
regression.
6. The coefficients cannot be readily compared as the one relates to ordered probit and the other
to probit.
THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSION 13
15. 7. They were however significant at times in the equations relating to policy advice, rather than
impact and have been retained in those. For example, land management advice tended to
increase with family size, which may reflect the size of the holding, and credit advice declines
with family size. There was weaker evidence of credit and marketing advice declining for
men.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the valuable comments of referees and the editor.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by the Department for International Development (DFID).
Notes on contributors
Dr Alexander Hamilton is a political economist, and evaluation specialist with significant
academic and field experience in fragile states. He has numerous publications and research
experience in the fields of corruption, impact evaluations, public financial management,
economic policy, and econometrics. He also has field experience from work conducted
in Ethiopia, Senegal, Sudan, and Yemen. He has an MPA in Public and Economic
Policy form the London School of Economics and a DPhil (PhD) from the University
of Oxford.
Professor John Hudson studied at the Universities of London and Warwick. He is a pro-
fessor of economics at the University of Bath. He has published more than 100 journal
papers in leading journals in all areas of economics and the wider social sciences, but in
particular development economics.
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