The penguin dictionary of islam by azim nanji with razia nanji1

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Dictionary of
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PENGUIN REFERENCE LIBRARY
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The Penguin Dictionary of
ISLAM
Azim Nanji
with Razia Nanji
penguin books

211
223
Contents
Introduction
Guide to the Dictionary and Acknowledgements
Maps
vi
ix
xi
The Penguin Dictionary of Islam
1
Chronology ofMuslim History
Bibliography

Introduction
Introduction I
ThevillageofLikoni, where Igrewup, sits by the sea looking out at the Indian Ocean
channel that forms the entrance to the modem Kenyan port of Mombasa, on the
eastern coast of Africa.
Like hundreds of such settlements dotted along trade routes that crossed oceans
and lands, Likoni was both rooted in the culture of the soil where it grew and at the
same time open to influences and peoples that plied their trade along the coast. The
people of the Swahili coast, of which Likoni and Mombasa are a part, came into
contact with Muslims from the Arabian coast as early as the eighth century. Archi
tectural remains ofplaces of prayer and of small settlements reveal this early contact
and its growing influence upon the indigenous people of the region. When Ibn
Battuta, the famous fourteenth-century traveller, arrived in the region he found
small but thriving Muslim communities that had emerged following contact with
peoples of African, Arab and Asian origin.
It is this cosmopolitanism that defined my experience of growing up as a Muslim.
We spoke Swahili, the common language that linked the population, as well as our
own respective mother tongues, and were becoming increasingly acquainted
through English with the heritage of the West and its modem forms of knowledge
and education. Mosques, jamat khanas, temples, churches as well as traditional
African places of gathering shared this cosmopolitan space.
It is, of course, easy to idealize childhood, but this strong memory of a triple
heritage, and the relationships and friendships it offered, remain for me the central
elements of a Muslim upbringing: acceptance of diversity, tolerance for pluralism
and a strong respect for the autonomy of each religious community but with enough
permeability to enable us to find commonalities within this shared space.
These memories jostle now with a retrospective sense of differences between reli
gious groups and lurking racial divides, but rather than retreat into separatism and
unthinking parochialism, our Muslim education fostered mutual acceptance and
openness. The daily assembly held in our schools included readings from the scrip
tures of many friths, and in the classroom Muslims sat alongside Hindus, Sikhs,
Zoroastrians and Christians.
In historical terms, this was not an exceptional experience. Muslims in the past
often lived and interacted in cosmopolitan worlds, whether in Andalusia, Central
Asia, India or the Mediterranean. It is often forgotten that the heritage of classical
antiquity, ofAristotle, Galen, Plato and Socrates, is also the heritage ofMuslims, who
translated, interpreted and further developed their writings, which in their Latin
form became the inheritance ofpre-Renaissance Europe. During the Convivencia of
Andalusia, which began in the eighth century, Muslims,Jews and Christians lived in
peaceful coexistence for almost 800 years before wars and the Spanish Inquisition
put an end to such cultural tolerance and understanding for centuries.
The academic career I have chosen has led me to explore how major religious and
cultural traditions travel across time and space. Over the centuries the followers of
many religions have engaged in conflict, seeking often to dominate if not to erase
others. However, in its finer moments, religion has transcended difference and
forged creativity through art, architecture, literature and philosophy - a shared
language that enhances the greater human landscape. In our time, it can be argued
that to rekindle such a spirit has become a matter of urgent necessity. Muslims, and
those among whom theylive, find themselves awkwardly placed within a world that
perceives Muslims and others to be caught up in a "clash of civilizations", and so has
formed a generalized and homogenized theological image of both the religion and
the diverse histories of those who practise it. Militant groups, often led by equally
militant leaders, have gained prominence and visibility beyond that warranted by
their numbers or influence. In many cases they are simply bent on conflict and
deluded by 'nostalgia' for a non-existent past. The threats and alienations they
perceive may be partially rooted in the conditions of our time, as well as the accel
erated pace of change and globalization, but by promoting violence and wilful self
destruction they have alienated most of the world, including the majority of their
fellow Muslims who are increasingly distancing themselves from this minority. In
part this stems from the realization that, historically, Muslim society thrives when it
is committed and open to knowledge and able to maintain a balance between dif
ferent communities of interpretation and struggles when it becomes narrow and
rigid, such as when one particularly assertive faction has sought to impose its views
and practices to the exclusion of all others.
Most Muslims live in what is called the developing world, many in some of its
poorest countries. The inheritance of the nation-state, following a long and turbu
lent period of European rule and the subsequent Cold War, seriously disrupted the
development of many of these societies and dramatically affected their quality of
life. The search for state boundaries, workable forms of governance and sustainable
economic development presents major challenges, particularly when the colonial
legacy includesbitter territorial divisions and recriminations, as in the Middle East,
Kashmir and parts of the former Soviet Union and former Yugoslavia. Poverty, war
and lack of security have also led to the displacement of populations. Refugees as
well as migrants have sought to leave their ancestral homelands for new homes in
theWest.Their unfamiliarity with societies informed by secular traditions has often
compounded the difficulties of adaptation and integration into new and starkly
different cultural and social environments. Such issues cannot be viewed simply
through a theological lens that erroneously focuses on some congenital deficiency
amongMuslims which prevents them from taking their place in the modem world.
History contains many examples of Muslims bothbuilding and contributing to

Introduction
societies, with and among others. The crises affecting parts of the Muslim world
today have specific origins and facets which will have to be addressed individually
rather than exacerbating old tensions through clumsy and ill-conceived interven
tions. The removal of ignorance about each other’s histories is a necessary first step
and can act as a cultural bridge to remind us of achievements as well as mistakes.
This historical dictionary thus sets out to provide through its entries a perspective
on the historical, intellectual, spiritual and institutional pluralism that has
developed among Muslims over fourteen centuries while examining regional and
national developments. It also illustrates the evolution of Muslim thought and
societies in local as well as contemporary global contexts to reveal the diversity
that exists among individual Muslims, their traditions and various historical
periods. It includes theology, law, philosophy and science, the arts and literature,
education and learning, and architecture and the environment. It also seeks to
touch upon the dramatic changes that have affected and continue to be reflected
in all aspects of Muslim life and society.
In summary, being 'Muslim' has, in historical terms, reflected a broad engagement
with the material as well as the spiritual dimensions of life, and a commitment to
achieving a balance between dimensions of belief and faith and the contexts and
conditions of daily life. This ongoing process evolved differently as historical and
geographical conditions changed and Muslim communities arose in different
regions of the world. This accounts for both the diversity one finds within the
faith and also the plurality of thought and institutions that has developed over time.
The legacy and presence ofMuslims is today everywhere. As questions continue to
arise about the relevance and significance of this historical heritage and the intensi
fication of theological forces that are often the cause of conflict, it may be worth
reminding ourselves that, while the Quran addresses personal as well as collective
goals, it does not reduce the idea of a faith community simply to prescriptions and
attributes. Rather, in connecting human values and social integration, it points to a
larger, more cosmopolitan ethic:
The good does not lie in turning your faces to the East or the West. It consists in belief
in God, the Final Day, Angels, Books, and the Prophets. It is to give out of love for Him,
from your cherished possessions, to your family, to orphans and those in need, and
the refugee, those who ask for help and for those living in slavery. It is those who pray
and are giving, honour their word and are steadfast and patient in the midst of
adversity, hardship and peril. They are the people of moral excellence. (Quran 2:177)
Azim Nanji
October 2007
k dictionary of this kind is essentially a work of synthesis, accessible to the general
reader but resting on scholarship that draws on primary as well as secondary sources.
Our debt to this long standing and still developing tradition is reflected partially in
the Bibliography, which identifies and recommends those works available in the
English language.
The Penguin Dictionary ofIslam reflects the generally accepted forms of transliter
ation ofthe terms but without diacriticals. Cross references are used to guide readers
where there are English terms and equivalents from the Muslim traditions. A chron
ology enables the reader to see selected major events and turning points in Muslim
history.
The synthesis is also the outcome of many years of teaching and lecturing in
different parts of the world and my first debt of gratitude is to the different audi
ences, primarily enthusiastic but patient university students, for whom Islam had
to be often summarized and synthesized in weeks if not days and hours. Then there
are academic colleagues, teachers and friends from across the world who, in our
interaction, have offered their insights and helped to sharpen my own understand
ing, awareness and expressions. Over the last ten years the Institute of Ismaili
Studies has been my academic home and I am very grateful to all those who during
that time made it a richly rewarding and stimulating environment for scholarship
and learning.
Some individuals gave specific help during the preparation of this work: Susan
Lewis and Fayaz Alibhai in Florida; Helga Haack, Alnoor Merchant, Khadija Lalani
and Dinah Manisty of the Institute's Library and Gurdofarid Miskinzoda, who
provided very helpful research assistance and also assisted with the Bibliography.
Many thanks to the various editors at Penguin who took a major interest in this
work, starting with Nigel Wilcockson during its early stages, to Kristen Harrison,
who has helped to bring it through its final stages, and to Trevor Horwood for his
careful copy-editing.
I am particularly grateful to the Aga Khan Trust for Culture for permission to
reproduce artefacts and images from their very significant and rich collection,
many of which will be part of the new Aga Khan Museum in Toronto.
We have dedicated this workto our parents. While their experiences had exposed
them to only a part of the global Muslim heritage, they inspired a passion and

—-— L:
grow in know-
all those
ary
respect for what they could not know, and taught us how we might -
ledge and awareness and more significantly to respect the heritage^ -
amongst whom we lived and those who had lived before us We hnnf ‘
captures that spirit. * nOpe the
Azim Nanji
Razia Nanji
January 2008
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Abbasids Muslim dynasty whose period of rule, in varying degrees of dominance,
lasted from 750 to 1258. They came to power claiming descent through an uncle of
the Prophet Muhammad, al-Abbas. After claiming that the then ruling dynasty, the
umayyads, had become unjust and decadent, the leaders of the movement seized
power through a series ofbattles in Persia and Syria, promising a return to justice and
legitimate rule. One of the caliphs, al-Mansur (754-775), built the city of Baghdad,
which became the capital of the dynasty. The reign of harun al-rashid (789-809) is
generally regarded as ushering in a period of significant cultural development
marked by a flowering in the arts, literature, architecture and science. Over time
the dynasty dissolved into a number of petty principalities, as other more powerful
dynasties came to be established in Egypt and Spain. In 1258 the Mongol invasion
led to the sacking of Baghdad. One of the relatives of the last Abbasid caliph of
Baghdad was installed by the then mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (reigned
1260-1277) as caliph in Egypt with the title of al-Mustansir in 1261. However, the
caliph and his successors had little influence in the affairs ofthe state and remained
powerless, ceremonial houses. The decline in power and fortune led to the eventual
disestablishment of the dynasty.
Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Qadlr (1796-1854) Noted Malay scholar and writer. He is
regarded as a pioneer of Malay literature dealing with Muslim themes. His most
famous work, Hayat Abdullah (his memoirs), is useful for the historical references
and hispersonal opinion on historical developments. His fame also rests on his work
on Malay prose, which ultimately catapulted Malay into the official language of the
peninsula.
Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttallb (545-570) Fatherofthe Prophet Muhammad. He
diedshortlybefore his son'sbirth. Thevery fewdetails that we have on Abd Allah are
connected with his aborted sacrifice by his father (the grandfather of Muhammad).
Literature on the biography of the Prophet includes what little is known about his
father and his marriage to amina bint wahb (the mother of Muhammad).
Abd Allah al-Mahdi (873-934) First of the fatimid imams and caliphs, who laid
the foundations ofa new state in North Africa in 909, and founded as his capital the
city of Mahdiya in present-day Tunisia.
Abd al Aziz Ibn Saud (18801953) Founderand first ruler ofthe modem kingdom

Abd alMajld I_________________________________________________________________
Abu Bakr
of saudi araiia. After capturing Riyadh in 1902, he was able through a series of
alliances and battles to establish Saudi rule in the region of Najd. Subsequently his
supporters, inspired by the teachings of Muhammad abd al-wahhab, were able to
expel the ottomans and conquer the hijaz. A unified kingdom, with Abd al-Aziz as
lang, was established in 1932. With the discovery of oil in 1937-8 and the granting of
oil concessions, the new kingdom became an important factor in international
affairs as its economy flourished and influence spread. Members of the family con
tinue to play a key role as the ruling elite of the Kingdom.
Abd al Majid I SttTANZIMAT.
traditions to the exclusion of other historical exegesis and schools of interpretation.
It also calls for the forcible elimination of practices not in conformity with this
understanding of Islam.
Abdulmecit I See tanzimat.
Abdulmecit II See abd al-majid 11.
Abdur Rauf al-SIngkill or Teungku Kuala (c. 1615-1693) He is regarded as the
first scholar ofthe Malay/Indonesian archipelago to provide a major commentary of
the Quran in Malay. He was a member of a Sufi order and was a leading Muslim
scholar in the court of aceh.
Abd al Majid II (1868-1944) Known as Abdulmecit II in Turkish. Last of the line of
ottoman caliphs. He was elected by the Great National Assembly as caliph on 1
November 1922. The same Assembly deprived him of the title by abolishing the
Caliphate on 3 March 1924. He died in exile in Paris.
Abim A Muslim youth movement. Founded in Malaysia in the early 1970s, its
programme ofyouth involvement focused on reinforcing Muslim identity to mobi
lize efforts in various fields such as education, culture, science and economic life for
Abd Manaf Seeabu talib.
men and women. Among its most active members and leaders have been prominent
M
I
litical figures, such as Anwar ibrahim, whose leadership enabled this movement
Abd al-Qadlr al Jllanl (1077-1166) Muslim scholar and preacher. He is credited
with founding the Sufi qadiriyya order. After his death, Abd al-Qadir's followers
ascribed mirades to him and began the practice of tracing his spiritual genealogy
back to the Prophet. His most famous work is the Revelations ofthe Unseen (Futuh al-
ghayb) and his mausoleum in Baghdad is a major devotional centre and site of
visitation.
Abd al-Rahman III (891-961) The most famous of the umayyad rulers of Spain (see
al-andalus), Abd al-Rahman III established his rule in cordoba and declared him
self to be a caliph in 912. His reign, spanning more than fifty years, is generally
regarded as a time of political and cultural attainment and among the most suc
cessful periods ofUmayyad rule in the country. By the time he died he had managed
to extend and consolidate his authority in Andalusia and to create a wealthy and
powerful state with considerable prestige. As a result of his efforts Cordoba became
an important metropolis rivalling the great cities of the time.
Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn (1703-1792) Muslim reformer and founder of
wahhabism. He was bom in Najd to a family of religious scholars. Following a
preparationconsistingoftraditional education in Quranic and legal sciences accord
ing to the Hanbali School of Sunnism (see schools of Islamic law), he travelled to
Medina where he was introduced to a stricter interpretation of the Hanbali doctrine
and the teachings of ibn taymiyya (d. 1328). Influenced by this teaching and some of
the scholars ofMedina, Abd al-Wahhab began preaching against many Sufi and Shia
practices anddoctrines. Theconversion ofa tribal chief to his views and his marriage
to one ofthe chiefs daughters allowed him to create an alliance through which his
teachings were spread more widely. Political support of Muhammad ibn Saud (d.
»!•
1765) enabled Abd al-Wahhab to promote and even enforce his views more widely
across the Arabian peninsula, and a significant number of followers had been drawn
to the cause by the time of his death. His work Kitab al-Tawhid outlines his main
teaching and argues for a more literal reading of Quranic verses and prophetic
to remain a strong force in the political life of modem Malaysia.
Abkhaz A people living in western Caucasia on the Black Sea. They came under
Muslim influence during the time of the ottoman empire. A small population of
Muslims has survived in the region under successive Russian and then Soviet
regimes until the present time. It is currently regarded as a part of Georgia, a former
republic within the Soviet Union.
abortion The Quran expressly forbade the pre-Islamic practice of burying
unwanted female children alive. In general, most Muslims, in accordance with
the Quranic principle that human life is sacred, consider abortion as unethical,
except where a mother's life or the family's welfare may be endangered. Moreover,
even though scholars have differed over the nature of the fetus, they agree that God
has endowed it with the right to both life and inheritance. There continues to be
discussion and debate over the question of therapeutic abortion, which is accepted
by most Muslim scholars and supported by the policies of most Muslim states.
Abraha Sixth-century Christian king from southern Arabia. According to Muslim
tradition he led an abortive expedition against m ecca in the 'Year of the Elephant' (c.
570), so called because of the use of elephants in the invasion. He is said to have built
a magnificent church in Sana, Yemen.
Abraham Called Ibrahim in the Quran, he is considered in Islam to be a major
prophet. He preached belief in One God and combated the idolatry of his father and
the people. He founded a sanctuary for the worship of God at the site of the ka'ba.
Abraham’s commitment to sacrifice his son is commemorated by Muslims at the end
of the period of the hajj, the annual pilgrimage, with the celebration of id al-adha.
Abu Bakr (c. 570-634) First ofthe four rightly guided caliphs. According to Sunni
Muslimtradition, he assumed stewardship ofthe Muslimcommunityafterthe death
of the Prophet Muhammad. One of the early converts to the teachings of the

Abu Blihr Amr ibn Uthman
Aceh
Prophet, Abu Bakr is regarded as a very dose companion of the Prophet, accom
panyinghim on the hijra to Medina in 622 and leading the pilgrimage in 631. When
the Prophet became ill, Abu Bakr led the congregational prayers on his behalf. His
daughter, Aisha, was married to the Prophet Abu Bakr died only two years after
becoming caliph. Because ofhis loyalty to the Prophet and his devotion to Islam, he
is known as 'the sincere and trusted one' (al-Siddiq).
Abu Sufyan (d. c. 653) A prominent leader and merchant in Mecca who belonged
to the dan of quraysh. Abu Sufyan opposed the Prophet Muhammad and also
commanded the army that fought the Muslims during the battle of Uhud in 625.
He subsequently negotiated peace and became a Muslim. His daughter was later
married to the Prophet. His son muawiyya is prominent in Muslim history as the first
umayyad caliph.
Abu Blshr Amr Ibn Uthman See sibawayhi.
Abu Tallb (d. 619) Uncle and guardian of the Prophet Muhammad and father of
Ali, the first Shia imam. He is also called Abd Manafand is said to have held the office
Abu Dharr al Ghaffari (d. 652) Companion of the Prophet and early convert.
Most commonly known by the name ofJundub ibn Junada. He is believed to have
been among the first converts to Islam. He is highly regarded for his piety and his
asceticism and as a transmitter of traditions from the Prophet. Traditions on his
authority are included in the Sunni collections of Muslim and al-bukhari.
of provider of food and water for pilgrims to mecca. He was protective of Muham
mad at a time when the rest of the Meccans were intent on persecuting him and his
death constituted a great loss of support for the Prophet.
Abu al-Faraj al Isfahan! (897-967) Author and historian who is acknowledged
for his famous collection the Kitab al-Aghani (Books ofSongs), a history of poets and
their lives which was subsequently put to music. The work is widely regarded as
having had a significant influence on the further development of Arabic literature
and culture.
Abu Hanlfa al-Numan (699-767) Founder of the Sunni Hanafi school of islam ic
law. He studied in Medina with jafar al-sadiq, a Shia imam, and is credited with
developing the use of qiyas (analogical reasoning) in legal writings. His teachings
constituted the basis of what would eventually become the Hanafi tradition of legal
Abu Yazid al-Bistaml (d. 874) Also known as Bayazid al-Bistami, he is among the
major Sufi figures ofthe ninth century. His preserved statements about the nature of
religious experience represent a celebrated genre of ecstatic sayings in Muslim mys
tical literature. His teachings were preserved by oral transmission.
Abu Yusuf al-Kufi (d. 807) Early Muslim jurist. Abu Yusuf was bom in Baghdad.
He became a pupil of abu hanifa al-numan and played an important role in the
establishment ofthe Hanafi School ofSunni law. He worked closely with the Abbasid
ruler harun al-rashid to develop solutions to legal and administrative issues facing
the growing Muslim state and society.
Abubacer See ibn tufayl.
thought He also played an important role as theologian and teacher.
Abu Hurayra (d. 678) A Yemeni who, after accepting Islam, became a companion
and devoted follower of the Prophet. He is remembered largely as a major transmit
ter of traditions from the Prophet and his name occurs repeatedly in the chain of
suchtransmissions, recounting from direct experience the actions and sayings of the
Prophet.
Abul Wafa al-Buzajanl (940-998) Major figure in the development of math
ematics and astronomy. Abul Wafa al-Buzajani lived in Baghdad. His work on trig
onometry and his geometrical constructions have been preserved as part of his
contribution to the field of medieval mathematical sciences.
Abunaser See al-farabi, abu nasr.
Abu Muslim (d. 754) Military leader who spearheaded the abbasid revolution
against the umayyad dynasty. He organized an army under a black flag to symbolize
therestoration oflegitimate rule bythe Prophet's descendants. Though rewarded for
his effortsbybeing made governor of a province, he came to be perceived as a threat
to the new rulers. One of the subsequent Abbasid rulers executed him for alleged
treasonable activities.
Abyssinia See Ethiopia.
Abu Nuwas (c. 747-813) Arab poet who achieved fame during the reign of the
Abbasid caliph harun al-rashid. He composed much of his poetry in Baghdad.
Both his contemporaries and later poets saw him as setting a new trend in the
development of Arabic poetic tradition.
Abu Said Ibn Abi Khayr (967-1049) Sufi preacher. Abu Said was particularly
noted for his commitment to an ascetic lifestyle and service to the poor. He was a
very popular preacher and is believed to have participated with his audience in the
practice of sama, devotional ritual involving the performance of music.
Aceh Northern part of Sumatra, one of the islands of the Indonesian archipelago,
Aceh was one of the first areas in Indonesia to accept Islam and became the seat of a
flourishing sultanate.
Islam spread to the region as early as the thirteenth century and a series of Muslim
rulersdeveloped a prosperous state until the beginning of the twentieth century. It is
noteworthy that four princesses ruled over Aceh in the seventeenth century. By 1910
the Dutch, after a lengthy conflict known as the Aceh War, had defeated the king
dom and established colonial rule. In 1942 Aceh was occupied by the Japanese. A
series of rebellions to counter the brutal occupation took place until the Japanese
surrender in 1945. Internal rivalries caused a major conflict over authority and with
the formation of the Republic of Indonesia in 1949 Aceh was integrated into the new
state. While Aceh has remained part of Indonesia since, there has been constant
opposition to central authority and a continuing effort
to maintain its inherited
Muslim traditional identity and institutions. This has from time to time resulted in

Aga Khan
contention over the acceptability of such traditionalist, SHARiA-based practices in
the context of Indonesia's broadly defined and pluralistic social and legal frame
work
adab An Arabic term employed in Muslim thought and literature that has many
connotations associated with intellectual, literary, moral and ethical discourse and
the value of norms of human conduct. In its practical aspect, it can refer to appro
priate qualities necessary for proper personal behaviour, upbringing and mode of
conduct in daily life and social interaction. It also stands for the cultivation of
knowledge and literary learning that signifies humanistic values of individual
achievement In its literary aspect, adab signifies the material and spiritual culture
generated in writing and other artistic accomplishments. See also ethics.
Adam Name of the first created human who, according to the Quran, symbolizes
the unity of humanity and the ideal of stewardship on earth (Quran 39:6). In the
Quranic narrative of creation, after being taught knowledge by God, Adam and his
mate are settled in the garden to live in conformity to divine will. After disobeying
thecommand not to approach theTree ofKnowledge (ilm, also known as the Tree of
Eternity, WiuW, or often simply 'the tree') they are relegated to life on earth’ prom
ised guidance and eventually redeem themselves and are forgiven. Adam is also
chosen by God to be a messenger. The Quranic account became, in due course,
the basis of an enlarged Muslim tradition about Adam, drawn from a variety of
biblical and folk sources, but it remains an important reference point for the ultim
ate goals of human life and its destiny.
adat Particularly in its Indonesian, Malaysian and South Asian contexts, this con
cept refers to the practices and customs of the region. Such custom and local trad
ition often complemented the sharia as a source of practice, establishing mutually
enabling frames of reference for personal, social and community law. In modem
Illi es, as in the past, there have been areas of contention, but on the whole adat
Yusuf Adil Shah, introduced the shia tradition to the kingdom. Bijapur is well
known for its historic monuments, sikandar shah, the last ruler of the dynasty,
died in 1700 in captivity.
«// TheArabic term in the Quran that connotes the idea of justice. For the m utazi la
and the shia, the idea of the justice of God represented one of the basic concepts in
the divine dispensation for the values of humankind and underlined accountability
and choice as aspects of human agency.
al Afghani, Jamal al-DIn See jamal al-din al-afghani.
Afghanistan A Muslim country in South Asia. Afghanistan has an estimated total
population of 16 million, made up of diverse groups that include Pushto, Tajik and
Turkic peoples. Most Afghans are Sunni and follow the Hanafi school of Islamic
law but there is a significant shia minority.
Muslim Arab armies entered the area at the beginning of the eighth century and a
succession of Muslim empires ruled into the eighteenth century. British and Russian
intrusion and the ensuing Anglo-Afghan Wars resulted in a truncated territory.
Previously a monarchy, Afghanistan has in recent times gone through a turbulent
period including occupation by the former Soviet Union, whose armies retreated
following a prolonged war of liberation by Afghani guerrillas known as mujahidin.
Following this, various dissident groups, in many instances receiving external sup
port, have engaged in a bitter civil war. After the end of Soviet occupation, the
country descended into chaotic conflict until the rise of the taliban, who after
overcoming various rivals imposed a harsh regime and a strict code of behaviour.
An American-led invasion after the events of u September 2001 led to the over
throw of the Taliban. In 2004 Hamid Karzai was elected President of Afghanistan.
Since then the country has gone through a period of reconciliation and reconstruc
tion, with wide international support Its stability remains fragile in the face of
continuing violence and conflict, particularly where remnants of the Taliban con
tinue to create division.
UM
remains a powerful resource for local identity and regional practice and tradition in
Muslim societies living in these regions.
Aflatun see piato.
odhon The Muslim call to the daily ritual prayer, which has been traditionally
recited by a muezzin. It is in Arabic and consists of the following elements in reci
tation:
God is most great (Allahu Akbar, recited four times).
I affirm/witness that there is no divinity other than Allah (recited twice).
1 affirm/witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God (recited twice).
Come to prayer (recited twice).
Cometosalvation. (TheShia and the Zaydis add, 'Come to the best of deeds.') (Recited
twice.)
God is most great (recited twice).
There is no divinity other than Allah.
Adil Shahl The Muslim dynasty that ruled the kingdom of Bijapur in India from
1489 to 1686, when it was integrated into the mochul empire. One of the rulers,
Aga Khan Title of the spiritual leader or imam of the Nizari Ismail! Muslims (see
ismailiyya) since the nineteenth century. Aga Khan I (d. 1881) and Aga Khan II (d.
1885) represent the period of transition in the emergence of the community in
modem times.
Much of the institution-building and direction for the community in the twen
tiethcentury was initiated by Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III (d. 1957), an
international statesman, who was imam for over seventy years. He was succeeded by
Karim Shah, Aga Khan IV (b. 1936), who has further developed these institutions,
adapting them to the needs of the worldwide community since 1957, when he
became imam. He has also created the aga khan development network and insti
tutions that have increased the reputation of an outstanding and effective global
networkpromotingcultural, economic and educational development in many parts
of the world.
In 2007 the community celebrated the fiftieth year of his accession.

Aga Khan Award for Architecture
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Aga Khan Award for Architecture Launched in 1977 by the present Aga Khan,
Karim Shah, its purpose is to stimulate a concern for the built environment in the
Muslim world and to help develop resources and skills to meet building demands as
well as to preserve the historically significant architectural heritage of Muslims in
the face of increasing degradation.
Aga Khan Development Network The Aga Khan Development Network
(AKDN) is a contemporary endeavour of the Ismaili imamat to realize the social
conscience of Islam through institutional action, bringing together a number of
institutions built up over the last four decades. Its mandate is to improve living
conditions and opportunities for all and to encourage through education, health
care and economic and social development the building of local capacity and insti
tutions to meet the challenges of poverty as well as growth in a globalized environ
mentThenetworkoperatespredominantly in Asia and Africa but also in Europe and
North America. Among its significant initiatives is the establishment of private
universities in Pakistan, Central Asia and East Africa.
husband ali ibn abi talib and their children hasan and husayn ibn ali. By extension,
however, it includes all those claiming descent from the latter, such as the royal
families ofJordan and Morocco.
Ahl al Dhimma or Dhimmi (lit., 'People of the Pact of Protection') Non-Muslims
living under Muslim rule or within a Muslim territory whose lives, religion and
sacred places were protected. Their autonomy and freedom of religious life and
institutions were assured by Quranic prescription. Dhimmi paid a tax known as
jizya. Though primarily referring to Jews and Christians in the earlier period, the
term also came to be applied to other religious communities throughout Muslim
history, who lived under various degrees of autonomy in different periods and
places.
Ahl al-Fatra Fatra (lit., 'an interval of time') commonly refers to the interval
between Jesus and Muhammad. While no messenger is believed to have been
sent by God during this period, true belief lived among various people who are
Agha Hashar Kashmiri (1879-1935) Urdu dramatist regarded as one of the fore
most writers of drama in that language. His writings draw upon Muslim as well as
Western influences, particularly from the plays of Shakespeare. Agha Hashar is bur
ied in Lahore, Pakistan.
Aghlablds A dynasty that ruled in northern Africa in the ninth century, from 800
to 909. The Aghlabid capital was Qayrawan in modern-day Tunisia. It was founded
by Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab, an abbasid governor, and the region experienced signifi
cant development in urban and cultural life under the rule of his successors, while
maintaining considerable independence and military power. Although the dynasty
ruled in the name of the Abbasid caliph, they exercised great autonomy, which
allowed them to maintain their control over the region through the appointment
of family members as heirs.
Agra This dty, currently in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, was a residential
centre for the mochul emperors. The history of Agra began long before the Muslim
conquest It was famous for its textile industry, stone, marble and gold work which
was exported overseas, including to the courts of Europe. Its most famous monu
ment iS the TA) MAHAL.
known as the Ahl al-Fatra. Among them is considered to have been Waraqa ibn
Nawfal who lived in Prophet Muhammad's time and affirmed him as a messenger
from God.
ahd AQuranic term signifying covenant or pact as between God and human beings
whereby the latter accepted stewardship of the earth. By extension it could also
mean a pact between various parties. The term has also been used in a variety of
other contexts, including political agreements and civil contracts.
ahkam Theplural ofthe Quranic term hukm, meaning 'command' or 'authority'. In
an extended sense, theterm is applied to judicial decisions or the application of rules
in sharia courts.
Ahl al-Bayt (lit., 'People of the House’) A term used to describe the family of the
Prophet Among the Shia it is applied to the Prophet, his daughter fatima, her
Ahl al-Kitab (lit, 'People of the Book' (Quran 5:58)) A term referring to Jews,
Christians and sabians who believe in God and the Last Day, and act righteously.
The application ofthe term has been extended to include other religions believed to
possess sacred scriptures, thereby establishing a commonality among faith commu
nities to whom divine revelation had been granted. They were protected within
Muslim territories and were treated as ahl al-dhimma.
Ahmad Badawi (1199-1276) One of the most venerated figures of Sunni Muslim
piety in Egypt. His mausoleum in Tanta, Egypt, is a major centre for visitation and
devotional activity. One of his most famous admirers is said to have been the
mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars.
Ahmad ibn Tulun (835-884) Governor of Egypt during the abbasid period, he
wentonto establish an autonomous dynasty, the Tulunids, in 872. He was known for
his commitment to scholarship as well as his military talents. He also initiated
economic and agrarian reforms that enabled the dynasty to establish its independ
ence despite formally acknowledging the rule of the Abbasid caliph. He is associated
with the building of the well-known mosque in Cairo, named after him.
Ahmad Gran (1506-1543) Muslim of Somali origin. Ahmad Gran led a military
campaign in the sixteenth century to conquer Ethiopia. His initial successes won
him control of many regions in the country, but he was eventually defeated by a
joint Ethiopian/Portuguese army. >
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855) He is regarded as the founder of what eventually
became the Hanbali school of Islamic law. From an early age he devoted himself to
the study of traditions, travelling extensively for the purpose. He studied under the
well-known jurist al-Shafii in Baghdad. His compilation isknownas theMusnad one

Ahmad Khan, Sir Sayyld
ofthe mostextensiveand authoritative Sunni collections of hadith . In contrast with
theotherwell-known collections, the hadiths in this work are arranged according to
the first transmitter rather than subject matter. Ibn Hanbal's opposition to the
enforced acceptance of the mutazila doctrine under the Caliph al-mamun led to
hisimprisonment, in particular because he opposed the doctrine of the createdness
oftheQuran, an important aspect ofthe Mutazili teaching, which al-Mamun sought
to impose. After al-Mamun’s death, he was pardoned by Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who
ended the inquisition of scholars who disagreed with al-Mamun's position. Hanbal
continued his work as a scholar and his reputation was such that his funeral is
believed to have been attended by several hundred thousand people. In Muslim
history he is admired as a scholar and a model of pious and non-violent resistance to
the imposition of doctrine by ruling authorities.
12
Ahmad Khan, Sir Sayyid (1817-1898) Reformer and educator. He was a major
figure in the Muslim modernist reform movement in India and the founder of
Aligarh College. His writings and efforts reflect the belief that progress by Muslims
can best be achieved by incorporating rather than condemning positive aspects of
modernization. He supported the establishment of Western models of education
and encouraged Muslim cooperation with the British. Sayyid Ahmad Khan was
knighted by the British government for his efforts. In some circles, his attempts
to recondie the thought of the Quran with modem science and his questioning of
such Institutions as polygamy were condemned, aligarh Muslim university, as the
institution he founded is now called, offers Islamic studies alongside a modem
Western curriculum, believing that an integration of the two affords the best
form of education to prepare Muslims for the modem world.
Ahmad Sayyid Barelwl (1786-1831) Indian Muslim reformer. During the period of
British colonial rule in India several Muslim reform movements emerged. One of
them was led by Ahmad Sayyid Barelwi, who combined a commitment to the Sunni
Hanafi school of Islamic law and adherence to the Sufi qadiriyya. His teachings
focused on strict adherence to the observances of the sharia, a strong belief in the
intercessory role of the Prophet and participation in Sufi practices, including the
visiting of shrines and the traditions and practices associated with them.
His followers, known as Barelwis, continue to play an influential role in Pakistan
and India and among immigrants from South Asia who have settled in Britain,
continental Europe and North America.
Ahmad Shah Durrani (c. 1722-1773) Afghan military commander who established
a new dynasty in Afghanistan in 1747 and sought to extend influence in the region
through a series of invasions of India and for a while succeeded in capturing Delhi,
the capital of the moghul empire. At the time of his death in 1773 he exercised
control over Afghanistan and parts of the Indian subcontinent, but under his suc
01
cessors both the territories and the dynasty soon fell apart.
Ahmad Slrhlndl, Shaykh (1564-1624) Sufi naqshbandiyya leader in India and
IB
noted Indian Muslim thinker of the moghul period. He attempted to restore a
akhlaq
_______________________________________________
and what was then perceived to be the unorthodox expression of Sufi thought and
practices. His ideas have been influential in stimulating reform among subsequent
generations of scholars in the Indian subcontinent.
Ahmadlya Movement that developed under British rule in India, led by Mirza
Gulam Ahmed (c. 1835-1908). The movement claimed messianic and prophetic
status for its founder (its members differed over his exact status). It became active
as a missionary movement and propagated its faith in Africa and more recently in
the West. Because of its religious claims, the movement or its promotion is pro
scribed in Pakistan and various other Muslim countries and it is regarded as being
outside the pale of Islam.
Ahrar, Nasir al-DIn (1404-1490) Sufi naqshbandiyya leader best known for his
preaching and influence in Central Asia. His political influence resulted in the
Timurid conquest of Samarkand in 1451 (see tamerlane). He continued to be influ
ential in political and religious affairs, believing that his mission should encompass
a role as mediator between rulers and the people.
AishabintAbu Bakr (613-678) Daughter of Caliph abu bakr. Aisha was married to
the Prophet after the death of khadija, his first wife. She is regarded as an important
conduit of tradition from the Prophet. After the death of Caliph uth man ibn affan
she joinedinan unsuccessful rebellion against the new caliph, ali ibn abi talib, and
was forced to retire to private life in Medina. Accounts of the life of the Prophet
contain numerous references emphasizing her close relationship to the Prophet.
Aisha al-Mannubiya Muslim woman of Tunisian origin, active during the thir
teenth century. Aisha al-Mannubiya, by virtue of her piety and commitment to a
Sufiway of life, became a figure of veneration, particularly for women. Her mauso
leum near Tunis attracts many visitors who seek to benefit from her example.
Akbar (1542-1605) Emperor of the moghul dynasty who extended the empire and
implemented a stable administrative and fiscal system. He is particularly well known
forhis ecumenical outlook in matters of faith and religious practice. The majority of
the peoples he ruled were non-Muslim. In 1581 he founded an eclectic belief system
called Divine Faith (Din-i-Ilahi). To consolidate alliances he married Hindu prin
cesseswithout asking them to give up their faith and encouraged tolerance towards
all religions. His attempt to create a new ceremonial capital at Fathepur Sikri failed,
though the palace structures that were built still survive. By 1576, the whole of
northern India had been annexed to the empire and it was further enlarged during
the next twenty-five years under his rules
Akhbari Refers to the group among the Twelver Imami Shia (see ithna ashariyya)
who consider the tradition of their imams as providing a foundational resource for
understanding Muslim faith and practice. Their views came to represent a minority
tendency, since theywished to make the traditions of the twelve imams an exclusive
source of legal regulation.
balance between traditionalist Muslim thought based on the Quran and the sharia akhlaq See ethics.

Akhund
Akhund A title given to religious scholars of high rank in Iran and in Turkey.
al- Al- is the definite article in Arabic and is retained in many personal names and
phrases. It is commonly ignored during alphabetic ordering, as in this volume.
Alamut Sff NIZAM AL-MULK; RASHID AL-DIN SINAN; TUSI, NASIRAL-DIN MUHAMMAD IBN
MUHAMMAD.
Alawi The term refers to a group of Muslims with very specific beliefs about ali i b n
abi talib, the fourth caliph and the first Shia imam. The group has also been referred
to asNusayri, since many ofits views were developed by Ibn Nusayr, a ninth-century
scholar. Because the group focuses its central doctrine almost exclusively around Ali
and his veneration, it has been regarded by other Muslims as extreme in its outlook.
A small and very secretive group, the Alawis have attained significance in modem
times because of their presence in Syria in particular, where Hafez Assad
(1930-2000), an Alawi, became president and was also able to gain official recogni
tionofthe then leader oftheShia community in Lebanon, Musa Sadr. In Syria as well
as in Lebanon and Turkey, the Alawis have tried to build ties of mutual recognition
and tolerance with Sunni and Shia groups. See also alevi.
Alawi dynasty A family name applied to the Moroccan royal family because of its
claim of descent from ali ibn abi talib through his son Hasan. The dynasty gained
control of Morocco under various sultans between 1664 and 1727. Following the
imposition of a Franco-Spanish protectorate in 1912, there was a struggle for inde
pendence which was achieved in 1956. The present king is Muhammad VI. See also
alawi.
Albania European country whose Muslim majority of over 3 million represents
approximately 65 per cent of its population. Muslim influence spread and grew in
the area after the extension of the ottoman empire during the fourteenth century
and Its oldest mosque dates back to 1380. The Ottoman Turkish name for Albania
was Amawutlug. Under communism, there was a ban on religious activity and
hundreds of mosques and religious centres were destroyed by the government.
Since the end of communist rule in 1991 Muslims have resumed religious activities
within an emerging more democratic framework, creating organizations and devel
oping ties with other Muslim societies as Albania strives to achieve durable stability
and economic development as a post-Soviet European nation.
Alevi A Shia religious community which constitutes a significant minority in Tur
key. They are also found in Bosnia-Herzegovina and in other parts of Europe. The
community's roots lie in Shia doctrine and history and a strong association with the
role of Imam ali ibn abi talib. They do not recognize either a framework of desig
nated continuing central authority or a structure of representative religious leader
ship.
As with the aiawi in Syria, the centrality of Ali to the Alevi and the devotion and
veneration they accord to him are considered extreme by other Muslims. In
modem times, because of their particular association with the province of Anatolia
as well aswith the Bektashi order, they have gained a more autonomous status and
Alhazan
recognition in secular Turkey, where some contemporary Alevis see their heritage as
a type of wisdom tradition rather than a religiously defined doctrine.
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) Greek general and conqueror. In the Quran
and subsequent Muslim tradition, Iskandar, as he is called, became seen as a leader
and protector of his community from the forces of evil represented by Gog and
Magog. The Quran refers to him as the 'one with two horns', an epithet widely
interpreted among Muslims to suggest his world conquests and universal influence.
AltLayla wa Layla A collection of stories in Arabic whose popularity in both the
Muslim world and the West, where it is known as A Thousand and One Nights, has
resulted in many of the tales becoming very widely known. Its origins probably go
back to the ninth century and represent an amalgamation and integration of stories
from the cultural traditions ofEgypt, Iran and India. Some are built around historical
figures, a well-known example being the Abbasid caliph harun al-rashid.
Alfarablus Swal-farabi, abu nasr.
Algazel See al-ghazali, abu hamid muhammad.
algebra The Latinized form of the Arabic term al-jabr, which signified work related
to the solution of equations in mathematical treatises composed by Muslim
scholars. The major exponent of this science was al-Khwarizmi, a ninth-century
Muslim mathematician. See mathematics.
Ill
Algeria Country in the central part of North Africa known as the Maghreb. Algeria
has a population of 25 million, virtually all Sunni Muslim. The major indigenous
languages are Arabic and Berber, the latter used mainly by Berber groups of the
Sahara, such as the Tuareg. Islam spread to the region in the seventh century and
the area became an integral part of the larger Muslim world ruled by various dyn
asties. French colonial rule was established in 1834. "
Algeriabecame independent in 1962 after a long period of resistance. Two decades
ofsocialist rule were followed by the active involvement in political life of different
Muslim organizations and political parties. Fearing a victory by the Islamic Salvation
Front (see fis), a legal political party, the ruling government cancelled the general
elections in 1991. This resulted in a state of emergency and political and social
turmoil accompanied by a brutal conflict that led to the deaths of thousands. The
unrest continued for more than a decade. More recently there has been greater
stability and efforts at reconciliation and development utilizing the natural
resources of the country.
Alhambra (lit, The Red’) The most famous example of later Andalusian Muslim
architecture, the Alhambra was constructed as a fortress and palace in Granada,
Spain, by the nasri0 ruler al-Ghalib in the thirteenth century and subsequently
enlarged by his successors.
Alhazan See ibn al-haytham, abu ali al-hasan.

All Ahmad, Sayyld Jalal Amadu Bamba
All Ahmad, Sayyld Jalal (1923-1969) Iranian writer. His novels, essays and other
writings constituted a critique of what he perceived to be the rampant Westerniza
tion of Iran. He was also a school teacher who integrated perspectives on education
and culture in his writings that touch upon religious as well as political issues.
All Ibn Abl Tallb (598-661) Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet. Ali was among
the earliest converts to Islam, the first imam ofthe Shia and the fourth caliph. He was
married to the Prophet’s daughter Fatima and was one of his staunchest supporters,
renowned for his skills as a warrior and for his knowledge and piety.
While he did not always agree on policy with the caliphs who succeeded the
Prophet, he continued to work with them and played an important role in early
Muslim life and society, eventually becoming the fourth caliph in 656 after the
assassination of uthman ibn affan. By that time political and group differences
were beginning to put a strain on Muslim unity. He faced a rebellion led by two
companions and one of the wives of the Prophet, aisha bint abu bakr. A more
significant threat to his authority and Muslim unity came from Muawiyya, the
governor of Syria. While an attempt was being made to arbitrate differences, Ali
was murdered while at prayer, in 661.
According to Shia belief, the Prophet had already formally designated Ali to suc
ceed as head of the community, and in their view he is regarded as the legitimate
leader of the Muslims and the first imam in a line descended from him through
Fatima. He provided guidance and interpretation in understanding the Quran and
hisrole is regarded as complementing the mission of the Prophet. The affirmation of
this role of succession and authority, known as walaya, is included in the Shia
declaration of faith.
Ali is also revered by Sufis as a teacher of the esoteric and spiritual understanding
of Islam, by virtue of both his special relationship to the Prophet and his own
example of piety and devotion. Most Sufi teachers trace their spiritual genealogy
back to the Prophet through Ali. Both the day of his proclamation as imam at c hadi r
khumm and his birthday are commemorated by the Shia as festivals. While the Sunni
perspective on his role differs from that of the Shia, Ali is clearly one of the most
revered figures among Muslims after the Prophet. His teachings have been preserved
in a work entitled Nah/ al-Balagha (PeakofEloquence). He is buried in Najaf, where his
tomb is a major centre of pilgrimage for Shia Muslims.
All al Rida (765-818) Eighth in the line of Ithna Ashari imams (see ithna ashar-
iyya). Respected for his knowledge and scholarship, he was designated in 817 as his
successor by the abbasid Caliph al-Mamun, who was seeking a rapprochement with
the Shia. Imam al-Rida died suddenly under suspicious circumstances in 818, his
followers believing that he was poisoned. His tomb grew into a pilgrimage site,
eventually known as Mashhad (Place of Martyrdom), and today is a major centre
of learning as well as one of the most visited pilgrimage sites in Iran.
Aligarh Muslim University Previously Aligarh College. Aligarh is a city in Uttar
Pradesh, India. Its college was originally founded as the Muhammadan Anglo-
Indian Oriental College, a school of higher education, in 1875 by Sir Sayyid
ahmad khan. The curriculum was intended to balance European models and trad
itional Islamic studies. All subjects were, however, taught in English. The school
became a symbol of the modernist reform movement and was turned into a uni
versity in 1920. Incorporated as a comprehensive, modem seat of learning, Aligarh
Muslim University continues to be an influential Muslim educational institution in
the subcontinent.
All-lndla Muslim League See Muslim league.
Allah The Quranic, Arabic term for God in Islam. Central to Islam is the belief in the
unity ofGod, affirmed in the statement of witness of the faith: "There is no god but
Allah'. Allah is described in the Quran as both transcendent and all-powerful, the
creator ofall and yet close to human beings, compassionate, merciful, forgiving, just
and Lord ofthe day of judgement. He is remembered also through his attributes, the
'most beautiful names', which are involved in prayer and contemplation. He reveals
messages and scriptures to humanity, in particular through a line of prophetic fig
uresand messengers, of which the message of the Quran, revealed through Muham
mad, is the final one. The formula used to express God's greatness - Allahu akbar - is
called takb/r in Arabic.
Almohads Dynasty which ruled Morocco and Spain from 1130 to 1269. The name
derives from the Arabic al-muwahhidun meaning 'the Unitarians' and reflecting their
uncompromising reformist zeal regarding the unity of God. Their leader 1 bn tum art
was of Berber origin. His successor Abd al-Mumin was able to consolidate a consid
erable portion of North Africa under his control through a series of military cam
paigns. Takingthe title caliph, he established a dynasty and propagated ibn tu mart's
teachings.
Almoravids Dynasty which ruled in Spain and North Africa from 1056 to 1147- It
grew out of a revivalist movement among the Berbers under the leadership of Abd
Allah ibn Yasin. His successor, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, founded Marrakesh as a capital in
1062, assuming the title Amir al-Muslimin (Commander of the Muslims), a title still
used in North Africa today. The dynasty's rule expanded after Andalusian Muslims
sought military aid against Christian offensives and Yusuf responded by conquering
the country. The name derives from the Spanish pronunciation of al-murabitun ('the
bound ones’), referring to the religious impetus behind the dynasty's beginnings, led
by those who were 'bound' to perform their religious duty. The Almoravids were
defeated after a century by the almohads.
almsgiving See sadaqa; zakat.
Amadu Bamba (1857-1927) Founder of the muridiyya order in West Africa. Amadu
Bamba's attempts to organize his followers led to his imprisonment and exile by the
then French colonial government. The Muridiyya, following his emphasis on the
value of faith and the ethic of work, organized themselves economically and have
been successful in the peanut trade. Their centre is in Touba, in Senegal, where the
shaykh isburied and which has become a major centre of pilgrimage for his followers
and scholarship associated with his teachings.

angels
amal In the Quran the term refers to morally worthy acts. The concept of amal was
developed further in Muslim law, theology and philosophy. In the Muslim tradition
amal was also connected with the Hellenistic idea of the link between action (espe-
dally good action) and knowledge allit ut the nature of things, which the Muslim
tradition also connected with belief in God.
The title Amal was also used by a Muslim organization representing a political
party of the Imami Shia in Lebanon.
Amat al-Wahid (d. 987) Jurist. The daughter of a judge in Baghdad, she studied
jurisprudence, issued legal decisions and was also acknowledged for her piety and
religious devotion.
Amina bint Wahb (d. 576) Mother ofthe Prophet Muhammad who, after the early
loss of her husband, brought up Muhammad in Mecca. She died when he was only
six years old and is celebrated in Muslim tradition by a number of stories about her
pregnancy and the birth of the Prophet.
Amir All, Sayyid (1849-1928) Writer and lawyer. Sayyid Amir Ali established a
national association for Indian Muslims to promote better awareness of political
and intellectual issues. His SpiritofIslam, written in 1891, is an attempt to cast Muslim
history and thought in the spirit of a progressive, modern faith.
AmirKhusraw Dlhlawl (1253-1325) Poet and musician in India, Dihlawi was also a
disciple of the noted Sufi leader nizam al-din awliya. In addition to his contribu
tions to music, particularly the development of the ghazal and poetry in several
languages, he wrote on the culture and history of the time.
Amir al-Mumlnin (lit., 'Commander/Prince of the Faithful or Believers') Title of
the caliph, the first use of which is commonly attributed to Caliph umar ibn al-
khattab.Though it was intended to be used exclusively for the single office that was
recognized for its authority in the then Muslim world, leaders of several dynasties in
Islam claimed the title in vying for recognition. Among the Shia it is used exclusively
for ali ibn abi Taub and his designated descendants. In the Quran (4:59) it refers to
those who are to beobeyed in addition to God and the Prophet Muhammad. In more
recent times the title has come to be used to refer to local rulers or claimants to
authority ostensibly undertaking jihad in the name of Islam.
amira See hijab.
Amman Declaration In 2006Jordan hosted a major gathering of leading Muslim
scholars, who unanimously agreed to accept all the major Sunni and Shia schools
of Islamic law as representing the pluralism within Islam and further acknowledged
that those who foster violence and extremism against other Muslims and non-Mus-
lims through their views are acting illegitimately and are an affront to all that Islam
stands for.
Ammar ibn Yasir Companion of the Prophet and supporter of ali ibn abi talib.
He is regarded as a knowledgeable transmitter of traditions and respected for his
piety and his struggle on behalf of Islam during its period of infancy.
Ampel, Sunan Raden Rashmet One of the Wali Songo, a group of wise scholars
and devotees who preached Islam and led its initial spread in Java and subsequent
growth in the fifteenth century in Java and Surabaya in Indonesia.
AmrIbn al-As (d. 663) Soldierand politician. He accepted Islam during the time of
the Prophet and became one of the most important commanders in the subsequent
conquests and expansion of Muslim rule. His campaigns included those that led to
the conquest of Syria and Egypt. He was made Governor of Egypt and joined m ua-
wiyya in his rebellion against ali ibn abi talib.
Amra bint Abd al-Rahman (d. 717) Prominent among the second generation of
Muslims, Amra bint Abd al-Rahman was well known for her role in transmitting
prophetic tradition and recognized for her great learning. In several instances her
transmission of tradition has been regarded as legal precedent.
al-Andalus The Muslim name for the Iberian Peninsula which was part of the
world of Islam for almost seven centuries, beginning in 711 with the initial cam
paigns under the command of tariq ibn ziyad and then Musa ibn Nusayr. An inde
pendent state came to be established there by a branch of the umayyad dynasty,
which ended with the reign of abd al-rahman hi, who ruled for fifty years and
proclaimed himself a caliph. During this period Cordoba became a major cultural,
intellectual and political centre. The kingdom became divided after 1009 and Anda
lusia came to be ruled by several factions. Under the almoravids and the almohads,
it experienced great prosperity and prestige.
From the thirteenth century onwards, Muslim rulers began to lose control of
territory to various coalitions of Christian kings. The nasri d dynasty based in Gran
ada was the last to fall, leading to the completion of reconquista in 1492.
Muslim society in Andalusia was pluralistic, consisting of peoples of Arab, Berber
and Spanish origin, and the presence of Muslims, Christians and Jews gave it a
cosmopolitan culture, much in evidence in the arts and architecture of major cities
suchasCordoba, Granada, Seville andToledo. It produced its own distinctive artistic
and musical tradition and architectural monuments such as the mosques of Cor
doba and Seville, the palaces of the Madinat al-Zahra and the famous alhambra in
Granada. Among the legacies of the people was a form of Hispanic Arabic, which
eventually died out with the departure of the moriscos in the seventeenth century.
Italso exercised a strong influence which still survives today in the Spanish language
and culture. At its height, Andalusia's cultural values and achievements are believed
to reflect a convivencia, a mutually enriching concord among its various peoples
and faiths.
angels Belief in angels is taught in the Quran. They are a separate category of
creation from human beings, whose creation they witnessed. The archangel Gabriel
is regarded in Muslim tradition as the intermediary of the message of the Quran to
the Prophet. The only other angel mentioned in the Quran is Michael (Mikhail),
who assisted God with the creation of the world. Muslim tradition recognizes two
otherarchangels: Israfil, whowill sound the trumpet on the Last Day, and Azrail, the
angelofdeath.Two angels are said to record the good and bad deeds in each life, an

art
Allb, Mir Babar All | 11
account which will be presented on the day of judgement. There is some difference
ofopinion in Muslim sources regarding Satan, some believing that he was originally
an angel who was corrupted by pride and disobedience.
Anis, Mir Babar All (1802-1874) Urdu poet. He came from a family of poets and
devoted his life to writing verse. Anis is noted for his marthiya, a form of devotional
poetry that has as its central theme the martyrdom of Imam husayn ibn ali.
apostasy Wilful rejection or abandonment of one's faith is condemned by the
Quran, though it is clear about not compelling faith (Quran 2:256: 'There is no
compulsion in religion') and urging an attitude of forgiveness (Quran 2:109).
Muslim scholars and jurists subsequently integrated into their writings discussion
of and presumptions about apostasy and disbelief, primarily as a deliberate act of
renunciation, although retaining the broader concept of rejection of faith as all-
encompassing.
After the death of the Prophet in 632, several converted tribes reverted to tribal
authority and reversed the commitment they had made in adopting Islam. Caliph
abu bakr undertook campaigns against them and put down the rebellions, which in
some cases were led by those who claimed to be new prophets.
In more recent times the question of apostasy has taken on a more contentious as
well as political aspect and for a small minority has become a basis for justifying
violenceagainst the authority or presence ofother Muslims whose views they regard
as constituting heresy.
oq/do Often translated as 'creed', 'dogma' or 'article of faith'. Among the various
schools of Muslim thought, these generally include the unity of God and the status
ofthe Quran, prophets and prophecy, the responsibilities of human beings, belief in
heaven and hell, and issues related to faith and unbelief.
aql The rational or reflective capacity of human beings. In the Muslim intellectual
tradition aqlbecame associated with the 'intellect'. In the Quran, Adam is taught the
'names of all things' by God, implying that the composite status of humanity as
created beings was accompanied by a capacity to have access through reason to all
resources of knowledge. For most Muslim philosophers and thinkers the intellect
complemented and interacted with knowledge based on revelation.
Arab League See league of arab states.
Arabic One of the Semitic languages, Arabic, the language of the Quran, is the
primary language today of more than 150 million people. It developed throughout
the history of Islam as one of the world's major languages.
As Islam spread to other parts of the world, Arabic as the primary language of
formal prayer, religious writings, law, theology and philosophy was adapted and
further enriched local languages such as Hausa, Persian, Swahili, Turkish, Urdu and
others. All these languages adopted the Arabic script, and in several instances con
tinue to use it
architecture Muslim architecture is represented in a diversity of forms across the
world. Yet this diversity in its many expressions exhibits a shared sense of engage
ment, purposes in the use of space and a common set of values that cut across
regional, climatic and cultural differences.
Muslim architecture encompasses many built forms, places of devotion and wor
ship, memorials, domestic spaces, military buildings, palaces, institutions of learn
ing, commercial buildings and marketplaces, places of rest and leisure and examples
of monumental structures celebrating power and achievement.
There are a number of common themes and elements that can be identified in
Muslim architecture. The most important is based on the appreciation of the prin-
ciple of unity that characterizes the built environment. Other concerns include
continuity with the past, recognition of regional and vernacular practice and the
use of natural elements as materials to reflect the architectural use of water, vege
tation, mud etc. Modem Muslim architecture is facing the challenge of interpreting
thisdiverse historical heritage with sensitivity and of meeting the demands of grow
ing populations and fast-expanding cities. Several architects of Muslim origin con
tinue to play an influential role in the architectural community of the world, often
contributing to new ideas and developments in their work.
Aristotle (d. 322 bc) Greek philosopher whose works came to the attention of
Muslims from the ninth century onwards. His available works were translated
into Arabic and were read widely by Muslim philosophers and intellectuals.
Among the major Muslim figures who interpreted and further developed Aristote
lian ideas were al-kindi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-razi, al-farabi, ibn
siNAandiBN rushd.
They appropriated his conceptual framework for analysis, interpreting, adapting
and revising his ideas to define their own philosophical positions in the realm of
logic, physics and metaphysics. In adapting the Aristotelian system they also sought
to reconcile their views with what they regarded as foundational Muslim beliefs in
the Quran, maintaining in general a belief in the transcendental unity of God.
The Aristotelian tradition was transmitted to medieval Europe, particularly in the
formsexpounded by Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. This tradition, as reflected in the works
ofsubsequentMuslim scholars, still constitutes part of the curriculum of traditional
centres of Muslim learning, particularly in Iran.
art The different cultural and historical contexts within which artistic expression
emerged among Muslims suggest a character that is both diverse and multidimen
sional;
Like all artistic traditions, Muslim art is built from the elements that existed in
different cultures, but it was also inspired by values and an impetus for creativity
engendered by the new faith. The Quran evokes striking symbols of light and illu
mination and their association with spaces of worship. The early development of art
among Muslims was attached to architecture and found in the designs within
mosques and other public spaces, as well as in textiles and ceramics. Another
form that developed was calligraphy, particularly in enhancing replications of the
Quran or Quranic verses in mosques and other buildings. Though there are early

asablyya astronomy
examples of artistic representation in
palaces and other places attached to
the court, the more significant work
has survived elsewhere. In the artistic
tradition that was evolving there are
representations of humans and ani
mals, though later representation of
the human form and likeness was dis
couraged and even condemned by
some Muslim scholars.
Many of the dynasties and rulers of
the Muslim world were patrons of art
and encouraged artists to contribute
to the buildings associated with their
rule such as palaces and gardens and
also mosques and other religious
buildings. The fatimids, for example,
mark a new impetus in creativity
I reflected in representational art, the
mausoleum and the muqarnas, as
well as in the design of mosques and
textiles known as tiraz. The develop
ments in Andalusia and much later
in mochul India and safawid Iran rep
resent more examples of the flourish
ing and development of art in Muslim
societies. Miniature painting, for
instance, developed into the finest
reproduction of masterpieces associ
ated with the cultural and artistic heri
tage preserved among Muslims. While
this artistic heritage has continued to
inspire the work of modem Muslim
artists, there has been a remarkable
assimilation of modem motifs in the
work of some architects and artists,
reflecting a growing concern that art
should not be frozen in its past forms
but should continue to be inspired by the need to address contemporary concerns
and conditions.
Vase carrying the inscription 'Blessing to its
owner', tenth century.
Bowl carrying the inscription 'Be aware of the
fool...'
arablyya A central concept in the philosophyofhistory of ibn khaldun. It signified
for him the quality of bonding and solidarity that bound society in its various
formative stages. As rural and tribal solidarity led to growth and expansion, this
quality became diluted and alternative and very often coercive forms of allegiance
came to be developed by kingdoms, states and empires.
al-Asharl, Abul-Hasan (873-936) Recognized as the founder of Sunni kalam of
the Ashari school of Islamic law. Originally a follower of the Mutazili school and
among the best regarded exponents of mutazila views in Basra, he became con
vinced at some point in his intellectual development that rationalism could not
entirelyand satisfactorily explain questions of faith. His sudden conversion from the
Mutazila to Sunnism is a subject of much speculation. He continued, however, to
employthe Mutazili methodology of reasoning to support Sunni precepts in what is
now regarded as the Ashari school of thought, arguing at the same time against
major aspects of Mutazila doctrine. His view of God as a transcendent entity whose
actions could not be circumscribed by human logic led to the formulation of a
theological view that used the tools of rationalism without being entirely bound
or limited by them. These and other aspects of the teaching he was to develop were
principally based on a particular interpretation of the Quran and prophetic trad
itions which a group of scholars and followers identified as belonging to the Ashari
school ofSunni theology.
Ashura The tenth day of Muharram, the first month in the Muslim calendar,
generally regarded as a recommended day of fasting, according to the tradition of
the Prophet. For the Shia, however, it has the significance of being the day when
Imam husayn ibn ali was martyred at karbala. See also taziya.
Askla Mohammad (c. 1442-1538) Muslim ruler of the African kingdom of Songhay
in the late fifteenth century. His life is recounted in the epic oral and written trad
itions ofWest African Muslims. He is praised for his devotion to the cause of spread
ing Islam in the region, and for his piety, scholarship and benevolent rule.
Asma bint Umals al-Khatamlyya (d. 660) Contemporary of the Prophet and
one ofthose who immigrated to Abyssinia. She is regarded as a source for traditions
of the Prophet.
Aualamu alaykum See salam alaykum.
astrology While developing simultaneously as an area of inquiry linked to the
study of astronomy, the field of astrology came to be studied separately in the
Muslim world.
Generally referred to as ilm al-nujum ('the science of the stars'), astrology focused
onthe determination of auspicious timings for major events such as battles as well as
significant projects at a more human level, such as horoscopes for individuals, fam
ilies and rulers to chart birth, marriage and other events. The most well-known of the
earlierworks on astrology is that of Abu Mashar al-Balkhi called the Kitab al-Madkhal
al-Kabir, generally translated as The Book ofIntroduction.
astronomy Although theGreek astronomer and geographer Ptolemy provided the
model of an earth-centred universe on which Arab and Muslim astronomers built
their study of the heavens, several Muslim astronomers, drawing also from Indian

atabat al-Azhar University
sources, made observations and calculations which were considered much more
accurate than Ptolemy's. The complementary development of mathematical sci
ences allowed Muslim astronomers to rethink the field and seek applications to
practical issues such as determining the calendar and the times and direction of
prayer. By blending and expanding ideas often based on original Greek concepts,
their theories led to an enhanced field of astronomical studies which later pro
foundly influenced Western scientific exploration, beginning with Copernicus.
atabat (lit, 'thresholds') The term is applied to the shrines in the Iraqi cities of
Najaf, Karbala, Kaamayn and Samarra containing the tombs of six of the imams of
the Twelver Imam! Shia (see ithna ashariyya).
Ataturk See mustafa kemal.
$usamongscholars and often an individual has passed through various other ranks
based on training and scholarly reputation.
Ayesha Variant spelling ofaisha.
Ayyub QuranicArabicnamefor the biblicalJob. He is regarded in Muslim tradition
asaprophet who endured patiently and whose distress was eventually removed by
God, with whom he sought refuge.
Ayyublds Dynasty consolidated by salah al-din al-ayyub (Saladin). The Ayyubids
ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen and other centres in the Middle East from 1171 until the
mamluk conquest in 1250. The dynasty established connections with Italian port
citiesandengaged in negotiations with European rulers over territorial disputes and
Attar, Farid al-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim (d. c. 1229) Sufi mystic and the
author ofa classic Sufi allegory, Mantiq al-Tayr(The ConferenceoftheBirds). He is well
known for many other works, including a biographical account of the lives and
activities of many impc rtant Sufi figures. See also sufism.
authority All authority in Islam is referred back to God, who is the ultimate 'Sov
ereign of the Worlds*. However, God grants authority, particularly to Prophets and
messengers, and in the case of Islam to the Prophet Muhammad. As a paradigm of
authority, his roles encompassed the communication of revelation from God, the
interpretation and implementation of divine guidance, the leadership of his follow
ers, the headship of the Muslim community and its territories and the institution
alization of practices and structures that supported the daily life of Muslims of his
time, including their security and welfare.
Averroes See ibn rushd.
Avicenna See ibn sina.
Awami League Major political party in Bangladesh. It originated in what was
previously East Pakistan and took on a greater secular and nationalistic tendency
under the leadership of Shaykh Mujibur Rahman (d. 1975), which led to the war of
secession that preceded the establishment of Bangladesh in 1971.
nwflyo The friendsof God, those deemed by their piety, devotion and spirituality to
have attained nearness to and understanding of God. In Sufi tradition they play an
important role as reference points and intermediaries for those seeking the spiritual
path. The tombs and burial sites of many awliya are considered to possess baraka
(blessing), which may be accessed by visiting and praying at their tombs.
oyo (pl., ayot) A verse of the quran. Ayat is also the term used to refer to signs of
God's creative power and meaning in the universe.
ayatollah (lit, 'sign of God') Title used for the most outstanding religious author
ities among Imami Shia in Iran and Iraq. The rank is based on leadership qualities,
knowledge, charisma and scholarship. The title is generally attributed by a consen-
during the various crusading ventures into the Holy Land.
Azad, Abu al-Kalam (1888-1958) Writer and poet of Muslim India. Azad pub
lished a journal, al-Hilal, wrote a commentary on the Quran and urged a renewal
ofMuslim thought to meet contemporary needs. After the partition of the subcon
tinent he chose to remain in India, serving as Minister of National Education. He is
also considered a pioneer of Urdu poetry.
Azari Turkish dialect spoken by the Muslim peoples ofAzerbaijan and various parts
of Iran. Among the great poets of early Azari literature are Shaykh Asfarayini and
Nesimi. Its most well-known folk work is the classical Kitab-e Dede Korkutta.
Azerbaijan One of the Muslim republics of Caucasus formed after the collapse of
the Soviet Union in 1991. The population of the country consists mainly of Azeris,
Armenians and Russians. Azerbaijan is also the name of the neighbouring province
in Iran. The republic has a population of 7 million Muslims who make up approxi
mately 87 per cent of the population, the majority of whom belong to the ithna
ashariyya school of Shiism. Religious minorities include Russian and Armenian
Orthodox Christians and a small number of Zoroastrians. Historical conversion to
Islam took place through Sufi orders and the mystical influence is reflected in Azeri
poetry and music. Shia Islam was introduced as the official doctrine during the
safawid period. Upon its emergence from communist rule in 1991, Azerbaijan
dedared itself to be a secular state. It has been a member of the Council of Europe
since 2001 and a member of NATO since 1994. Like several other former Soviet
republics, Azerbaijan is also a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS), linked to Russia. Most religious institutions and buildings in the country,
including a Muslim seminary established in 1991, have been built since independ
ence under the patronage of other Muslim countries, such as Iran, Oman and Saudi
Arabia. Azerbaijan has close ethnic ties with Turkey, but in terms of religious adher
ence it is much closer to the predominantly Shia Iran. Rich in oil and natural gas, it
has attracted investment from major international oil companies and its resources
and location are considered to be of strategic interest.
al-AzharUniversity University in Cairo generally regarded as one of the foremost
institutions of Sunni Muslim learning, al-Azhar was founded as a place of learning

al-Azhar University
and a mosque by the Shia fatimid caliph al-Muizz al-Din Allah maadd in the tenth
century. It is at present an important centre of learning and teaching of law and
theology which attracts students from all over the Muslim world. In its modem
formation and role as a university in Egypt, it took on the features of other univer
sities, but has managed to sustain its style and reputation as a seat of traditional
learning and training of Sunni Muslim religious scholars.
111.
Ba, Amadou Hampate (also Amadou Hampateba) (1900-1991) Contempor
aryAfricanwriterwho played an important role in collecting Muslim oral traditions
offulbe and Bambara origin. Hampateba is famous as a historian, theologian, eth
nographer, linguist and writer. He also wrote extensively on the religious life of
Muslim societies in West Africa and recorded the lives of important scholars and
Sufis in the region.
Ba, Mariama (1929-1981) Senegalese writer whose work reflected an engagement
with the issues of women's emancipation from traditional roles and status as rep
resentedinhersociety. Her 1964 novel Une silonguelettre(SoLongaLetter), for which
Ba won the Noma Award for Publishing in Africa, explores the dilemma of an edu
cated woman whose husband takes a second wife. Like aminata sow-fall, she
■IS
explores issues of womanhood and modernity with sensitivity and concern, as
well as respect for the values of the past.
Babad Tanah Jawa The Java Chronicles. These chronicles provide a traditional
accountofthehistoryofthevarious rulers ofJava and the spread of Islam at the time
oftheMataraur dynasty in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Ill
Babur (1483-1530) Common name of Zahir al-Din Muhammad, founder of the
moghul dynasty in India in 1526. Of Central Asian origin, a descendant of Timur
(tamerlane), Babur left behind his memoirs and poetry, which reflect a highly cul
turedandcosmopolitan ruler. He invaded India in 1526, heralding the beginning of
several centuries of Moghul rale in the subcontinent.
•II
Badr, battleof A crucial battle in 624, the first and most memorable battle of the
earlyperiod, in which the emerging Muslim community fought a much larger and
betterequipped Meccan force and defeated it. According to historians, the Muslims
underthe leadership ofthe Prophet, numbering about 300, lay in wait near Badr, a
small town on the route from Mecca to Syria. One of the major opponents of the
Prophet, the feared AbuJahl, led the Meccan army at this battle. Abu Jahl himself
was killed at the battle and the Muslims managed to take numerous prisoners and
much booty. As a result, Muhammad managed to secure his first major victory
whichalsobecameaturning point in his career. Various Quranic verses are associ
atedwithBadr,including8:9-12, inwhichGodpromises helpforthosewhofight in

badw 26
his cause. The battle itself is portrayed as a sign of God's support and the eventual
triumph of the Prophet's mission.
badw (sing., badawi) Arabic word for Bedouin. The term reflects the style of pastoral
nomadism of Arab peoples from ancient times to the present.
Baghdad Capital of modem Iraq. It was created as a new capital by the second
abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, in the eighth century. It subsequently grew into one of
the major centres of Muslim political and cultural life. It remained the seat of the
Abbasid caliphs until 1258, when the city was captured and raided by the Mongol
army.
Bahais The followers of Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri (1817-1892). Nuri was the leader of a
religious movement in Iran and he came to be known as Baha Allah ('Splendour of
God’). The Bahais regard their faith as a new religion separate from Islam, based on
their recognition of Baha Allah as the prophet whose coming was foretold by the
Bab, a religious figure in Iran, who declared himself to be the gateway (bob') linking
followers to the hidden imam of the Twelver Imami Shia (see ithna ashariyya). He
was executed for attempting to spread his beliefs in 1850.
The Bahai religion has since spread all over the world. Its principles include belief
in the oneness of God, humanity and all religions.
Balkans Traditionally, the geographic region in the south-east of Europe including
the contemporary states of Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bul
garia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania and parts of Turkey. Islam spread to this
region around 1264. It eventually came under ottoman control and remained so at
least until the seventeenth century. During Ottoman rule there was significant
migration and settlement of peoples from other parts of the empire to the Balkans.
With the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan mehmed 11 the
policy of unification of the Ottoman Empire brought the Balkans within its fold and
made it an integral part of the Muslim world. The Ottoman infrastructure and
institutions also benefited from trade and commerce, and the region came to
enjoy a period of relative peace and prosperity. The decline of the Ottoman Empire
from the late eighteenth century onwards made the Balkans a point of conflict in the
military struggle between the European powers and the Ottomans. By the end of the
nineteenth century the Ottomans had lost control over much of the area and with
the end of the empire in the 1920s the region and its peoples entered a new phase in
their history. The influence of Muslim values, institutions and cultural patterns,
however, continued in much of the Balkans and in the daily lives of its population.
Bambara SeesEGU.
Bangladesh South Asian republic. Formerly East Pakistan, Bangladesh is the third
largest country in South Asia and was established in 1971 after a lengthy and bitter
civil war. It is estimated that over 80 per cent of the population (est. 140 million) is
Muslim. A majority of the Muslim population is Sunni, so follows the Hanafi school
of Islamic law. Islam was brought to Bengal at the beginning of the thirteenth
century by Muslim Turkish soldiers. After the establishment of Muslim power.
National Assembly Building, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
the frontier of Muslim influence was extended over the next two centuries, until it
was incorporated into the mochul empire in 1576. The evolution of Muslim society
took place within a primarily agrarian culture, incorporating much of local, indi
genous tradition. After the decline of the Moghuls Bengal was subsequently incorp
orated into the expanding British Empire. In 1947, when British India was divided,
the region became part of the new nation of Pakistan and was called East Pakistan,
until its separation in 1971.
Its history since independence has been marked by a struggle to fight the problems
of poor economic development constantly under threat from seasonal floods and
internal divisions, exacerbated by its leaders' inability to reconcile party differences
and forge national unity. In spite of the many challenges, Bangladesh provides
examples of innovative efforts at development for its rural population and the
vitality of its literary and cultural traditions. See also grameen bank.
al-Banna, Hassan (1906-1949) A reformer who founded the Muslim brother
hood in Egypt in 1929. The reform organization broadened its goals to include a
change in the political order in Egypt and established branches in various other
neighbouring countries. The Brotherhood also developed an armed wing that was
responsible for attacks against various state institutions. Al-Banna himself was killed
in 1949. In recent times the Muslim Brotherhood, which has been prosecuted in
Egypt for decades, has been allowed to participate in national politics and elections.
His younger brother, Gamal al-Banna (b. 1920), was at first also a member of the
Muslim Brotherhood. Subsequently his approach to Islamic sources and traditions
as well as the role of Islam in public life has undergone significant change. He now
argues for a view in which Muslim scholars would seek to interpret the Quran and
Sunna unhindered by the views of scholars of the past, and would seek to apply the

al Baqlllanl, Abu Bakr
Berbers
message of Islam in accordance with the conditions and requirements of life as it is
lived in the present.
al-Baqlllanl, Abu Bakr (d. 1013) A Sunni Ashari theologian who contributed sig
nificantly to the development and systematization of Ashari kalam. He was also a
noted jurist and polemicist.
baraka A Quranic term for blessing or beneficent favour from God. Particularly in
Shia and Sufi tradition, the quality has come to be associated with the Prophet and
his descendants who possess the capacity to mediate such blessing to others. In the
Quran it is also associated with the laylat al-qadr (Night of Power) during Ramadan
(Quran 97) and with the symbolic olive tree referred to in the oyat an-nur ('verse of
light') (Quran 24:35).
In popular and folk tradition in the Muslim world, baraka may be associated with
burial places of venerated and pious individuals and also objects such as amulets
(containing Quranic verses) which ward off evil and provide protection and security.
Barelwi, Ahmad Sayyid See ahmad sayyid barelwi.
Barzani, Mustafa Mulla See mustafa barzani, mulla.
basmadil A term used by the Soviets to describe Muslims who resisted communist
efforts to control Central Asia in the early 1920s and 1930s. After the imposition of
Bolshevik control and authority, many Muslim groups joined to constitute this
broad-based movement to oppose communist rale and to call for unity under
Islam. The movement was eventually suppressed and died out.
basmala The formula 'In the name of G
which each of the Quranic chapters or suras begin (except for sura 9). In Muslim
practice, it is invoked at the beginning ofmost events and important actions. See also
QURAN.
Bay Fall See muridiyya.
baya In Muslim tradition bay1a was used for the formal allegiance accorded by an
individual to the caliph or imam of the time. When Muhammad s authority was
accepted, new Muslims gave him their formal allegiance.
Bayazld Ansari (1525-1573) A Sufi teacher, Ansari is credited as the founder of a
religious and national movement in Afghanistan. He undertook extensive preach
ing and organized his followers into a community His activities generated hostility
from the ruling authorities, leading eventually to his murder. He was the author of
several literary works in Pashto dialects. He is also known for his contribution to the
development ofindigenous poetry and music.
Bayazld al-Blstaml See abu yazid al-bistami.
al-Baydawl, Abd Allah Ibn Umar (d. 1291) Muslim scholar and compiler of the
Anwaral-Tanzilwa-Asraral-Tawil (LightsofRevelation and theSecrets ofInterpretation),
one of the standard Sunni commentaries on the Quran. He edited the work of a
previous scholar, zamakhshari, and eliminated what he regarded as controversial
elements. By thus condensing and synthesizing the work of previous commentaries,
al-Baydawi created what has become one of the most respected and widely used
commentaries on the Quran.
Bayt al-Hikma (lit., 'House of Wisdom') The institution established in Baghdad by
the abbasid Caliph al-Mamun (d. 833) to translate philosophical and scientific works
ofantiquity into Arabic. There was also an observatory attached to the institution.
Bayt al-Mal The traditional 'treasury' of the Muslim community. The wealth flow
ing into the expanding Muslim state in early history was deposited for appropriate
distribution to serve for the welfare of Muslims.
bazaar Word of Persian origin meaning 'market* or 'place of commerce'. Over
time, bazaars were organized as a central feature of most Muslim cities, towns
and business centres, including elaborate covered areas similar to those still
found in cities such as Damascus, Istanbul, Fez and Tehran.
BegumsofBhopal Women rulers of Bhopal, a state in central India, between 1819
and 1926, the last of whom, Begum Sultan Johan, abdicated in 1926. They were all
well known for their scholarship and their patronage of mochul architecture and
gardens, which survive to our day.
Bektashiyya A Sufi order originating in Turkey. Its founding is attributed to Haji
Bektash Wali, a Sufi of the thirteenth century from Anatolia. In time the order
became organized and institutionalized, reflecting a specific ritual activity, form
of dress and the establishment of the tekke, centres of residence and devotional
activity. From Turkey, the Bektashi order spread to the Balkans. It remains active
in both regions as well as in many other parts of the world.
Bengal See Bangladesh.
Bengali An Indo-European language spoken by over 200 million Muslims in Ban
gladesh and the state of Bengal in India and by migrants in Britain, North America
and elsewhere. From its formative period in the tenth century, Bengali Muslim
literature has developed a number of genres to express the historical, religious,
cultural and literary traditions of Islam among Bengali-speaking Muslims.
Benin West African country whose capital is Porto Novo. Benin has an estimated
Muslim population ofabout 2 million, about 15 per cent of the total population. The
spread and growth of Islam, mostly in the last two centuries, has been accomplished
by Muslim merchants or Sufi teachers from neighbouring Muslim areas and is con
centrated in the north-western part of the country. . - Xiia
Berbers Group of non-Arab peoples in North Africa who make up the base popu
lationsofMorocco and Algeria. Theybecame Islamized following the spread of Islam
to North Africa after the seventh century. There are numerous Berber dialects and a
well-developed tradition of folklore and literature. See also tuareg.

The penguin dictionary of islam by azim nanji with razia nanji1

The penguin dictionary of islam by azim nanji with razia nanji1

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