The Journal of Values-Based Leadership
Volume 8
Issue 2 Summer/Fall 2015
Article 3
July 2015
Universalism and Utilitarianism: An Evaluation of
Two Popular Moral Theories in Business Decision
Making
Joan Marques
Woodbury University, [email protected]
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Marques, Joan (2015) "Universalism and Utilitarianism: An Evaluation of Two Popular Moral Theories in Business Decision Making,"
The Journal of Values-Based Leadership: Vol. 8: Iss. 2, Article 3.
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1
Universalism and
Utilitarianism: An
Evaluation of Two
Popular Moral
Theories in
Business Decision
Making
Introduction
Moral theories are interesting phenomena. There are overlapping, complementary and
contrasting theories: rigid, temperate, and flexible ones and ancient and more
contemporary-based ones. Regardless, they all make sense when
perceived against certain backgrounds, circumstances, and
mindsets. The above may already indicate that moral theories — and
therefore the decisions made with these theories as guidelines —
can be confusing. It should also be stated that business leaders —
especially those who did not attend college — base their moral
decisions more on “gut feelings” than anything else. As has been
stated by many sources, they may simply be going by the “quick and
dirty” moral self-test of asking themselves whether they would mind
if their decision made it to the front page of tomorrow’s newspaper
or if their family would know about it. A third option might be to
consider whether they would want their child ( ...
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVETo gain a sense of why it is important to.docxsodhi3
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemmas.There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
The regularian perspective, at face value, appears simplistic. The only thing the person, making the decision regarding an ethical dilemma, needs to know is the rule(s). This perspective views that an act is morally good if it obeys the rules. If the rule(s) indicates the action is permissible then it is considered ethical; in contrast, if the rule(s) indicates the action is not permissible, then it is considered unethical. This perspective posits that the individual is obligated to follow the rules. Similar to other perspectives, with regularianism, the person making the decision must avoid desires and emotions, and act objectively. This is the most notable advantage of rule-based ethics. Sources for rules include commands, directives, policies and procedures, Code of Ethics, and laws.
Problems: What if it is a bad or immoral rule? An example of this is the Nuremberg Defense; where the individuals who perpetrated crimes against the Jews during WW II, claimed they did nothing wrong since they were following Hitler’s rules to murder them. What if there is not rule? Hmmm?! What if there are two rules that conflict each other? The hope is that the person who is making the decision will find another rule that clarifies the conflict!
STEPS:
1. Regardless of the possible options, what is (are) the rule(s)? I must follow the rule(s).
REFERENCES
Dreisbach, C. (2008). Ethics in Criminal Justice. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Furrow, D. (2005). Ethics: Key Concepts in Philosophy. New York: Continuum Books.
DEONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemma. There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
Deontologists believe that one’s action must conform to recognized duties, the consequences are not important. By conforming, one is “doing the right thing” not because it solely pleases the individual or promotes good consequences, but rather because the individual is adhering to the concepts of duty, obligation and rationality. The deontological perspective allows for one’s intentions/motives to be valued, regardless of the outcome.
Deontolog ...
- Deontology is a moral theory that evaluates actions based on duties and obligations, rather than the consequences of the actions. It focuses on the intentions or motivations of the actor.
- The main proponent of deontology is Immanuel Kant, who argued that morality is a rational concept based on principles that can be applied universally. He formulated the "Categorical Imperative" which states that moral rules must be universally applicable to all people.
- For Kant, the only truly good will is one that acts from duty based on principles of reason, not based on desires, feelings, or consequences. He believed rational beings have an absolute obligation to follow the moral law.
This document discusses key considerations for designing and conducting primary research using questionnaires and surveys for a human geography dissertation project. It covers topics such as choosing a research topic, reviewing previous literature, using secondary data, designing questionnaires, sampling techniques, pilot testing, minimizing errors, data analysis, and reporting results. The main points are: questionnaires should be rooted in a clear research question or hypothesis; sampling should aim for representativeness; surveys require careful design, testing, and analysis to ensure reliability and validity of results.
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [Vit.docxsodhi3
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved fromhttps://kaplan.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781136389993/
In-text citation: (Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 16
Ethics and Behavior Analysis in Management
Ethical issues seem to dominate the news these days, and they extend to all areas of human endeavor including, of course, business and psychology. This chapter explores the topic of ethical issues when behavioral methods are applied to industrial/organizational (I/O) settings. The goal is not to create ethical guidelines. Rather, it is to provide an overview of the types of ethical guidelines already available as well as the nature, relevance, and importance of ethical issues that underlie such guidelines.
WHAT ARE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES?
Philosophers have long debated ethical issues. Numerous competing schools each adhere to tenets that not only are different, but sometimes opposite (Macklin, 1982). Part of this debate concerns the basic issue of how to define an ethical principle.
Philosophers sometimes quibble over whether our perceptions are reliable indicators of reality, but this issue seems to be of less concern to scientists. Scientists start with the observable, or what can be defined in terms of the observable (operational definitions). In most cases, there is a strong consensus about what is really “out there,” a consensus that is in large part based upon the consistency among observations. Scientists then attempt to find relationships between these observable entities or events, an activity that produces factual statements called laws. Factual statements deal with what might be called objective reality, descriptions about how things are.
In addition to factual statements, there are statements of value. Value statements are assertions about what is “good,” “right,” or “wrong,” and how entities and events in the world should be, not the way they necessarily are. Value statements are a cornerstone of ethics. Ethical principles look beyond what is, and ask what should be.
Other chapters in this book describe principles that can be used in organizational settings to modify behavior. In effect, the authors are presenting laws describing relationships between antecedent conditions, behaviors, and consequences. The process of discovering and describing these laws is identical to the process of discovering and describing laws in all other sciences, and as such, is grounded in objective reality and statements of fact. This chapter goes beyond such objective considerations and deals with ethical issues associated with the discovery and use of such laws.
WHY WOULD ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT RAISE ETHICAL CONCERNS?
Organizational behavior management (OBM) utilizes information derived from the field of behavior analysis (Mawhinney, 1984). Behavior analysis attempts to find universal laws of behavior. As a scientist, the behavior analyst believes that human behavior is lawful in the same sense th ...
The document discusses six major theoretical perspectives in psychology: evolutionary, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioral, sociocultural, and humanistic. It explains key aspects of each perspective, such as what they focus on and their views on topics like natural selection, how the mind processes information, the effects of unconscious desires on behavior, the impact of external factors like punishment and reward, social influences, and individual free will. The document also mentions that psychologists may use an eclectic approach combining multiple perspectives to study human behavior.
13 Leadership EthicsDescriptionThis chapter is different from .docxdrennanmicah
13 Leadership Ethics
Description
This chapter is different from many of the other chapters in this book. Most of the other chapters focus on one unified leadership theory or approach (e.g., trait approach, path–goal theory, or transformational leadership), whereas this chapter is multifaceted and presents a broad set of ethical viewpoints. The chapter is intended not as an “ethical leadership theory,” but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations.
Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics. There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics. Even in the literature of management, written primarily for practitioners, there are very few books on leadership ethics. This suggests that theoretical formulations in this area are still in their infancy.
One of the earliest writings that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996. It was a set of working papers generated from a small group of leadership scholars, brought together by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. These scholars examined how leadership theory and practice could be used to build a more caring and just society. The ideas of the Kellogg group are now published in a volume titled Ethics, the Heart of Leadership (Ciulla, 1998).
Ethical Leadership
Interest in the nature of ethical leadership has continued to grow, particularly because of the many recent scandals in corporate America and the political realm. On the academic front, there has also been a strong interest in exploring the nature of ethical leadership (see Aronson, 2001; Ciulla, 2001, 2003; Johnson, 2011; Kanungo, 2001; Price, 2008; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003).
Ethics Defined
From the perspective of Western tradition, the development of ethical theory dates back to Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.). The word ethics has its roots in the Greek word ethos, which translates to “customs,” “conduct,” or “character.” Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual or a society finds desirable or appropriate. Furthermore, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of individuals and their motives. Ethical theory provides a system of rules or principles that guide us in making decisions about what is right or wrong and good or bad in a particular situation. It provides a basis for understanding what it means to be a morally decent human being.
In regard to leadership, ethics is concerned with what leaders do and who leaders are. It has to do with t.
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreat.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard. These comments are usually uttered based on observations of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments: From where docs the standard come that the person uses to assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the person making such comments. In part this is due to the paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to discover that most people are unaware of the bases for moral judgment. This text aims to consider ably reduce this lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when this does occur. For example, there arc times when teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. These instances are few compared to the many times when we have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to learn how to conduct moral.
Final Project In this two-phased final assignment, students wil.docxAKHIL969626
Final Project:
In this two-phased final assignment, students will select a topic from the Unique Ethical Issues from weeks 3, 5, and 7, research the topic and discuss the ethical dilemma in detail.
Phase 1:
In week 4, students will submit to the Assignment Folder a brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue, the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2:
Required Elements of Final Project:
· Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
· Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
· In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
· Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
Title page;
Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
Write in the third person;
Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Theories from Week 2
TELEOLOGICAL - This describes an ethical theory which judges the rightness of an action in terms of an external goal or purpose. So, according to a teleological theory, consequences always play some part, be it small or large, in the determination of what one should or should not do. Not all teleological theories are consequentialist. John Rawls' theory of justice is teleological, but not consequentialist because it claims that consequences are only part of what must be considered when determining what policy is morally just. (Rawls)
Benefits - 1. There is room in some theories for good intentions, even if the action didn’t active the desired end. 2. Active attempt to connect morality with the “real” world. 3. By allowing for the consideration of consequences, teleological theories can adapt to different circumstances and situations. (Also see “utilitarianism”)
Problems - Depends on the theory. See “utilitarianism” for an example.
CONSEQUENTIALIST - Under a consequentialist theory, the consequences of an action determine its moral value. A key question in consequentialist theory is how to measure the moral worth of the consequences. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. Another relevant question is which consequences count (intended or actual). If only actual consequences count, then do all consequences count? Consequences can be distinguished by direct/indirect, individuals/objects affected, influence of complicating factors, etc.
All of these conside ...
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVETo gain a sense of why it is important to.docxsodhi3
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemmas.There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
The regularian perspective, at face value, appears simplistic. The only thing the person, making the decision regarding an ethical dilemma, needs to know is the rule(s). This perspective views that an act is morally good if it obeys the rules. If the rule(s) indicates the action is permissible then it is considered ethical; in contrast, if the rule(s) indicates the action is not permissible, then it is considered unethical. This perspective posits that the individual is obligated to follow the rules. Similar to other perspectives, with regularianism, the person making the decision must avoid desires and emotions, and act objectively. This is the most notable advantage of rule-based ethics. Sources for rules include commands, directives, policies and procedures, Code of Ethics, and laws.
Problems: What if it is a bad or immoral rule? An example of this is the Nuremberg Defense; where the individuals who perpetrated crimes against the Jews during WW II, claimed they did nothing wrong since they were following Hitler’s rules to murder them. What if there is not rule? Hmmm?! What if there are two rules that conflict each other? The hope is that the person who is making the decision will find another rule that clarifies the conflict!
STEPS:
1. Regardless of the possible options, what is (are) the rule(s)? I must follow the rule(s).
REFERENCES
Dreisbach, C. (2008). Ethics in Criminal Justice. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Furrow, D. (2005). Ethics: Key Concepts in Philosophy. New York: Continuum Books.
DEONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemma. There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
Deontologists believe that one’s action must conform to recognized duties, the consequences are not important. By conforming, one is “doing the right thing” not because it solely pleases the individual or promotes good consequences, but rather because the individual is adhering to the concepts of duty, obligation and rationality. The deontological perspective allows for one’s intentions/motives to be valued, regardless of the outcome.
Deontolog ...
- Deontology is a moral theory that evaluates actions based on duties and obligations, rather than the consequences of the actions. It focuses on the intentions or motivations of the actor.
- The main proponent of deontology is Immanuel Kant, who argued that morality is a rational concept based on principles that can be applied universally. He formulated the "Categorical Imperative" which states that moral rules must be universally applicable to all people.
- For Kant, the only truly good will is one that acts from duty based on principles of reason, not based on desires, feelings, or consequences. He believed rational beings have an absolute obligation to follow the moral law.
This document discusses key considerations for designing and conducting primary research using questionnaires and surveys for a human geography dissertation project. It covers topics such as choosing a research topic, reviewing previous literature, using secondary data, designing questionnaires, sampling techniques, pilot testing, minimizing errors, data analysis, and reporting results. The main points are: questionnaires should be rooted in a clear research question or hypothesis; sampling should aim for representativeness; surveys require careful design, testing, and analysis to ensure reliability and validity of results.
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [Vit.docxsodhi3
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved fromhttps://kaplan.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781136389993/
In-text citation: (Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 16
Ethics and Behavior Analysis in Management
Ethical issues seem to dominate the news these days, and they extend to all areas of human endeavor including, of course, business and psychology. This chapter explores the topic of ethical issues when behavioral methods are applied to industrial/organizational (I/O) settings. The goal is not to create ethical guidelines. Rather, it is to provide an overview of the types of ethical guidelines already available as well as the nature, relevance, and importance of ethical issues that underlie such guidelines.
WHAT ARE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES?
Philosophers have long debated ethical issues. Numerous competing schools each adhere to tenets that not only are different, but sometimes opposite (Macklin, 1982). Part of this debate concerns the basic issue of how to define an ethical principle.
Philosophers sometimes quibble over whether our perceptions are reliable indicators of reality, but this issue seems to be of less concern to scientists. Scientists start with the observable, or what can be defined in terms of the observable (operational definitions). In most cases, there is a strong consensus about what is really “out there,” a consensus that is in large part based upon the consistency among observations. Scientists then attempt to find relationships between these observable entities or events, an activity that produces factual statements called laws. Factual statements deal with what might be called objective reality, descriptions about how things are.
In addition to factual statements, there are statements of value. Value statements are assertions about what is “good,” “right,” or “wrong,” and how entities and events in the world should be, not the way they necessarily are. Value statements are a cornerstone of ethics. Ethical principles look beyond what is, and ask what should be.
Other chapters in this book describe principles that can be used in organizational settings to modify behavior. In effect, the authors are presenting laws describing relationships between antecedent conditions, behaviors, and consequences. The process of discovering and describing these laws is identical to the process of discovering and describing laws in all other sciences, and as such, is grounded in objective reality and statements of fact. This chapter goes beyond such objective considerations and deals with ethical issues associated with the discovery and use of such laws.
WHY WOULD ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT RAISE ETHICAL CONCERNS?
Organizational behavior management (OBM) utilizes information derived from the field of behavior analysis (Mawhinney, 1984). Behavior analysis attempts to find universal laws of behavior. As a scientist, the behavior analyst believes that human behavior is lawful in the same sense th ...
The document discusses six major theoretical perspectives in psychology: evolutionary, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioral, sociocultural, and humanistic. It explains key aspects of each perspective, such as what they focus on and their views on topics like natural selection, how the mind processes information, the effects of unconscious desires on behavior, the impact of external factors like punishment and reward, social influences, and individual free will. The document also mentions that psychologists may use an eclectic approach combining multiple perspectives to study human behavior.
13 Leadership EthicsDescriptionThis chapter is different from .docxdrennanmicah
13 Leadership Ethics
Description
This chapter is different from many of the other chapters in this book. Most of the other chapters focus on one unified leadership theory or approach (e.g., trait approach, path–goal theory, or transformational leadership), whereas this chapter is multifaceted and presents a broad set of ethical viewpoints. The chapter is intended not as an “ethical leadership theory,” but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations.
Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics. There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics. Even in the literature of management, written primarily for practitioners, there are very few books on leadership ethics. This suggests that theoretical formulations in this area are still in their infancy.
One of the earliest writings that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996. It was a set of working papers generated from a small group of leadership scholars, brought together by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. These scholars examined how leadership theory and practice could be used to build a more caring and just society. The ideas of the Kellogg group are now published in a volume titled Ethics, the Heart of Leadership (Ciulla, 1998).
Ethical Leadership
Interest in the nature of ethical leadership has continued to grow, particularly because of the many recent scandals in corporate America and the political realm. On the academic front, there has also been a strong interest in exploring the nature of ethical leadership (see Aronson, 2001; Ciulla, 2001, 2003; Johnson, 2011; Kanungo, 2001; Price, 2008; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003).
Ethics Defined
From the perspective of Western tradition, the development of ethical theory dates back to Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.). The word ethics has its roots in the Greek word ethos, which translates to “customs,” “conduct,” or “character.” Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual or a society finds desirable or appropriate. Furthermore, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of individuals and their motives. Ethical theory provides a system of rules or principles that guide us in making decisions about what is right or wrong and good or bad in a particular situation. It provides a basis for understanding what it means to be a morally decent human being.
In regard to leadership, ethics is concerned with what leaders do and who leaders are. It has to do with t.
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreat.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard. These comments are usually uttered based on observations of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments: From where docs the standard come that the person uses to assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the person making such comments. In part this is due to the paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to discover that most people are unaware of the bases for moral judgment. This text aims to consider ably reduce this lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when this does occur. For example, there arc times when teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. These instances are few compared to the many times when we have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to learn how to conduct moral.
Final Project In this two-phased final assignment, students wil.docxAKHIL969626
Final Project:
In this two-phased final assignment, students will select a topic from the Unique Ethical Issues from weeks 3, 5, and 7, research the topic and discuss the ethical dilemma in detail.
Phase 1:
In week 4, students will submit to the Assignment Folder a brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue, the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2:
Required Elements of Final Project:
· Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
· Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
· In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
· Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
Title page;
Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
Write in the third person;
Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Theories from Week 2
TELEOLOGICAL - This describes an ethical theory which judges the rightness of an action in terms of an external goal or purpose. So, according to a teleological theory, consequences always play some part, be it small or large, in the determination of what one should or should not do. Not all teleological theories are consequentialist. John Rawls' theory of justice is teleological, but not consequentialist because it claims that consequences are only part of what must be considered when determining what policy is morally just. (Rawls)
Benefits - 1. There is room in some theories for good intentions, even if the action didn’t active the desired end. 2. Active attempt to connect morality with the “real” world. 3. By allowing for the consideration of consequences, teleological theories can adapt to different circumstances and situations. (Also see “utilitarianism”)
Problems - Depends on the theory. See “utilitarianism” for an example.
CONSEQUENTIALIST - Under a consequentialist theory, the consequences of an action determine its moral value. A key question in consequentialist theory is how to measure the moral worth of the consequences. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. Another relevant question is which consequences count (intended or actual). If only actual consequences count, then do all consequences count? Consequences can be distinguished by direct/indirect, individuals/objects affected, influence of complicating factors, etc.
All of these conside ...
The document provides an overview of rational choice theory (RCT), including its key assumptions of individualism, optimality, self-interest, and rationality. It discusses the growth of RCT in political science since the 1950s and its application areas like gaming, party politics, and legislation. While RCT is praised for its generality and predictive power, criticisms note issues with aggregating individual actions, the influence of norms and habits, and the theory's potential over-expansion of what is considered rational.
The rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a theory for understanding and often modelling social and economic as well as individual behaviour.
Module 2 OverviewEthics, Reason, and Utilitarian EthicsWelcome.docxannandleola
Module 2 Overview
Ethics, Reason, and Utilitarian Ethics
Welcome to Module Two. Ever since ancient times, philosophers from Plato and Aristotle to Immanuel Kant believed that ethics must be based on reason. Although you may have some doubts as to the perfect reliability of reason, most philosophers have held it as a more reliable guide to ethics than emotions, as reasoning provides more objectivity than emotion can. The first half of this module will focus on the impact of reason and emotion on ethical issues, including Kantian ethics and its emphasis on ethical reasoning. The second half of this module will discuss Utilitarian theory and its role in ethics.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
1B
explain the qualities of pleasure.
1C
discuss the impact of emotion and reason on ethical issues.
5A
discuss Kantian ethics.
6A
explain the uses and criticisms of utilitarian theory.
Module 2 Reading Assignment
Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 4 and 5.
Course Login Instructions
If you are a first time user:
Please register your Pearson Online
Solution
s Student Access Code. You can find your Student Access Code in the AAU Course Registration e-mail that came with your text.
If you are a returning user:
Please visit the Access Code Registration page to log in. You must log in every time you access this course. If you are not logged in, you will not be able to access the premium resources.
NOTE: Bookmarking pages in this site, especially the resources you access with the link above, is not recommended.
Please view Part 1 of the Online Presentation for Module 2.
Please view Part 2 of the Online Presentation for Module 2.
Lecture Notes
Ethics, Reason, and Utilitarian Ethics
Chapter 4 Lecture Notes: Ethics and Reason
Reasoning about Ethics
It is clear that we can engage in some level of reasoning about ethical issues, though the exact nature and extent of such reasoning is a contested issue. Although there may be some doubts about the reliability of our reason, most philosophers have favored it over emotions or pure intuition. We cannot deny that emotions may influence our moral decision making, but, as the violinist example from Judith Thomson demonstrates, it seems clear that we do in fact reason about ethics.
If we accept that we can reason about ethics, then we may want to examine the nature of the moral conclusions one reaches. Either the conclusion is a hypothetical (or conditional conclusion) or it is a categorical conclusion. A hypothetical conclusion has the form “if you desire some outcome x, then do y”. The truth or falsity of the conclusion depends in part on your desiring some outcome. On the other hand, categorical conclusions command absolutely as in “do x”—no ifs, ands, or buts.
Elements of Kantian Ethics
Kant claims that reason can establish fundamental and unconditional ethi ...
The document provides an overview of rational choice theory (RCT). It discusses the key assumptions of RCT, including individualism, optimality, self-interest, and rationality. RCT argues that individuals make choices to maximize their own welfare. The document outlines the growth of RCT in political science and economics. It also discusses criticisms of RCT and its limitations in fully explaining human social behavior and collective action problems.
rational action theory or choice theory, school of thought based on the assumption that individuals choose a course of action that is most in line with their personal preferences.
The essay examines Kurt Vonnegut's novel Slaughterhouse-Five and critiques Steven Weisenburger's theory of a dichotomy in satire. The essay argues that while Weisenburger rejects the idea of distinguishing "good" and "bad" examples, he presents degenerative examples as inherently good rather than evil. Additionally, while Weisenburger diagnoses satire as involving violence, Vonnegut's novel deviates from this by depicting how the sight of destruction can inspire readers rather than support a moral code. The essay also analyzes how Billy Pilgrim in the novel plays the role of a Christ figure.
Deontological ethics is a theory that bases the morality of actions on duties and rights rather than the consequences of the actions. It proposes that an action is right if it adheres to a moral rule or duty. Immanuel Kant's theory of deontology is one of the most influential. For Kant, the only intrinsically good thing is a good will. He formulated the Categorical Imperative which states that moral rules must be universal and that people should never be treated merely as a means but always as ends in themselves. Deontological ethics emphasizes adherence to rules and duties over consequences, but it is criticized for being too rigid and not dealing well with conflicts between duties.
Deontological ethics is a theory that bases the morality of actions on duties and rights rather than the consequences of the actions. It proposes that an action is right if it adheres to a moral rule or duty. Immanuel Kant's theory of deontology is one of the most influential. For Kant, the only intrinsically good thing is a good will. He formulated the Categorical Imperative which states that moral rules must be universal and that people should never be treated merely as a means but always as ends in themselves. Deontological ethics emphasizes adherence to rules and duties over consequences, but it is sometimes criticized for being too rigid and not dealing well with conflicts between duties.
Business EthicsSession 2 Business Ethics Theories IVannaSchrader3
Business Ethics
Session 2: Business Ethics Theories I
Business Ethics Theories
1. Summary of Session I
2. Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
3. Business Ethics Theories (Part I)
4. Discussion: Wiki Leaks
5. Exercise: A Tale of Two Stories
6. The Paradise Papers
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Ethical Decision-Making
What to decide in ambitious/complicated
situations?
What to decide in a dilemma situation?
Ethical theory can help to find a solution.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
• Ethical Theories provides part of the solution when
decisions need to be made in situations where ethics
(right and wrong) play a role.
• Ethical theories provide guidelines.
• Each theory emphasizes different points:
– A different decision-making style, or
– A decision rule – eg to predict the outcome of the
decision and to follow duties to others in order to
reach what the said individual considers to be
ethically correct.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
In order to understand ethical decision-making,
it is important to acknowledge that not everyone makes
decisions in the same way by using exactly the same
information.
To further understand ethical theory, there must be a
common understanding of a common set of goals based
on ethical principles:
• Beneficence
• Least Harm
• Respect for autonomy
• Justice
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Common set of goals based on ethical principles:
• Beneficence
– Guides the decision-maker to do what is good and
right.
– « to do good » makes the possible solution to an
ethical dilemma acceptable
– The principle is related to utilty theory (we should
attempt to to generate the largest ration of good
over evil possible in the world.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Common set of goals based on ethical principles:
• Least Harm
– As in the case of beneficence, least harm deals
with situations in which no choice seems
beneficial.
– In these cases, decision-makers base their
decisions on doing the least harm to the greater
number of people.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Common set of goals based on ethical principles:
• Respect for autonomy
– This principle states that decision-making should
focus on allowing people to be autonomous – to be
able to make decisions that apply to their lives.
• Justice
– Decision-makers should focus on actions that are
fair to those involved.
Ethical Theories
I. Egoism/ Liberalism
II. Utilitarianism
III. Ethics of Duties/ Deontology/
Kantianism
IV. Natural Rights Theory
Business Ethics Theories
I. Egoism/ Liberalism
Implies that the individual follows his/her long-term interest.
Egoism is not selfishness.
Enlightened self-interest implies that, for example, CSR activities are
sometimes implemented, because they have a positive long-term impact on the
financial performance of a company.
Authors: Plato (470-399 BC), Adam Smith (1723-1790)
The logic of mark ...
Learning Activity #1Using the company you selected for the.docxsmile790243
This discussion prompt asks students to identify, define, and describe a situation applying the three dominant ethical theories in Western philosophy: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Students are expected to post their initial response by Thursday and respond to classmates' posts by Monday to demonstrate their understanding of these theories.
Develop a basic understanding of Critical Thinking and its use.
Develop a basic appreciation for a Total Life System.
Raise awareness to Contradictions in our lives and the world around us.
This document provides an overview and comparison of two popular moral theories in business decision making: universalism and utilitarianism. Universalism, developed by Kant, focuses on intentions and treating people as ends rather than means. It emphasizes consistency through universal rules. Utilitarianism, advocated by Bentham and Mill, focuses on outcomes and producing the greatest good for the greatest number. It emphasizes flexibility based on circumstances. While differing in their approaches, both theories aim to eliminate selfishness and promote impartiality, though each can lead to undesirable outcomes. Both remain influential moral frameworks.
This document discusses five categories of ethical theories: virtue, duty, utility, rights, and love. It provides details on two theories under virtue - Aristotle's concept of the mean and Confucius' golden mean. It then explains Kant's categorical imperative under duty-based ethics and Mill's principle of utility. John Rawls' veil of ignorance is covered in the section on rights-based ethics. Finally, it discusses the Judeo-Christian concept of regarding others and Noddings' relational ethics under love-based ethics.
Ashford 3: - Week 2 - Discussion 2
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses.
The Three Ethical Perspectives
The purpose of this discussion is to help you understand how to construct an ethical argument. Prepare and post a response to the following prompt:
· Identify the basic themes, topics, and concepts that make up the discipline of ethics. Explain the themes or ideas that unite the different ethical theories.
· Describe how you might apply one of the ethical theories or perspectives we have discussed in this class to one of the following social issues:
· Limiting smoking in public places, such as public buildings, restaurants, or city parks
· Municipal governments using public funds to build stadiums for professional sports teams
· Requiring a private landowner to provide habitat for endangered species on their properties
In an effort to present a balanced discussion, describe an alternative perspective to the issue you have addressed.
Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length. Support your claims with examples from the required resources and/or other scholarly sources, and properly cite any references in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ posts by Day 7.
Carefully review the Discussion Forum Grading Rubric for the criteria that will be used to evaluate this Discussion Thread.
Ashford 3: - Week 2 - Instructor Guidance
Source: http://www.impactlab.net/2009/08/10/
are-local-and-state-governments-in-the-u-s-getting-too-big/
SOC 120 Ethics & Social Responsibility
Week 2 Guidance
Source: http://teachersletterstobillgates.com/
2013/07/05/from-the-common-core-to-the-
common-good-a-new-way-forward/
Weekly Activities
Here is what you will be doing this week:
· Review last week's Chapter 1 in the text: Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility
· Review last week's Chapter 2 in the text: Ethical Questions in the Public Square
· Read Chapter 8 in the text: The Environment
· Read the article “Environmental Justice for All” by Leyla Kokmen, from Utne Reader (2008)
· Post to Discussion Board 1 on The Three Ethical Perspectives (due by Day 3, Thursday)
· Post to Discussion Board 2 on Constructing Arguments (due by Day 3, Thursday)
· Respond to two discussion posts by classmates in each discussion (by Day 7, Monday)
· Assignment: Applying Theory: Environmental Issues, PowerPoint slideshow (due by Day 7, Monday)
Ethics, Responsibility and Society
This week we take up the issue of individual rights, and how individual rights are mediated by the responsibilities we have to the social well-being―which includes both our responsibilities to other individuals who we interact with and our responsibilities to the collective good, or the well-being of everyone together. As is often noted, every ri.
Describe the three most well-known types of ethical decision making .pdffashionscollect
Describe the three most well-known types of ethical decision making and the four dilemmas that
each engender. Why do these matter to the leader in his or her own ethical perspectives?
Solution
Three Broad Types of Ethical Theory:
Ethical theories are often broadly divided into three types: i) Consequentialist theories, which
are primarily concerned with the ethical consequences of particular actions; ii) Non-
consequentialist theories, which tend to be broadly concerned with the intentions of the person
making ethical decisions about particular actions; and iii) Agent-centered theories, which, unlike
consequentialist and non-consequentialist theories, are more concerned with the overall ethical
status of individuals, or agents, and are less concerned to identify the morality of particular
actions. Each of these three broad categories contains varieties of approaches to ethics, some of
which share characteristics across the categories. Below is a sample of some of the most
important and useful of these ethical approaches.
i.) Consequentialist Theories:
The Utilitarian Approach
Utilitarianism can be traced back to the school of the Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus of
Samos (341-270 BCE), who argued that the best life is one that produces the least pain and
distress. The 18th Century British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) applied a similar
standard to individual actions, and created a system in which actions could be described as good
or bad depending upon the amount and degree of pleasure and/or pain they would produce.
Bentham’s student, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) modified this system by making its standard
for the good the more subjective concept of “happiness,” as opposed to the more materialist idea
of “pleasure.”
Utilitarianism is one of the most common approaches to making ethical decisions,especially
decisions with consequences that concern large groups of people, in part because it instructs us to
weigh the different amounts of good and bad that will be produced by our action. This conforms
to our feeling that some good and some bad will necessarily be the result of our action and that
the best action will be that which provides the most good or does the least harm, or, to put it
another way, produces the greatest balance of good over harm. Ethical environmental action,
then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are
affected—government, corporations, the community, and the environment.
The Egoistic Approach
One variation of the utilitarian approach is known as ethical egoism, or the ethics of self-
interest. In this approach, an individual often uses utilitarian calculation to produce the greatest
amount of good for him or herself. Ancient Greek Sophists like Thrasymacus (c. 459-400 BCE),
who famously claimed that might makes right, and early modern thinkers like Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679) may be considered forerunners of this approach. One of the most influential recent
proponents of.
Business Ethics Research PaperPhase 1 (5)A brief one page pa.docxhumphrieskalyn
Business Ethics Research Paper
Phase 1: (5%)
A brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue (topics to choose from are below), the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories (utilitarian, deontological, virtue, teleological) that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2: (30%)
Required Elements of Final Project:
Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
Week 2 readings
What Is the Relationship Between Business Ethics and Decision Making?
Norman Bowie: a Kantian Approach to Business Ethics
Terms In and Types of Ethical Theory
In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
Relativism readings
Ethical relativism
Ethical Relativism and Business
Theory of Ethical Relativism (Criticism of the theory of ethical relativism)
Ethical Relativism discussion of points for and against theory
Rules, Standards, and Ethics: Relativism Predicts Cross-National Differences in the Codification of Moral Standards
Criticism of Ethical Relativism
Ethical Relativism (Points Against the Theory)
Effects of Globalization readings
Distributive Justice
Figures on the distribution of wealth in the world: Richest 1% of People Own Nearly Half of Global Wealth, says Report
It's A "0.6%" World: Who Owns What Of The $223 Trillion In Global Wealth
Wealth, Income, and Power
The 147 Companies That Control Everything
Who Controls the World? Resources for Understanding this Visualization of the Global Economy
Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
· This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
· Title page;
· Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
· Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
· Write in the third person;
· Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
· Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Please also read the Professors notes below
Topics to choose from – Blue is main topic green is articles that relate to that topic
1. Snowden and the Ethics of Whistleblowing
Whistleblowing: Redefining Ethics
2. Is Business Bluffing Ethical?
Critique of Is Business Bluffing Ethical
3. Value-Led Business/Show me the money: How sustainability Creates Revenue at Bloomberg
Harnessing the Power of Corporate Culture (Developing Leaders for a Sustainable Global Society).
Lesson Four: The Ethical Dimension of Sustainability
4. When Robots Lie: How should we program computers to deceive?
Unchartered Territory: When Innovatio ...
Kant's moral theory of deontology holds that morality is a matter of duty rather than consequences. Actions are judged based on their adherence to moral rules, not their outcomes. The core of Kant's view is the Categorical Imperative - the moral rule that one should only act in a way that can be universally applied without contradiction. For example, it would contradict the rule to pick flowers in the park if everyone did so, leaving none left. Kant also formulated that one should treat humanity as an end in itself, never merely as a means. While deontology avoids some issues with utilitarianism, it is criticized for disregarding outcomes and potentially conflicting with intuitions in some cases.
The document attempts to clarify the relationships between morality, ethics, deontology, law, and enforcement. It discusses how:
1) Deontology refers to professional codes of ethics or conduct that aim to guide behavior and evaluate actions.
2) Ethics focuses on living well with and for others in just institutions, while morality concerns principles, norms, and individual duty and conscience.
3) Different ethical theories like consequentialism, deontology, and relativism provide frameworks for moral decision making.
4) There are links between ethics, morality, and law in aiming to define valid social practices, though laws are no longer seen as inherently just or moral. Enforcement of codes relies on relevant bodies having sanction
Ethics_Chapter6_for students (1)ethics .pptxrheeseguiellos
This document provides an overview of a college-level ethics course. It discusses how moral decision-making is shaped by many contextual factors like culture, religion, emotions and feelings. It introduces Kohlberg's stages of moral development and emphasizes the importance of studying ethical theories to develop mature, rational decision-making. The document outlines how ethical frameworks like utilitarianism, natural law theory, Kantian ethics and virtue ethics can guide individuals in making moral decisions regarding themselves, society and the environment. It closes by stating that the study of ethics is an ongoing, never-ending process rather than a conclusive one.
All scientific theories must be able to make testable predictions. S.docxoreo10
The document discusses the concepts of phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium, two theories of how evolution occurs. Punctuated equilibrium predicts a fossil record with long periods of little change punctuated by short periods of rapid evolution. It suggests rapid evolution is driven by environmental pressures while periods of stasis are due to stabilizing evolutionary factors. The debate between these two theories continues as evidence both supports gradual evolution as well as punctuated periods of rapid change throughout the fossil record.
All I wnat is to write a reflection paper on my project which is hac.docxoreo10
All I wnat is to write a reflection paper on my project which is hacking tools
My project is about using those 5 tools :
1-
Ice Hole for
Phishing
2-
SocialKlepto for
Social
3-
SmartphonePF and
Mactans
for Mobile
4-
Hping and
Yersinia for networks
5-
LCP and
Cain and Abel for
PasswordCracking
.
Alice,Betty, and Carol are playing a game with 48 marbles in a circl.docxoreo10
Alice,Betty, and Carol are playing a game with 48 marbles in a circle. Alice takes 2 marbles. Betty takes 4 marbles and Carol takes 6 marbles. One of them (not saying which one) now takes as many marbles as she did the first time. Another girl takes twice as many as she had before and the remaining girl takes 4 times as many as before. There are now 10 marbles left in the circle. Which girl took the same amount as the first time?
.
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The document provides an overview of rational choice theory (RCT), including its key assumptions of individualism, optimality, self-interest, and rationality. It discusses the growth of RCT in political science since the 1950s and its application areas like gaming, party politics, and legislation. While RCT is praised for its generality and predictive power, criticisms note issues with aggregating individual actions, the influence of norms and habits, and the theory's potential over-expansion of what is considered rational.
The rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a theory for understanding and often modelling social and economic as well as individual behaviour.
Module 2 OverviewEthics, Reason, and Utilitarian EthicsWelcome.docxannandleola
Module 2 Overview
Ethics, Reason, and Utilitarian Ethics
Welcome to Module Two. Ever since ancient times, philosophers from Plato and Aristotle to Immanuel Kant believed that ethics must be based on reason. Although you may have some doubts as to the perfect reliability of reason, most philosophers have held it as a more reliable guide to ethics than emotions, as reasoning provides more objectivity than emotion can. The first half of this module will focus on the impact of reason and emotion on ethical issues, including Kantian ethics and its emphasis on ethical reasoning. The second half of this module will discuss Utilitarian theory and its role in ethics.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
1B
explain the qualities of pleasure.
1C
discuss the impact of emotion and reason on ethical issues.
5A
discuss Kantian ethics.
6A
explain the uses and criticisms of utilitarian theory.
Module 2 Reading Assignment
Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 4 and 5.
Course Login Instructions
If you are a first time user:
Please register your Pearson Online
Solution
s Student Access Code. You can find your Student Access Code in the AAU Course Registration e-mail that came with your text.
If you are a returning user:
Please visit the Access Code Registration page to log in. You must log in every time you access this course. If you are not logged in, you will not be able to access the premium resources.
NOTE: Bookmarking pages in this site, especially the resources you access with the link above, is not recommended.
Please view Part 1 of the Online Presentation for Module 2.
Please view Part 2 of the Online Presentation for Module 2.
Lecture Notes
Ethics, Reason, and Utilitarian Ethics
Chapter 4 Lecture Notes: Ethics and Reason
Reasoning about Ethics
It is clear that we can engage in some level of reasoning about ethical issues, though the exact nature and extent of such reasoning is a contested issue. Although there may be some doubts about the reliability of our reason, most philosophers have favored it over emotions or pure intuition. We cannot deny that emotions may influence our moral decision making, but, as the violinist example from Judith Thomson demonstrates, it seems clear that we do in fact reason about ethics.
If we accept that we can reason about ethics, then we may want to examine the nature of the moral conclusions one reaches. Either the conclusion is a hypothetical (or conditional conclusion) or it is a categorical conclusion. A hypothetical conclusion has the form “if you desire some outcome x, then do y”. The truth or falsity of the conclusion depends in part on your desiring some outcome. On the other hand, categorical conclusions command absolutely as in “do x”—no ifs, ands, or buts.
Elements of Kantian Ethics
Kant claims that reason can establish fundamental and unconditional ethi ...
The document provides an overview of rational choice theory (RCT). It discusses the key assumptions of RCT, including individualism, optimality, self-interest, and rationality. RCT argues that individuals make choices to maximize their own welfare. The document outlines the growth of RCT in political science and economics. It also discusses criticisms of RCT and its limitations in fully explaining human social behavior and collective action problems.
rational action theory or choice theory, school of thought based on the assumption that individuals choose a course of action that is most in line with their personal preferences.
The essay examines Kurt Vonnegut's novel Slaughterhouse-Five and critiques Steven Weisenburger's theory of a dichotomy in satire. The essay argues that while Weisenburger rejects the idea of distinguishing "good" and "bad" examples, he presents degenerative examples as inherently good rather than evil. Additionally, while Weisenburger diagnoses satire as involving violence, Vonnegut's novel deviates from this by depicting how the sight of destruction can inspire readers rather than support a moral code. The essay also analyzes how Billy Pilgrim in the novel plays the role of a Christ figure.
Deontological ethics is a theory that bases the morality of actions on duties and rights rather than the consequences of the actions. It proposes that an action is right if it adheres to a moral rule or duty. Immanuel Kant's theory of deontology is one of the most influential. For Kant, the only intrinsically good thing is a good will. He formulated the Categorical Imperative which states that moral rules must be universal and that people should never be treated merely as a means but always as ends in themselves. Deontological ethics emphasizes adherence to rules and duties over consequences, but it is criticized for being too rigid and not dealing well with conflicts between duties.
Deontological ethics is a theory that bases the morality of actions on duties and rights rather than the consequences of the actions. It proposes that an action is right if it adheres to a moral rule or duty. Immanuel Kant's theory of deontology is one of the most influential. For Kant, the only intrinsically good thing is a good will. He formulated the Categorical Imperative which states that moral rules must be universal and that people should never be treated merely as a means but always as ends in themselves. Deontological ethics emphasizes adherence to rules and duties over consequences, but it is sometimes criticized for being too rigid and not dealing well with conflicts between duties.
Business EthicsSession 2 Business Ethics Theories IVannaSchrader3
Business Ethics
Session 2: Business Ethics Theories I
Business Ethics Theories
1. Summary of Session I
2. Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
3. Business Ethics Theories (Part I)
4. Discussion: Wiki Leaks
5. Exercise: A Tale of Two Stories
6. The Paradise Papers
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Ethical Decision-Making
What to decide in ambitious/complicated
situations?
What to decide in a dilemma situation?
Ethical theory can help to find a solution.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
• Ethical Theories provides part of the solution when
decisions need to be made in situations where ethics
(right and wrong) play a role.
• Ethical theories provide guidelines.
• Each theory emphasizes different points:
– A different decision-making style, or
– A decision rule – eg to predict the outcome of the
decision and to follow duties to others in order to
reach what the said individual considers to be
ethically correct.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
In order to understand ethical decision-making,
it is important to acknowledge that not everyone makes
decisions in the same way by using exactly the same
information.
To further understand ethical theory, there must be a
common understanding of a common set of goals based
on ethical principles:
• Beneficence
• Least Harm
• Respect for autonomy
• Justice
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Common set of goals based on ethical principles:
• Beneficence
– Guides the decision-maker to do what is good and
right.
– « to do good » makes the possible solution to an
ethical dilemma acceptable
– The principle is related to utilty theory (we should
attempt to to generate the largest ration of good
over evil possible in the world.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Common set of goals based on ethical principles:
• Least Harm
– As in the case of beneficence, least harm deals
with situations in which no choice seems
beneficial.
– In these cases, decision-makers base their
decisions on doing the least harm to the greater
number of people.
Introduction to Business Ethics Theories
Common set of goals based on ethical principles:
• Respect for autonomy
– This principle states that decision-making should
focus on allowing people to be autonomous – to be
able to make decisions that apply to their lives.
• Justice
– Decision-makers should focus on actions that are
fair to those involved.
Ethical Theories
I. Egoism/ Liberalism
II. Utilitarianism
III. Ethics of Duties/ Deontology/
Kantianism
IV. Natural Rights Theory
Business Ethics Theories
I. Egoism/ Liberalism
Implies that the individual follows his/her long-term interest.
Egoism is not selfishness.
Enlightened self-interest implies that, for example, CSR activities are
sometimes implemented, because they have a positive long-term impact on the
financial performance of a company.
Authors: Plato (470-399 BC), Adam Smith (1723-1790)
The logic of mark ...
Learning Activity #1Using the company you selected for the.docxsmile790243
This discussion prompt asks students to identify, define, and describe a situation applying the three dominant ethical theories in Western philosophy: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Students are expected to post their initial response by Thursday and respond to classmates' posts by Monday to demonstrate their understanding of these theories.
Develop a basic understanding of Critical Thinking and its use.
Develop a basic appreciation for a Total Life System.
Raise awareness to Contradictions in our lives and the world around us.
This document provides an overview and comparison of two popular moral theories in business decision making: universalism and utilitarianism. Universalism, developed by Kant, focuses on intentions and treating people as ends rather than means. It emphasizes consistency through universal rules. Utilitarianism, advocated by Bentham and Mill, focuses on outcomes and producing the greatest good for the greatest number. It emphasizes flexibility based on circumstances. While differing in their approaches, both theories aim to eliminate selfishness and promote impartiality, though each can lead to undesirable outcomes. Both remain influential moral frameworks.
This document discusses five categories of ethical theories: virtue, duty, utility, rights, and love. It provides details on two theories under virtue - Aristotle's concept of the mean and Confucius' golden mean. It then explains Kant's categorical imperative under duty-based ethics and Mill's principle of utility. John Rawls' veil of ignorance is covered in the section on rights-based ethics. Finally, it discusses the Judeo-Christian concept of regarding others and Noddings' relational ethics under love-based ethics.
Ashford 3: - Week 2 - Discussion 2
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses.
The Three Ethical Perspectives
The purpose of this discussion is to help you understand how to construct an ethical argument. Prepare and post a response to the following prompt:
· Identify the basic themes, topics, and concepts that make up the discipline of ethics. Explain the themes or ideas that unite the different ethical theories.
· Describe how you might apply one of the ethical theories or perspectives we have discussed in this class to one of the following social issues:
· Limiting smoking in public places, such as public buildings, restaurants, or city parks
· Municipal governments using public funds to build stadiums for professional sports teams
· Requiring a private landowner to provide habitat for endangered species on their properties
In an effort to present a balanced discussion, describe an alternative perspective to the issue you have addressed.
Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length. Support your claims with examples from the required resources and/or other scholarly sources, and properly cite any references in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ posts by Day 7.
Carefully review the Discussion Forum Grading Rubric for the criteria that will be used to evaluate this Discussion Thread.
Ashford 3: - Week 2 - Instructor Guidance
Source: http://www.impactlab.net/2009/08/10/
are-local-and-state-governments-in-the-u-s-getting-too-big/
SOC 120 Ethics & Social Responsibility
Week 2 Guidance
Source: http://teachersletterstobillgates.com/
2013/07/05/from-the-common-core-to-the-
common-good-a-new-way-forward/
Weekly Activities
Here is what you will be doing this week:
· Review last week's Chapter 1 in the text: Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility
· Review last week's Chapter 2 in the text: Ethical Questions in the Public Square
· Read Chapter 8 in the text: The Environment
· Read the article “Environmental Justice for All” by Leyla Kokmen, from Utne Reader (2008)
· Post to Discussion Board 1 on The Three Ethical Perspectives (due by Day 3, Thursday)
· Post to Discussion Board 2 on Constructing Arguments (due by Day 3, Thursday)
· Respond to two discussion posts by classmates in each discussion (by Day 7, Monday)
· Assignment: Applying Theory: Environmental Issues, PowerPoint slideshow (due by Day 7, Monday)
Ethics, Responsibility and Society
This week we take up the issue of individual rights, and how individual rights are mediated by the responsibilities we have to the social well-being―which includes both our responsibilities to other individuals who we interact with and our responsibilities to the collective good, or the well-being of everyone together. As is often noted, every ri.
Describe the three most well-known types of ethical decision making .pdffashionscollect
Describe the three most well-known types of ethical decision making and the four dilemmas that
each engender. Why do these matter to the leader in his or her own ethical perspectives?
Solution
Three Broad Types of Ethical Theory:
Ethical theories are often broadly divided into three types: i) Consequentialist theories, which
are primarily concerned with the ethical consequences of particular actions; ii) Non-
consequentialist theories, which tend to be broadly concerned with the intentions of the person
making ethical decisions about particular actions; and iii) Agent-centered theories, which, unlike
consequentialist and non-consequentialist theories, are more concerned with the overall ethical
status of individuals, or agents, and are less concerned to identify the morality of particular
actions. Each of these three broad categories contains varieties of approaches to ethics, some of
which share characteristics across the categories. Below is a sample of some of the most
important and useful of these ethical approaches.
i.) Consequentialist Theories:
The Utilitarian Approach
Utilitarianism can be traced back to the school of the Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus of
Samos (341-270 BCE), who argued that the best life is one that produces the least pain and
distress. The 18th Century British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) applied a similar
standard to individual actions, and created a system in which actions could be described as good
or bad depending upon the amount and degree of pleasure and/or pain they would produce.
Bentham’s student, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) modified this system by making its standard
for the good the more subjective concept of “happiness,” as opposed to the more materialist idea
of “pleasure.”
Utilitarianism is one of the most common approaches to making ethical decisions,especially
decisions with consequences that concern large groups of people, in part because it instructs us to
weigh the different amounts of good and bad that will be produced by our action. This conforms
to our feeling that some good and some bad will necessarily be the result of our action and that
the best action will be that which provides the most good or does the least harm, or, to put it
another way, produces the greatest balance of good over harm. Ethical environmental action,
then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are
affected—government, corporations, the community, and the environment.
The Egoistic Approach
One variation of the utilitarian approach is known as ethical egoism, or the ethics of self-
interest. In this approach, an individual often uses utilitarian calculation to produce the greatest
amount of good for him or herself. Ancient Greek Sophists like Thrasymacus (c. 459-400 BCE),
who famously claimed that might makes right, and early modern thinkers like Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679) may be considered forerunners of this approach. One of the most influential recent
proponents of.
Business Ethics Research PaperPhase 1 (5)A brief one page pa.docxhumphrieskalyn
Business Ethics Research Paper
Phase 1: (5%)
A brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue (topics to choose from are below), the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories (utilitarian, deontological, virtue, teleological) that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2: (30%)
Required Elements of Final Project:
Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
Week 2 readings
What Is the Relationship Between Business Ethics and Decision Making?
Norman Bowie: a Kantian Approach to Business Ethics
Terms In and Types of Ethical Theory
In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
Relativism readings
Ethical relativism
Ethical Relativism and Business
Theory of Ethical Relativism (Criticism of the theory of ethical relativism)
Ethical Relativism discussion of points for and against theory
Rules, Standards, and Ethics: Relativism Predicts Cross-National Differences in the Codification of Moral Standards
Criticism of Ethical Relativism
Ethical Relativism (Points Against the Theory)
Effects of Globalization readings
Distributive Justice
Figures on the distribution of wealth in the world: Richest 1% of People Own Nearly Half of Global Wealth, says Report
It's A "0.6%" World: Who Owns What Of The $223 Trillion In Global Wealth
Wealth, Income, and Power
The 147 Companies That Control Everything
Who Controls the World? Resources for Understanding this Visualization of the Global Economy
Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
· This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
· Title page;
· Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
· Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
· Write in the third person;
· Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
· Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Please also read the Professors notes below
Topics to choose from – Blue is main topic green is articles that relate to that topic
1. Snowden and the Ethics of Whistleblowing
Whistleblowing: Redefining Ethics
2. Is Business Bluffing Ethical?
Critique of Is Business Bluffing Ethical
3. Value-Led Business/Show me the money: How sustainability Creates Revenue at Bloomberg
Harnessing the Power of Corporate Culture (Developing Leaders for a Sustainable Global Society).
Lesson Four: The Ethical Dimension of Sustainability
4. When Robots Lie: How should we program computers to deceive?
Unchartered Territory: When Innovatio ...
Kant's moral theory of deontology holds that morality is a matter of duty rather than consequences. Actions are judged based on their adherence to moral rules, not their outcomes. The core of Kant's view is the Categorical Imperative - the moral rule that one should only act in a way that can be universally applied without contradiction. For example, it would contradict the rule to pick flowers in the park if everyone did so, leaving none left. Kant also formulated that one should treat humanity as an end in itself, never merely as a means. While deontology avoids some issues with utilitarianism, it is criticized for disregarding outcomes and potentially conflicting with intuitions in some cases.
The document attempts to clarify the relationships between morality, ethics, deontology, law, and enforcement. It discusses how:
1) Deontology refers to professional codes of ethics or conduct that aim to guide behavior and evaluate actions.
2) Ethics focuses on living well with and for others in just institutions, while morality concerns principles, norms, and individual duty and conscience.
3) Different ethical theories like consequentialism, deontology, and relativism provide frameworks for moral decision making.
4) There are links between ethics, morality, and law in aiming to define valid social practices, though laws are no longer seen as inherently just or moral. Enforcement of codes relies on relevant bodies having sanction
Ethics_Chapter6_for students (1)ethics .pptxrheeseguiellos
This document provides an overview of a college-level ethics course. It discusses how moral decision-making is shaped by many contextual factors like culture, religion, emotions and feelings. It introduces Kohlberg's stages of moral development and emphasizes the importance of studying ethical theories to develop mature, rational decision-making. The document outlines how ethical frameworks like utilitarianism, natural law theory, Kantian ethics and virtue ethics can guide individuals in making moral decisions regarding themselves, society and the environment. It closes by stating that the study of ethics is an ongoing, never-ending process rather than a conclusive one.
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2-
SocialKlepto for
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3-
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Hping and
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This is an individual Mediation assignment.
Read the attached information.
Assume the first role, that of Samantha (Sam) Pinder,
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Resolve
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Describe the
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All organisms have DNA, which differs only in the number and order of each type of nucleotide. This suggests that all organisms have
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Take this time to do your
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Eliminate
Reactivate
Eliminate
Reactivate
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How is the more direct performative aspect of drama and/or poetry reflected in these forms? (Consider for example, each genre’s uses of literary structure, language, technique, and style.) How do these literary elements affect your reading experience?
In your post, identify key qualities of drama and poetry which emphasize their performative qualities. Discuss how these characteristics shape your reading response. Support your views with
at least one example of a dramatic text and one example of a poem
.
.
All key elements of the assignment are covered in a substantiv.docxoreo10
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Presentation follows the timeline of the evolution of business.
·
Presentation provides information on the different stages of business evolution, including:
o
Feudalism
o
Mercantilism
o
Capitalism
o
Commerce
o
Property rights
o
The Industrial Revolution
·
Presentation consists of 10 to 15 slides appropriate for the speaker’s audience.
·
Speaker notes are included for each slide.
·
Title and APA reference slide are included.
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.
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Select
two types of air pollutants and two types of water pollutants.
Write
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·
Indicate whether the selected air pollutants are considered primary or secondary pollutants. Explain why they are considered to be primary or secondary and discuss the sources of these pollutants.
·
Describe how the selected air pollutants affect the different layers of the atmosphere. In looking at this interaction, how do greenhouse gases influence Earth’s climate? Discuss how these air pollutants and greenhouse gases affect human, plant, and animal life.
·
Examine the selected water pollutants. Discuss the sources of these pollutants and indicate their effects on water resources and aquatic life.
·
Discuss the effect of poor water quality on humans and the environment. What are some solutions for reducing poor water quality?
Cite
at least two references.
Format
your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
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planning and implementing
a program that will address reduction in exposure of the community, particularly children, to air pollution and thereby reducing the impact of air pollution in the community.
Write a 2-3 page paper in which you do the following:
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indoor and outdoor air pollution
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Academic journals
Financial and economic publications like the Wall Street Journal, the Economist, and industry-specific publications
Newspapers such as the New York Times and the Washington Post
Research databases like ProQuest
Use the
Hunt Library (Links to an external site.)
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You may write a formal outline or present your information in paragraph form using current APA formatting. Regardless of the outline format, you must provide the following:
Details that align with your microeconomics topic
List of your sources
Two of the sources must be from academic journals.
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Aging and Disability WorksheetPart IIdentify 2 or .docxoreo10
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Part I
Identify 2 or 3 issues faced by the aging population.
1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions in 100 to 200 words each
.
Provide citations for all
the
sources
you use
.
·
What is ageism? How does ageism influence the presence of diversity in society?
·
What is the
Age
Dis
criminitation in Employment
Act (AD
E
A)? How does the AD
E
A address issues for the aging population?
·
What is being done to address the issues you identified?
·
Is the number of aging population expected to rise in numbers or decrease?
·
What types of legislation may or may not be affected by the aging population?
·
How does poverty affect the aging population?
Part II
Answer the following questions in 100 to 200 words each
.
Provide citations for all
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·
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·
How have people with disabilities been treated in the past?
·
How has the attitude toward people with disabilities changed over time?
·
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·
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Reading response
Peter Dormer, “Craft and the Turing Test for Practical Thinking,” in The Challenge of Technology.
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How do they relate to the Turing test?
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Boris Karloff in Frankenstein in 1931 directed by James Whale
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Two definitions of AI:
“The use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular.
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“The science of making machines do things that would require intelligence if done by humans.”
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BOTH OF THESE STATEMENTS ORIGINATE IN ALAN TURING’S FIRST COMPUTER SCIENCE ARTICLE
Working assumption: all cognition is computable
Question:
Is what’s not yet known to be computable actually computable?
if so, then what?
if not, why not, and what does that tell us about cognition?
7
Who was Alan Turing?
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The Journal of Values-Based LeadershipVolume 8Issue 2 Summ.docx
1. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership
Volume 8
Issue 2 Summer/Fall 2015
Article 3
July 2015
Universalism and Utilitarianism: An Evaluation of
Two Popular Moral Theories in Business Decision
Making
Joan Marques
Woodbury University, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at:
http://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl
Part of the Business Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the
College of Business at ValpoScholar. It has been accepted for
inclusion in The Journal of
Values-Based Leadership by an authorized administrator of
ValpoScholar. For more information, please contact a
ValpoScholar staff member at
[email protected]
Recommended Citation
Marques, Joan (2015) "Universalism and Utilitarianism: An
Evaluation of Two Popular Moral Theories in Business Decision
Making,"
The Journal of Values-Based Leadership: Vol. 8: Iss. 2, Article
3.
Available at: http://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol8/iss2/3
3. Theories in
Business Decision
Making
Introduction
Moral theories are interesting phenomena. There are
overlapping, complementary and
contrasting theories: rigid, temperate, and flexible ones and
ancient and more
contemporary-based ones. Regardless, they all make sense when
perceived against certain backgrounds, circumstances, and
mindsets. The above may already indicate that moral theories —
and
therefore the decisions made with these theories as guidelines
—
can be confusing. It should also be stated that business leaders
—
especially those who did not attend college — base their moral
decisions more on “gut feelings” than anything else. As has
been
stated by many sources, they may simply be going by the “quick
4. and
dirty” moral self-test of asking themselves whether they would
mind
if their decision made it to the front page of tomorrow’s
newspaper
or if their family would know about it. A third option might be
to
consider whether they would want their child (or other loved
one) to
be on the receiving end of this decision.
There are various theories embedded in these quick
deliberations: the Golden Rule (which
states that we should not do unto others what we would not have
done unto ourselves)
comes to mind, especially in the last instance. A leader who
would not want a loved one to
be on the receiving end of her decision has deliberately or
reflexively included the notion of
not wanting to do unto others what she would not have wanted
to be done unto herself (or
her loved ones). We can also find a sprinkle of Universalist
thinking in this deliberation as
placing a loved one into the picture immediately eliminates the
5. use of any party as a mere
means toward a selfish end. There are undoubtedly more moral
theories to be detected into
the above contemplations (e.g., the character-based virtue
theory), but in order to remain
focused on the purpose of this paper, this should do.
The purpose of this paper is to underscore the complexity of
making moral decisions by
discussing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
of two high-profile
theories: Universalism and Utilitarianism. The reason for
selecting Universalism and
Moral theories remain a topic of interest, not just to moral
philosophers, but increasingly in business circles as well,
thanks to a tainted reputation that urges more awareness
in this regard. Based on the expressed preferences of 163
undergraduate and graduate students of business ethics,
this article briefly examines the two most popular theories,
Universalism (Kantian) and Utilitarianism
(consequentialist), and presents a SWOT analysis of both.
6. Some of the strengths and weaknesses that will be
discussed for Universalism are consistency, intension
basis, and universalizability, while some of the discussed
strengths and weaknesses for Utilitarianism are flexibility,
outcome-basis, and lack of consistency. Subsequently,
some common factors and discrepancies between the two
theories will be discussed. In the conclusive section, some
suggestions and recommendations are presented.
2
Utilitarianism is explained infra. The paper first provides a
brief discussion of the two
selected moral theories and subsequently analyzes the strengths
and weaknesses inherent
to each theory. It is then followed by the opportunities and
threats they may present.
Subsequently, some common factors of — and discrepancies
between — the two theories
7. are discussed. In the conclusive section, several suggestions and
recommendations are
presented.
Why These Two Theories?
Over the course of 6 semesters, the author of this paper, a
facilitator of Ethics-based
courses for undergraduate and graduate business students, found
that, from the 163
students who finished the courses, there was a clear preference
for the two theories to be
discussed. In the courses, these students were exposed to
multiple moral theories and
encouraged to research the theory that appealed mostly to them.
They were given cases and
scenarios to analyze on basis of one or more moral theories of
their own choice. At the end
of the course, students were asked to list their most preferred
moral theory and to explain
their reasons behind this choice. While the students’ rationales
are not reviewed in this
article, an overview of the preferences below is presented (see
Table 1 and Figure 1).
8. Table 1: Students’ Preference for a Moral Theory
Figure 1: Students’ Preference for a Moral Theory
Based on the above-listed preferences, the author decided to
engage in some deliberations
on the two most popular theories as are presented next.
Universalism: A Consistency-Based Moral Approach
Moral Philosophy No. of Students
Utilitarianism 79
Universalism 46
Virtue Ethics 13
9. Golden rule 11
Ethical Egoism 9
Divine Command theory 5
Total 163
0
20
40
60
80
Undergraduate & Graduate Business
Students' preference for a moral theory
Students
3
The Universalist approach, as it is most frequently discussed in
our times, was mainly
developed by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher who lived
in the 18th century (1724–
1804). Universalism is considered a deontological or duty-based
approach (Weiss, 2009).
Strict and responsible by nature and through education and
upbringing, Kant’s philosophy
10. was centered on human autonomy. The notion of autonomy
should be interpreted here as
formulating our own law on basis of our understanding and the
framework of our
experiences. Being self-conscious — and thus aware of the
reasons behind our actions — is
therefore one of the highest principles of Kant’s theoretical
philosophy (Rolf, 2010). Kant
felt that one’s moral philosophy should be based on autonomy.
In his opinion, there should
be one universal moral law which we should independently
impose onto ourselves. He
named it the “categorical imperative.”
The categorical imperative holds that every act we commit
should be based on our personal
principles or rules. Kant refers to these principles or rules as
“maxims.” Maxims are
basically the “why” behind our actions. Even if we are not
always aware of our maxims, they
are there to serve the goals we aim to achieve. In order to
ensure that our maxims are
morally sound, we should always ask ourselves if we would
want them to be universal laws.
11. In other words, would our maxim pass the test of
universalizability? Within the framework of
the categorical imperative, a maxim should only be considered
permissible if it could
become a universal law. If not, it should be dismissed (Rolf,
2010). “Kant also emphasized
the importance of respecting other persons, which has become a
key principle in modern
Western philosophy. According to Kant, ‘Act so that you treat
humanity, whether in your own
person or that of another, always as an end and never as a
means only’” (Johnson, 2012, p.
159). Shining some clarifying light on the above, Weiss (2009)
affirms that the categorical
imperative consists of two parts: 1) We should only choose for
an act if we would want every
person on earth, being in the same situation as we currently are,
to act in exactly the same
way, and 2) We should always act in a way that demonstrates
respect to others and treats
them as ends onto themselves rather than as means toward an
end.” A swift and effective
way to measure the moral degree of our maxims is to consider
ourselves or a dearly loved
12. one at the receiving end of our actions: would we still want to
apply them? If not, then we
should rethink them.
Most Important Strengths of Universalism
The most obvious strength of Universalism is its consistency.
With this moral approach,
there is no question about the decision to be made: what is right
for one should be right for
all. This redacts any emotional considerations and guarantees a
clearly-outlined modus
operandi.
Another major strength of Universalism is the fact that this
moral theory focuses on the
intentions of the decision maker, thus making him his own
moral agent, and motivating him
to practice respect for those he encounters in his decision-
making processes. Furthermore,
the reflective element in this theory, evoking a deep
consideration for the well-being of all
parties involved in our actions, exalts it moral magnitude. Yang
(2006) makes a strong
13. stance in favor of Kant’s categorical imperative (Universalism)
and the fact that universality
of moral values should exist. Yang affirms, “Moral
requirements have a special status in
human life. […] If one who has moral sentiments at all fails to
act on them, one will feel
guilty, regretful, or ashamed. Moral requirements are the most
demanding … standards for
conduct, for interpersonal and intercultural criticism” (pp. 127-
128).
4
The foundational guideline in Universalism to make our
counterparts an end onto
themselves instead of a means toward our ends reminds us
somewhat of the Golden Rule,
The Golden Rule, however, could be considered as having a
narrower focus than the
Universalist approach since it only considers immediate
stakeholders while Universalism
urges us to think in terms of universalizability. Moyaert (2010)
shares the opinion that
14. Kant’s categorical imperative can be seen as “a further
formalization of the golden rule” (p.
455).
The fact that intentions are more important than outcomes in
Universalism also emphasizes
its noble foundation. While we cannot influence the outcomes of
our actions, we can, after
all, always embark upon their realization with the best of
intentions.
Most Important Weaknesses of Universalism
It is first and foremost the aspect of universalizability that
raises concern within the
opponents of the Universalist approach: how possible is it, they
claim, to consider all people,
all nations, all beliefs, and all cultures in every single act we
implement? In addition, the
equality-based approach, which Universalism proclaims, is an
ideal one, but not a very
realistic one in today’s world. While a good point could be
made in favor of ending unfair
treatment of those who are already privileged, there is a serious
weakness to be detected if
15. we start applying equal treatment when we want to restore an
existing imbalance. By
utilizing the Universalist approach at all times, we would not be
able to correct existing
imbalances simply because Universalism does not condone a
more favorable approach to
anyone — hence, not even to those that are oppressed and
subjugated. Similarly, it does not
support a less favorable treatment of anyone — hence, not even
those that have been
unfairly privileged in past centuries.
Contemplating the major moral issue of human rights, Kim
(2012) raises an important
question by comparing the Divine Command theory, which
proposes a Universalist approach
based on religious rulings, with Kant’s categorical imperative,
which proposes this same
approach based on autonomy. What makes one more acceptable
than the other if they are
both aiming for universal application? The fact that non-
Muslims become uncomfortable
when a Muslim scholar claims that Islam has formulated
fundamental rights for all of
16. humanity, and that these rights are granted by Allah, should be
a clear indication that there
could be opponents to any universal law formulated by any
group or individual at any time.
“The question here is whether two conflicting justifications that
appeal to different
foundations of human rights (divine command and autonomy)
should strengthen or weaken
our confidence in the universality belief” (Kim, 2012, p. 263).
In Kant’s favor, Robertson,
Morris, and Walter (2007) point out that the notion of autonomy
assumes a rational
person’s capacity for free moral choice made in the spirit of
enlightenment. They defend
Universalism as being secular and rational, free from
superstition or divine commands, void
of emotions or filial bonds, and centered on doing the right
thing for the right reasons.
Conversely, Robertson et. al. admit that Universalism, as Kant
defined it, is void of
compassion, as it mainly focuses on fulfilling a responsibility.
Indeed, rigid and consistent at
its core, the Universalist approach does not leave room for
flexibility. What is right is right
17. and what is wrong is wrong: no negotiation is possible. This
stance can become problematic
when situations occur with conflicting duties among involved
parties, because in such cases
a mutually gratifying solution is impossible to attain.
5
The intention-based focus of Universalism may not always lead
to desired outcomes and
may leave unwanted victims down the line. This could be seen
as an unwelcome side effect
of a generally well-considered moral approach. No one enjoys
disastrous outcomes, even if
intentions were good. Universalism may therefore not always be
the most desired mindset,
depending on what is at stake.
Critical Opportunities for Universalism
Possible opportunities for Universalism need to be considered
against the backdrop of
18. contemporary society. Given the upward trend of globalization
and the consequentially
increasing cultural blend of people worldwide, the mindset of
Universalism may become
more appealing in near future moral considerations. The
increased exposure to a broad
range of cultures, religions, ethnicities, age groups, and
education levels in one single work
environment, has become part of the fabric of modern day’s
workplaces. Universalists feel
that “Our globally interdependent world […] stands in need of
an ethical perspective that
transcends cultural and religious differences” (Moyaert, 2010,
p. 440). If this mindset finds
acceptance on a massive global scale, Universalist thinking may
become the most gratifying
and acceptable — hence, the dominant moral philosophy.
Critical Threats for Universalism
Inasmuch as globalization is an unstoppable trend, the diversity
that it brings reinforces
flexibility and receptiveness to multiple perceptions. In its
conceptual form, Universalism is
19. known as a rigid, inflexible moral stance. The twenty-first
century has taught us thus far that
such inflexibility cannot be upheld and tolerated in today’s
versatile environments. While
there is much to be said about considering others as ends unto
themselves and not as
means toward our ends, the manifestation of conflicting duties
based on opposing
viewpoints is also more pertinent than ever. This may either
lead to an opportunity for
Universalism to be adjusted toward contemporary needs of
human society, or to
obsolescence of a once laudable moral theory. Figure 2, below,
presents the above-
mentioned SWOT analysis for Universalism in a nutshell.
6
Utilitarianism: A Consequence-Based Approach
Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism, which entails that
the end result (the
“consequence”) should be the most important consideration in
20. any act implemented. The
consequentialist approach, therefore, forms a stark contrast with
the deontological
(Universalist) approach discussed earlier, because Universalism
focuses on intentions rather
than outcomes while consequentialism, and therefore
Utilitarianism, focuses on outcomes
rather than intentions. “[W]hether an act is morally right [in
this theory] depends only on
consequences (as opposed to the circumstances or the intrinsic
nature of the act or
anything that happens before the act)” (Sinnot-Armstrong, 2011,
¶ 3).
In general, Utilitarianism holds the view that the action that
produces the greatest wellbeing
for the largest number is the morally right one. “On the
Utilitarian view one ought to
maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of
others as well as one’s own good”
(Driver, 2009, ¶ 2). Using more economic-oriented terms,
Robertson, Morris, & Walter
(2007) define Utilitarianism as “a measure of the relative
happiness or satisfaction of a
21. group, usually considered in questions of the allocation of
limited resources to a population”
(p. 403). Two of the most noted Utilitarian advocates, Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832) and
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873 — a follower of Bentham), felt that
“the good” needed to be
maximized to benefit as many stakeholders as possible.
Bentham and Mill are considered
the classical Utilitarians. They were major proponents of
constructive reforms in the legal
and social realm which explains why they promoted the stance
of “the greatest amount of
good for the greatest number” (Driver, ¶ 3). Bentham, for
instance, was convinced that
some laws were bad due to their lack of utility which gave rise
to mounting societal
despondency without any compensating happiness. He felt,
much to the surprise of many of
his contemporaries, that the quality of any act should be
measured by its outcomes. This
was, of course, a very instrumental-based mindset, as it was
mainly concerned with tangible
results.
22. Due to Bentham’s focus on the happiness levels of the largest
group, there was a significant
degree of flexibility embedded in the Utilitarian approach. After
all, whatever is considered a
cause for general happiness today may not be seen as such
tomorrow. Tastes, perceptions,
needs, and social constructs change, and “the greatest good for
the greatest number” may
look entirely different tomorrow than it does today.
Johnson (2012) posits that there are four steps to conduct a
Utilitarian analysis of an ethical
problem: 1) Identifying the issue at hand; 2) Considering all
groups, immediate and non-
immediate, that may be affected by this issue; 3) Determining
the good and bad
consequences for those involved; and 4) Summing the good and
bad consequences and
selecting the option of which the benefits outweigh the costs.
Weiss (2009) emphasizes that there are two types of criteria to
be considered in
Utilitarianism: rule-base and act-based. Rule-based Utilitarians
consider general rules to
23. measure the utility of any act, but are not fixated on the act
itself. As an example, while a
rule-based Utilitarian may honor the general principle of not-
stealing, there may be another
principle under certain circumstances that serve a greater good,
thus override this principle.
Act-based Utilitarians consider the value of their act, even
though it may not be in line with a
general code of honor. If, for instance, an act-based Utilitarian
considers a chemical in his
workplace harmful for a large group of people, he may decide to
steal it and discard it,
7
considering that he saved a large group of people, even though
he engaged in the acts of
stealing and destroying company property.
Most Important Strengths of Utilitarianism
The most important appeal of the Utilitarian approach is its
focus on the wellbeing of the
majority, thus ensuring a broadminded, social approach to any
24. problem that arises. This
theory also overrules selfish considerations and requires caution
in decision-making
processes — with a meticulous focus on the possible outcomes.
In addition, the flexibility that is embedded in this approach
makes it easy to reconsider and
adjust decision-making processes based on current
circumstances. As we live in an era
where flexibility is the mantra for succeeding, Utilitarianism
seems to be a solid way of
ensuring that needs are met with consideration of the needs and
desires of all stakeholders.
Robertson, Morris, and Walter (2007) underscore this as
follows: “The advantages of
Utilitarianism as an ethical theory lie in its intuitive appeal,
particularly in the case of ‘act
Utilitarianism,’ and its apparent scientific approach to ethical
reasoning” (p. 404).
Most Important Weaknesses of Utilitarianism
When adhering to the Utilitarian (consequentialist) approach,
one should be willing to let the
25. general welfare prevail and thus be ready to denounce personal
moral beliefs and integrity
in case these are not aligned with what is considered “the
overall good.” Volkman (2010)
raises a strong point to ponder in this matter: “One’s integrity
cannot be simply weighed
against other considerations as if it was something
commensurable with them. Being
prepared to do that is already to say one will be whatever the
Utilitarian standard says one
must be, which is to have already abandoned one’s integrity” (p.
386). Illustrating the moral
dilemma that may rise between a potentially questionable
“common good” and one’s
personal moral beliefs, Robertson, Morris and Walter (2007)
discuss the so-called
“replaceability” problem. Within the Utilitarian mindset, it
would be preferable to kill one
healthy person in order to provide transplant organs for six
others, or to kill one man in order
to save dozens of others.
Another point of caution within the Utilitarian approach is its
outcome focus; while the end-
26. result may be considered admirable for any decision, there is no
guarantee that an act will
actually generate a desired outcome. Life is unpredictable, and
with the growing complexity
of our current work environments, there may be many factors
we overlook. This can lead to
undesired outcomes that backfire, regardless of the initial focus.
If, for instance, a manager
decides to layoff three employees to reduce overhead and save
the livelihood of twenty
other workers, he may find that several of the twenty remaining
workers either become
demoralized and less productive as a result of this decision or
even resign if they have the
opportunity to do so.
In addition, Utilitarianism is an individual perception-based
approach. Depending on the
magnitude of factors involved, it may occur that different
Utilitarian decision makers come
to different conclusions and make entirely different outcomes
based on the angle from
where they perceived the issue at hand. One manager may, for
instance, conclude that
27. using secret data from a competitor brings the greatest good for
the greatest number in
focusing on his workforce, leading him to use the data; while
another manager may find that
8
using this secret data will negatively affect the well-being of
the much larger workforce of his
competitor, leading him not to use it.
Critical Opportunities for Utilitarianism
Given its focus on circumstances at hand and its lack of concern
about consistency, the
Utilitarian approach may remain a popular moral stance for a
long time to come. Its
prominence may even rise due to the fact that societies are
increasingly diversifying. Thus, it
is in need of continuous changing considerations of what is the
proper moral decision.
Critical Threats for Utilitarianism
28. The lack of consistency, not only seen over time, but also in the
decision-making processes
from various Utilitarians simultaneously, based on their
viewpoints and the information they
have at hand, may become an increasing source of concern —
leading to outcomes that
bring more harm than advantage to a community. “The greatest
good for the greatest
number” is not as generally established as it may seem, but is a
very personal perspective.
Figure 3 below presents the above-mentioned SWOT analysis
for Utilitarianism in a nutshell.
Universalism and Utilitarianism: A Brief Comparison
As may have already become apparent, the Universalist and the
Utilitarian approaches are
each other’s opposites in many regards. Where the Universalist
approach focuses on good
intentions and discourages using anyone as a means toward our
ends, the Utilitarian
approach focuses on good outcomes. This signifies that others
may have to be used as a
means toward the desired end. While the Universalist approach
29. emphasizes consistency at
all times through its universalizability underpinning, the
Utilitarian approach supports
flexibility and thus, different decisions are based on the needs
and circumstances at hand.
Yet, there are some foundational similarities in these two
theories as well. Both aim to
eliminate selfish decision-making: the Universalist approach
does so by refraining from
9
considering others as a means toward our selfish ends while the
Utilitarian approach does
so by considering the greatest good for the greatest number of
people involved. Both
theories perceive an attitude of universal impartiality as a
foundational requirement. “On
this view, it is irrational to cast one’s self as an exception to
some universal rule or policy
without some justification, since that would involve asserting an
arbitrary difference”
(Volkman, 2010, p. 384).
30. On a less positive note, both theories share the weakness of
undesirable outcomes. The
Universalist approach does so by being intention-based, and
good intentions don’t
necessarily lead to good outcomes. The Utilitarian approach
does so by focusing on
outcomes that may nonetheless turn out to be different from
what was planned due to
insufficient data, unexpected turns in the circumstances, or the
uncertainty of life.
Both theories remain prominent, regardless of their weaknesses,
and both have the
potential of gaining even more appeal due to the trend of
globalization and thus an
increasingly interwoven world: the Universalist approach due to
its “universalizability” test,
which may not seem so far-fetched as the world continues to
become a global village, and
the Utilitarian approach due to its flexibility, which may
continue to gain attraction in
diversifying environments.
31. Conclusion
As can be derived from the two analyses, both theories have
significant strengths and
weaknesses that make them difficult to apply unconditionally.
As emotional beings, we don’t
make our moral decisions solely on basis of rationale. There is
little doubt that even the
most steadfast Kantian Universalist will think twice before
adhering to doing the right thing
at all times. If, for instance, a murderer would ask this
Universalist where his children reside
so that he can go and take their lives, it will be highly doubtful
that he will provide the
requested information — even if being honest is considered the
right thing at all times and
even though he should see the murderer as an end onto himself
and not as a means toward
a horrific end. This graphic example may illustrate that there
are circumstances where we
will feel that it is morally more responsible to do the wrong
thing for the right reasons
instead of doing the right thing for the wrong reasons.
32. Considering the contemporary world of interconnectedness and
globalization, there have
been several authors in recent years who discussed converging
moral prototypes to bridge
the discrepancy that exists between these two leading theories.
Audi (2007), for instance,
proposes a model that combines the critical elements of virtue
theories, Universalism and
Utilitarianism. Referring to this model as “pluralistic
Universalism,” Audi focuses on three
central tenets that both theories harbor: wellbeing, justice, and
freedom. In his pluralistic
Universalism model, Audi explains that mature moral agents
should be able to make
morally-sound decisions that optimize happiness, maintain
justice and freedom, and are
motivating. While generally advocating Audi’s theory,
Strahovnik (2009) critiques that it is
vague and indeterminate and that it should include a list of
prima facie duties including
refraining from harming, lying, breaking promises, and unjust
treatment; correcting
wrongdoing; doing well to others; being grateful; improving
ourselves; preserving freedom;
33. and showing respect. Strahovnik feels that, with the
incorporation of these values, pluralistic
Universalism could emerge into a global ethic.
10
Whether any form of universal moral stance could ever be
enforced remains to be seen. As
matters currently stand, our global human community — while
converging through social
networks, increased travel, and worldwide professional shifts —
still holds too much
perceptual, moral, religious, and cultural divergence to
seriously strive for a global ethic. And
why should this be anyway? Pluralism is the spice of life and
serves as the foundation to
keep us thinking critically about the various notions of “right”
and “wrong” that currently
exist. As long as human beings have divergent mental models
which they develop through
the multiplicity of impressions they acquire throughout their
lives, they will continue to differ
in perspectives. Rather than developing a moral doctrine that we
34. are all supposed to honor,
we should consider, within reasonable, compassionate
boundaries, the healthy dialogues
and the perceptional expansion that results from diversity. In
the end, there is still no
stronger and more direct response to any ethical dilemma than
the three golden questions
posted in the introductory part of this article:
(1) Would I still do this if it would be published in tomorrow’s
newspaper?
(2) Would I still do this if my family would know about it?
(3) Would I still do this if my child (or another loved one)
would be on the receiving end?
If the answer is “yes” on all three counts, the act is most likely
one that we will be able to
live with without regrets.
And is that not what ultimately matters?
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About the Author
Joan Marques, PhD, EdD, serves as Assistant Dean of
Woodbury University’s School of
Business, Chair and Director of the BBA Program, and
Professor of Management. She holds
a PhD from Tilburg University and an Ed.D. from Pepperdine
University’s Graduate School of
Education and Psychology, an MBA from Woodbury University,
and a BSc in Business
Economics from MOC, Suriname. She also holds an AACSB
Bridge to Business Post-Doctoral
Certificate from Tulane University’s Freeman School of
38. Business. Her teaching and research
interests focus on workplace spirituality, ethical leadership, and
leadership awareness. She
has been widely published in scholarly as well as practitioner
based journals, and has
authored/co-authored more than 16 books on management and
leadership topics.
The Journal of Values-Based LeadershipJuly 2015Universalism
and Utilitarianism: An Evaluation of Two Popular Moral
Theories in Business Decision MakingJoan
MarquesRecommended Citationtmp.1436206147.pdf.A09gh