Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard. These comments are usually uttered based on observations of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments: From where docs the standard come that the person uses to assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the person making such comments. In part this is due to the paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to discover that most people are unaware of the bases for moral judgment. This text aims to consider ably reduce this lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when this does occur. For example, there arc times when teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. These instances are few compared to the many times when we have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to learn how to conduct moral.
13 Leadership EthicsDescriptionThis chapter is different from .docxdrennanmicah
13 Leadership Ethics
Description
This chapter is different from many of the other chapters in this book. Most of the other chapters focus on one unified leadership theory or approach (e.g., trait approach, path–goal theory, or transformational leadership), whereas this chapter is multifaceted and presents a broad set of ethical viewpoints. The chapter is intended not as an “ethical leadership theory,” but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations.
Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics. There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics. Even in the literature of management, written primarily for practitioners, there are very few books on leadership ethics. This suggests that theoretical formulations in this area are still in their infancy.
One of the earliest writings that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996. It was a set of working papers generated from a small group of leadership scholars, brought together by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. These scholars examined how leadership theory and practice could be used to build a more caring and just society. The ideas of the Kellogg group are now published in a volume titled Ethics, the Heart of Leadership (Ciulla, 1998).
Ethical Leadership
Interest in the nature of ethical leadership has continued to grow, particularly because of the many recent scandals in corporate America and the political realm. On the academic front, there has also been a strong interest in exploring the nature of ethical leadership (see Aronson, 2001; Ciulla, 2001, 2003; Johnson, 2011; Kanungo, 2001; Price, 2008; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003).
Ethics Defined
From the perspective of Western tradition, the development of ethical theory dates back to Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.). The word ethics has its roots in the Greek word ethos, which translates to “customs,” “conduct,” or “character.” Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual or a society finds desirable or appropriate. Furthermore, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of individuals and their motives. Ethical theory provides a system of rules or principles that guide us in making decisions about what is right or wrong and good or bad in a particular situation. It provides a basis for understanding what it means to be a morally decent human being.
In regard to leadership, ethics is concerned with what leaders do and who leaders are. It has to do with t.
Moral ReasoningFirst published Mon Sep 15, 2003; substantive rev.docxgilpinleeanna
Moral Reasoning
First published Mon Sep 15, 2003; substantive revision Mon Feb 11, 2013
Moral reasoning is individual or collective practical reasoning about what, morally, one ought to do. Philosophical examination of moral reasoning faces both distinctive puzzles — about how we recognize moral considerations and cope with conflicts among them and about how they move us to act — and distinctive opportunities for gleaning insight about what we ought to do from how we reason about what we ought to do.
1. The Philosophical Importance of Moral Reasoning
1.1 Defining “Moral Reasoning”
This article takes up moral reasoning as a species of practical reasoning — that is, as a type of reasoning directed towards deciding what to do and, when successful, issuing in an intention (see entry on practical reason). Of course, we also reason theoretically about what morality requires of us; but the nature of purely theoretical reasoning about ethics is adequately addressed in the various articles on ethics. It is also true that, on some understandings, moral reasoning directed towards deciding what to do involves forming judgments about what one ought, morally, to do. On these understandings, asking what one ought (morally) to do can be a practical question, a certain way of asking about what to do. (See section 1.5 on the question of whether this is a distinctive practical question.) In order to do justice to the full range of philosophical views about moral reasoning, we will need to have a capacious understanding of what counts as a moral question. For instance, since a prominent position about moral reasoning is that the relevant considerations are not codifiable, we would beg a central question if we here defined “morality” as involving codifiable principles or rules. For present purposes, we may understand issues about what is right or wrong, or virtuous or vicious, as raising moral questions.
When we are faced with moral questions in daily life, just as when we are faced with child-rearing, agricultural, and business questions, sometimes we act impulsively or instinctively and sometimes we pause to reason, not just about what to do, but about what we ought to do. Jean-Paul Sartre described a case of one of his students who came to him in occupied Paris during World War II, asking advice about whether to stay by his mother, who otherwise would have been left alone, or rather to go join the forces of the Free French, then massing in England (Sartre 1975). In the capacious sense just described, this is probably a moral question; and the young man paused long enough to ask Sartre's advice. Does that mean that this young man was reasoning about his practical question? Not necessarily. Indeed, Sartre used the case to expound his skepticism about the possibility of addressing such a practical question by reasoning. But what is reasoning?
Explicit reasoning is responsibly conducted thinking, in which the reasoner, guided by her assessments of her reasons (K ...
Ethics examines the rational justification for our moral judgments; it studies what is morally right or wrong, just or unjust. In a broader sense, ethics reflects on human beings and their interaction with nature and with other humans, on freedom, on responsibility and on justice.
13 Leadership EthicsDescriptionThis chapter is different from .docxdrennanmicah
13 Leadership Ethics
Description
This chapter is different from many of the other chapters in this book. Most of the other chapters focus on one unified leadership theory or approach (e.g., trait approach, path–goal theory, or transformational leadership), whereas this chapter is multifaceted and presents a broad set of ethical viewpoints. The chapter is intended not as an “ethical leadership theory,” but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations.
Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics. There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics. Even in the literature of management, written primarily for practitioners, there are very few books on leadership ethics. This suggests that theoretical formulations in this area are still in their infancy.
One of the earliest writings that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996. It was a set of working papers generated from a small group of leadership scholars, brought together by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. These scholars examined how leadership theory and practice could be used to build a more caring and just society. The ideas of the Kellogg group are now published in a volume titled Ethics, the Heart of Leadership (Ciulla, 1998).
Ethical Leadership
Interest in the nature of ethical leadership has continued to grow, particularly because of the many recent scandals in corporate America and the political realm. On the academic front, there has also been a strong interest in exploring the nature of ethical leadership (see Aronson, 2001; Ciulla, 2001, 2003; Johnson, 2011; Kanungo, 2001; Price, 2008; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003).
Ethics Defined
From the perspective of Western tradition, the development of ethical theory dates back to Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.). The word ethics has its roots in the Greek word ethos, which translates to “customs,” “conduct,” or “character.” Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual or a society finds desirable or appropriate. Furthermore, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of individuals and their motives. Ethical theory provides a system of rules or principles that guide us in making decisions about what is right or wrong and good or bad in a particular situation. It provides a basis for understanding what it means to be a morally decent human being.
In regard to leadership, ethics is concerned with what leaders do and who leaders are. It has to do with t.
Moral ReasoningFirst published Mon Sep 15, 2003; substantive rev.docxgilpinleeanna
Moral Reasoning
First published Mon Sep 15, 2003; substantive revision Mon Feb 11, 2013
Moral reasoning is individual or collective practical reasoning about what, morally, one ought to do. Philosophical examination of moral reasoning faces both distinctive puzzles — about how we recognize moral considerations and cope with conflicts among them and about how they move us to act — and distinctive opportunities for gleaning insight about what we ought to do from how we reason about what we ought to do.
1. The Philosophical Importance of Moral Reasoning
1.1 Defining “Moral Reasoning”
This article takes up moral reasoning as a species of practical reasoning — that is, as a type of reasoning directed towards deciding what to do and, when successful, issuing in an intention (see entry on practical reason). Of course, we also reason theoretically about what morality requires of us; but the nature of purely theoretical reasoning about ethics is adequately addressed in the various articles on ethics. It is also true that, on some understandings, moral reasoning directed towards deciding what to do involves forming judgments about what one ought, morally, to do. On these understandings, asking what one ought (morally) to do can be a practical question, a certain way of asking about what to do. (See section 1.5 on the question of whether this is a distinctive practical question.) In order to do justice to the full range of philosophical views about moral reasoning, we will need to have a capacious understanding of what counts as a moral question. For instance, since a prominent position about moral reasoning is that the relevant considerations are not codifiable, we would beg a central question if we here defined “morality” as involving codifiable principles or rules. For present purposes, we may understand issues about what is right or wrong, or virtuous or vicious, as raising moral questions.
When we are faced with moral questions in daily life, just as when we are faced with child-rearing, agricultural, and business questions, sometimes we act impulsively or instinctively and sometimes we pause to reason, not just about what to do, but about what we ought to do. Jean-Paul Sartre described a case of one of his students who came to him in occupied Paris during World War II, asking advice about whether to stay by his mother, who otherwise would have been left alone, or rather to go join the forces of the Free French, then massing in England (Sartre 1975). In the capacious sense just described, this is probably a moral question; and the young man paused long enough to ask Sartre's advice. Does that mean that this young man was reasoning about his practical question? Not necessarily. Indeed, Sartre used the case to expound his skepticism about the possibility of addressing such a practical question by reasoning. But what is reasoning?
Explicit reasoning is responsibly conducted thinking, in which the reasoner, guided by her assessments of her reasons (K ...
Ethics examines the rational justification for our moral judgments; it studies what is morally right or wrong, just or unjust. In a broader sense, ethics reflects on human beings and their interaction with nature and with other humans, on freedom, on responsibility and on justice.
Discussion: Autism
No unread replies.No replies.
Discussion- Chapter Eleven
Discussion prompt:
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have received substantial attention in the popular press during the past decade. A brighter picture is emerging due to this media attention.
Use the question below to guide your discussion:
In what ways is the future brighter for people with ASD than it has in the past?
Submission Instructions:
The Discussion Forum is a great way to build a sense of community, discuss key concepts, and learn from others. You are required to post a response and a reply to at one peer each week.
· Post your initial response by Wednesday at 23:59 CST.
· Post a minimum of one follow-up response by Sunday at 23:59 CST.
To receive full credit, your responses must demonstrate an understanding of key concepts; further the discussion by providing original and relevant insight; include a rationale, evidence, or example that supports your response/opinion; and, be free of significant mechanical errors. Your peer responses should provide specific, constructive, and supportive feedback to extend classmates' thinking and offer additional resources, opinion, and/or experiences.
Your initial post should be 300-350 words. Peer reply posts should be 150-200words each. Conform to APA guidelines as you write your responses. In-text citations, as well as reference page citations, must be included for any professional journal articles, textbook quotes, video references, etc., used in your response.
*Grading rubric is listed. Click on show rubric.
Required Textbook: Hardman, M. L., Egan, M. W., & Drew, C. J. (2014). Human exceptionality: School, community, and family. (12th ed.) Cengage Learning
"Ethics and Ethical Reasoning"
"ermissible, etc.)”? One answer to this question is that such assertions can do nothing to solve the deep conflicts of value that we find in our world. We know that people disagree about abortion, gay marriage, animal rights, and other issues. If we are to make progress toward understanding each other, if we are to make progress toward establish-ing some consensus about these topics, then we have to understand why we think certain things are right and other things are wrong. We need to make arguments and give reasons in order to work out our own conclusions about these issues and in order to explain our conclusions to others with whom we disagree.It is also not sufficient to appeal to custom or authority in deriving our conclusions about moral issues. While it may be appropriate for children to simply obey their parents’ decisions, adults should strive for more than conformity and obedience to authority. Sometimes our parents and grandparents are wrong—or they disagree among themselves. Sometimes the law is wrong—or the laws conflict. And sometimes religious authorities are wrong—or the authorities do not agree. To appeal to authority on moral issues, we would first have to decide which authority is to be trusted and belie ...
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVETo gain a sense of why it is important to.docxsodhi3
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemmas.There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
The regularian perspective, at face value, appears simplistic. The only thing the person, making the decision regarding an ethical dilemma, needs to know is the rule(s). This perspective views that an act is morally good if it obeys the rules. If the rule(s) indicates the action is permissible then it is considered ethical; in contrast, if the rule(s) indicates the action is not permissible, then it is considered unethical. This perspective posits that the individual is obligated to follow the rules. Similar to other perspectives, with regularianism, the person making the decision must avoid desires and emotions, and act objectively. This is the most notable advantage of rule-based ethics. Sources for rules include commands, directives, policies and procedures, Code of Ethics, and laws.
Problems: What if it is a bad or immoral rule? An example of this is the Nuremberg Defense; where the individuals who perpetrated crimes against the Jews during WW II, claimed they did nothing wrong since they were following Hitler’s rules to murder them. What if there is not rule? Hmmm?! What if there are two rules that conflict each other? The hope is that the person who is making the decision will find another rule that clarifies the conflict!
STEPS:
1. Regardless of the possible options, what is (are) the rule(s)? I must follow the rule(s).
REFERENCES
Dreisbach, C. (2008). Ethics in Criminal Justice. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Furrow, D. (2005). Ethics: Key Concepts in Philosophy. New York: Continuum Books.
DEONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemma. There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
Deontologists believe that one’s action must conform to recognized duties, the consequences are not important. By conforming, one is “doing the right thing” not because it solely pleases the individual or promotes good consequences, but rather because the individual is adhering to the concepts of duty, obligation and rationality. The deontological perspective allows for one’s intentions/motives to be valued, regardless of the outcome.
Deontolog ...
Critical thinking- Video httpswi-phi.comvideosintro-to-crit.docxmydrynan
Critical thinking- Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/intro-to-critical-thinking/
Consequentialism – Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/consequentialism/
Normative vs Descriptive Claims – Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/normative-descriptive-claims/
slippery slope argument – Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/slippery-slope/
34
CHAPTER 2
Bioethics and Moral Theories
As we have seen, the moral life is dynamic,
complex, and inescapable. In it we wrestle with
momentous questions of moral value and moral
rightness. We assert, challenge, accept, and reject
moral statements. We make moral judgments
about the rightness of actions, the goodness of
persons or their character, and the moral quality
and worth of our lives. Through general moral
norms or principles, we direct our actions and
inform our choices. We formulate and critique
moral arguments, thereby testing what we know
or think we know about moral realities. We do
all this and one thing more: We naturally and
unavoidably venture into the realm of moral
theory, trying to see the larger moral meaning
behind particular situations and precepts. In
this chapter, we explore this realm and try to
discern how it fits into the moral life in general
and into bioethics in particular.
the nature of moral theories
In science, theories help us understand the em-
pirical world by explaining the causes of events,
why things are the way they are. The germ theory
of disease explains how particular diseases arise
and spread in a human population. The helio-
centric (sun-centered) theory of planetary motion
explains why the planets in our solar system
behave the way they do. In ethics, moral theories
have a similar explanatory role. A moral theory
explains not why one event causes another but
why an action is right or wrong or why a person
or a person’s character is good or bad. A moral
theory tells us what it is about an action that
makes it right, or what it is about a person that
makes him or her good. The divine command
theory of morality, for example, says that right
actions are those commanded or willed by God.
Traditional utilitarianism says that right actions
are those that produce the greatest happiness
for all concerned. These and other moral theories
are attempts to define rightness or goodness. In
this way, they are both more general and more
basic than moral principles or other general norms.
Moral theorizing— that is, making, using, or
assessing moral theories or parts of theories— is
normal and pervasive in the moral life, though
it is often done without much recognition that
theory is playing a part in the deliberations.
Whenever we try to understand what a moral
property such as rightness or goodness means,
or justify a moral principle or other norm, or re-
solve a conflict between two credible principles,
or explain why a particular action or practice is
right or wrong, or evaluate the plausibility of
specific moral intuitions or ass.
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [Vit.docxsodhi3
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved fromhttps://kaplan.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781136389993/
In-text citation: (Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 16
Ethics and Behavior Analysis in Management
Ethical issues seem to dominate the news these days, and they extend to all areas of human endeavor including, of course, business and psychology. This chapter explores the topic of ethical issues when behavioral methods are applied to industrial/organizational (I/O) settings. The goal is not to create ethical guidelines. Rather, it is to provide an overview of the types of ethical guidelines already available as well as the nature, relevance, and importance of ethical issues that underlie such guidelines.
WHAT ARE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES?
Philosophers have long debated ethical issues. Numerous competing schools each adhere to tenets that not only are different, but sometimes opposite (Macklin, 1982). Part of this debate concerns the basic issue of how to define an ethical principle.
Philosophers sometimes quibble over whether our perceptions are reliable indicators of reality, but this issue seems to be of less concern to scientists. Scientists start with the observable, or what can be defined in terms of the observable (operational definitions). In most cases, there is a strong consensus about what is really “out there,” a consensus that is in large part based upon the consistency among observations. Scientists then attempt to find relationships between these observable entities or events, an activity that produces factual statements called laws. Factual statements deal with what might be called objective reality, descriptions about how things are.
In addition to factual statements, there are statements of value. Value statements are assertions about what is “good,” “right,” or “wrong,” and how entities and events in the world should be, not the way they necessarily are. Value statements are a cornerstone of ethics. Ethical principles look beyond what is, and ask what should be.
Other chapters in this book describe principles that can be used in organizational settings to modify behavior. In effect, the authors are presenting laws describing relationships between antecedent conditions, behaviors, and consequences. The process of discovering and describing these laws is identical to the process of discovering and describing laws in all other sciences, and as such, is grounded in objective reality and statements of fact. This chapter goes beyond such objective considerations and deals with ethical issues associated with the discovery and use of such laws.
WHY WOULD ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT RAISE ETHICAL CONCERNS?
Organizational behavior management (OBM) utilizes information derived from the field of behavior analysis (Mawhinney, 1984). Behavior analysis attempts to find universal laws of behavior. As a scientist, the behavior analyst believes that human behavior is lawful in the same sense th ...
Ethics and Ethical Reasoningermissible, etc.)” One answeBetseyCalderon89
"Ethics and Ethical Reasoning"
"ermissible, etc.)”? One answer to this question is that such assertions can do nothing to solve the deep conflicts of value that we find in our world. We know that people disagree about abortion, gay marriage, animal rights, and other issues. If we are to make progress toward understanding each other, if we are to make progress toward establish-ing some consensus about these topics, then we have to understand why we think certain things are right and other things are wrong. We need to make arguments and give reasons in order to work out our own conclusions about these issues and in order to explain our conclusions to others with whom we disagree.It is also not sufficient to appeal to custom or authority in deriving our conclusions about moral issues. While it may be appropriate for children to simply obey their parents’ decisions, adults should strive for more than conformity and obedience to authority. Sometimes our parents and grandparents are wrong—or they disagree among themselves. Sometimes the law is wrong—or the laws conflict. And sometimes religious authorities are wrong—or the authorities do not agree. To appeal to authority on moral issues, we would first have to decide which authority is to be trusted and believed. Which reli-gion provides the best set of moral rules? Which set of laws in which country is to be followed? Even within the United States, there is currently a conflict of laws with regard to some of these issues: some states have legalized medical marijuana and gay marriage, and others have not. The world’s religions also disagree about a number of issues: for example, the status of women, the permissibility of abortion, and the question of whether war is justifiable. Many of these disagreements are internal to religions, with members of the same religion or denomination disagreeing among themselves. To begin resolv-ing the problem of laws that conflict and religions that disagree, we need critical philosophical inquiry into basic ethical questions. In the next chapter, we discuss the world’s diverse religious traditions and ask whether there is a set of common ethical ideas that is shared by these traditions. In this chapter, we clarify what ethics is and how ethical reasoning should proceed"
"What iS EthicS?On the first day of an ethics class, we often ask stu-dents to write one-paragraph answers to the ques-tion, “What is ethics?”How would you answer? Over the years, there have been significant differences of opinion among our students on this issue. Some have argued that ethics is a highly personal thing, a matter of private opinion. Others claim that our values come from family upbringing. Other students think that ethics is a set of social principles, the codes of one’s soci-ety or particular groups within it, such as medical or legal organizations. Some write that many people get their ethical beliefs from their religion.One general conclusion can be drawn from these students’ ...
Chapter 27 The purchase agreement 185After read.docxwalterl4
Chapter 27: The purchase agreement 185
After reading this chapter, you’ll be able to:
• describe the multiple functions of a purchase agreement form;
• identify various types of purchase agreements; and
• understand the sections and provisions that make up a purchase
agreement.
Learning
Objectives
The purchase
agreement
Chapter
27
A newcomer’s entry as a real estate agent into the vocation of soliciting and
negotiating real estate transactions typically begins with the marketing and
locating of single family residences (SFRs) as a seller’s agent or a buyer’s agent
(also known as listing agents or selling agents, respectively).
Other properties an agent might work with include:
• one-to-four unit residential properties;
• apartments;
• commercial income properties (office buildings, commercial units and
industrial space);
• agricultural property; or
• unimproved parcels of land.
For real estate sales conveying ownership of a property, the primary
document used to negotiate the transaction between a buyer and seller
Types and
variations
equity purchase (EP)
agreement
purchase agreement Key Terms
For a further discussion of this topic, see Chapter 51 of Real Estate
Practice.
186 Real Estate Principles, Second Edition
is a purchase agreement form. Different types of properties each require
a different variety of purchase agreement. Various purchase agreement
comprise provisions necessary to negotiate the sale of a particular type of
property.
Three basic categories of purchase agreements exist for the documentation of
real estate sales. The categories are influenced primarily by legislation and
court decisions addressing the handling of the disclosures and due diligence
investigations in the marketing of properties
The three categories of purchase agreements are for:
• one-to-four unit residential property sales transactions;
• other than one-to-four unit residential property sales transactions,
such as for residential and commercial income properties and owner-
occupied business/farming properties; and
• land acquisition transactions.
Within each category of purchase agreement, several variations exist.
The variations cater to the specialized use of some properties, the diverse
arrangements for payment of the price, and to the specific conditions which
affect a property, particularly within the one-to-four unit residential property
category.
Purchase agreement variations for one-to-four unit residential sales
transactions include purchase agreements for:
• negotiating the conventional financing of the purchase price [See
Figure 1, RPI Form 150 ];
• negotiating a short sale [See RPI Form 150-1];
• negotiating a cash to new or existing mortgage, or a seller carryback
note [See RPI Form 150-2];
• negotiating for separate brokerage fees paid each broker by their client
[See RPI Form 151];
• negotiating the government insured financing (FHA/VA) of t.
Chapter 27Gender and Media Content, Uses, and ImpactDar.docxwalterl4
Chapter 27
Gender and Media: Content, Uses, and Impact
Dara N. Greenwood and Julia R. Lippman
Although research offers compelling evidence to suggest that men and women are far more simi-
lar than they are different across a wide variety of domains, our perceptions of gender difference
can lead us to believe that men and women do inhabit distinct gendered universes and can trigger
self-fulfilling prophecies that confirm these expectations. These perceptions can even guide how aca-
demics choose to interpret the research literature. Hyde’s (2005) review of 46 meta-analyses supports
a “gender similarities hypothesis,” namely, the magnitude of gender differences across these studies
as measured by effect size is small or negligible in over three quarters of the cases assessed. Put
differently, a “small” effect size (i.e., d < 0.35; Hyde, 2005) means that 85% of the distributions for
women and men overlap. This is not to say that a 15% difference in distributions is an insignificant
percentage, but it certainly illustrates that emphasizing difference to the exclusion of similarity paints
an inaccurate picture. Further, where moderate or large gender differences did emerge, they were
often the product of social context. For example, women are more likely than men to smile when
they know they are being observed (LaFrance, Hecht, & Paluck, 2003, as cited in Hyde, 2005). The
latter finding suggests that a given social situation may be of paramount importance in the apparent
differences between men and women.
The social environment can influence the manifestation of present attitudes and behaviors, but
it is also a powerful shaping force throughout the lifespan. In their discussion of a social cognitive
approach to gender development, Bussey and Bandura (2004) suggested that the mass media, in
addition to ongoing input from parents and peers, offer a “pervasive cultural modeling of gender
roles” (p. 108). It is not just children who assimilate cultural models, however; research on the
phenomenon of “possible selves” (Markus & Nurius, 1986) suggests that over the course of our
lives, we continue to draw hoped for as well as feared selves from “the categories made salient by the
individual’s particular sociocultural and historical context and from the models, images, and symbols
provided by the media and by the individual’s immediate social experiences” (p. 954, emphasis
added).
So how does the media environment contribute to our gendered perceptions and experiences?
With a few exceptions, the basic cognitive and emotional processes by which media exert an impact
tend to be similar for both men and women. The most robust gender differences exist at the level
of media representation and content and the selective exposure patterns that are, in part, a response
to gender-typed content. In order to understand how media affect women and men, it is crucial first
to understand systematic gender differences in media content, as well as any gender difference.
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Discussion: Autism
No unread replies.No replies.
Discussion- Chapter Eleven
Discussion prompt:
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have received substantial attention in the popular press during the past decade. A brighter picture is emerging due to this media attention.
Use the question below to guide your discussion:
In what ways is the future brighter for people with ASD than it has in the past?
Submission Instructions:
The Discussion Forum is a great way to build a sense of community, discuss key concepts, and learn from others. You are required to post a response and a reply to at one peer each week.
· Post your initial response by Wednesday at 23:59 CST.
· Post a minimum of one follow-up response by Sunday at 23:59 CST.
To receive full credit, your responses must demonstrate an understanding of key concepts; further the discussion by providing original and relevant insight; include a rationale, evidence, or example that supports your response/opinion; and, be free of significant mechanical errors. Your peer responses should provide specific, constructive, and supportive feedback to extend classmates' thinking and offer additional resources, opinion, and/or experiences.
Your initial post should be 300-350 words. Peer reply posts should be 150-200words each. Conform to APA guidelines as you write your responses. In-text citations, as well as reference page citations, must be included for any professional journal articles, textbook quotes, video references, etc., used in your response.
*Grading rubric is listed. Click on show rubric.
Required Textbook: Hardman, M. L., Egan, M. W., & Drew, C. J. (2014). Human exceptionality: School, community, and family. (12th ed.) Cengage Learning
"Ethics and Ethical Reasoning"
"ermissible, etc.)”? One answer to this question is that such assertions can do nothing to solve the deep conflicts of value that we find in our world. We know that people disagree about abortion, gay marriage, animal rights, and other issues. If we are to make progress toward understanding each other, if we are to make progress toward establish-ing some consensus about these topics, then we have to understand why we think certain things are right and other things are wrong. We need to make arguments and give reasons in order to work out our own conclusions about these issues and in order to explain our conclusions to others with whom we disagree.It is also not sufficient to appeal to custom or authority in deriving our conclusions about moral issues. While it may be appropriate for children to simply obey their parents’ decisions, adults should strive for more than conformity and obedience to authority. Sometimes our parents and grandparents are wrong—or they disagree among themselves. Sometimes the law is wrong—or the laws conflict. And sometimes religious authorities are wrong—or the authorities do not agree. To appeal to authority on moral issues, we would first have to decide which authority is to be trusted and belie ...
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVETo gain a sense of why it is important to.docxsodhi3
REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemmas.There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
The regularian perspective, at face value, appears simplistic. The only thing the person, making the decision regarding an ethical dilemma, needs to know is the rule(s). This perspective views that an act is morally good if it obeys the rules. If the rule(s) indicates the action is permissible then it is considered ethical; in contrast, if the rule(s) indicates the action is not permissible, then it is considered unethical. This perspective posits that the individual is obligated to follow the rules. Similar to other perspectives, with regularianism, the person making the decision must avoid desires and emotions, and act objectively. This is the most notable advantage of rule-based ethics. Sources for rules include commands, directives, policies and procedures, Code of Ethics, and laws.
Problems: What if it is a bad or immoral rule? An example of this is the Nuremberg Defense; where the individuals who perpetrated crimes against the Jews during WW II, claimed they did nothing wrong since they were following Hitler’s rules to murder them. What if there is not rule? Hmmm?! What if there are two rules that conflict each other? The hope is that the person who is making the decision will find another rule that clarifies the conflict!
STEPS:
1. Regardless of the possible options, what is (are) the rule(s)? I must follow the rule(s).
REFERENCES
Dreisbach, C. (2008). Ethics in Criminal Justice. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Furrow, D. (2005). Ethics: Key Concepts in Philosophy. New York: Continuum Books.
DEONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
“To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemma. There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning.
Deontologists believe that one’s action must conform to recognized duties, the consequences are not important. By conforming, one is “doing the right thing” not because it solely pleases the individual or promotes good consequences, but rather because the individual is adhering to the concepts of duty, obligation and rationality. The deontological perspective allows for one’s intentions/motives to be valued, regardless of the outcome.
Deontolog ...
Critical thinking- Video httpswi-phi.comvideosintro-to-crit.docxmydrynan
Critical thinking- Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/intro-to-critical-thinking/
Consequentialism – Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/consequentialism/
Normative vs Descriptive Claims – Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/normative-descriptive-claims/
slippery slope argument – Video
https://wi-phi.com/videos/slippery-slope/
34
CHAPTER 2
Bioethics and Moral Theories
As we have seen, the moral life is dynamic,
complex, and inescapable. In it we wrestle with
momentous questions of moral value and moral
rightness. We assert, challenge, accept, and reject
moral statements. We make moral judgments
about the rightness of actions, the goodness of
persons or their character, and the moral quality
and worth of our lives. Through general moral
norms or principles, we direct our actions and
inform our choices. We formulate and critique
moral arguments, thereby testing what we know
or think we know about moral realities. We do
all this and one thing more: We naturally and
unavoidably venture into the realm of moral
theory, trying to see the larger moral meaning
behind particular situations and precepts. In
this chapter, we explore this realm and try to
discern how it fits into the moral life in general
and into bioethics in particular.
the nature of moral theories
In science, theories help us understand the em-
pirical world by explaining the causes of events,
why things are the way they are. The germ theory
of disease explains how particular diseases arise
and spread in a human population. The helio-
centric (sun-centered) theory of planetary motion
explains why the planets in our solar system
behave the way they do. In ethics, moral theories
have a similar explanatory role. A moral theory
explains not why one event causes another but
why an action is right or wrong or why a person
or a person’s character is good or bad. A moral
theory tells us what it is about an action that
makes it right, or what it is about a person that
makes him or her good. The divine command
theory of morality, for example, says that right
actions are those commanded or willed by God.
Traditional utilitarianism says that right actions
are those that produce the greatest happiness
for all concerned. These and other moral theories
are attempts to define rightness or goodness. In
this way, they are both more general and more
basic than moral principles or other general norms.
Moral theorizing— that is, making, using, or
assessing moral theories or parts of theories— is
normal and pervasive in the moral life, though
it is often done without much recognition that
theory is playing a part in the deliberations.
Whenever we try to understand what a moral
property such as rightness or goodness means,
or justify a moral principle or other norm, or re-
solve a conflict between two credible principles,
or explain why a particular action or practice is
right or wrong, or evaluate the plausibility of
specific moral intuitions or ass.
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [Vit.docxsodhi3
Redmon, W. K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved fromhttps://kaplan.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781136389993/
In-text citation: (Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 16
Ethics and Behavior Analysis in Management
Ethical issues seem to dominate the news these days, and they extend to all areas of human endeavor including, of course, business and psychology. This chapter explores the topic of ethical issues when behavioral methods are applied to industrial/organizational (I/O) settings. The goal is not to create ethical guidelines. Rather, it is to provide an overview of the types of ethical guidelines already available as well as the nature, relevance, and importance of ethical issues that underlie such guidelines.
WHAT ARE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES?
Philosophers have long debated ethical issues. Numerous competing schools each adhere to tenets that not only are different, but sometimes opposite (Macklin, 1982). Part of this debate concerns the basic issue of how to define an ethical principle.
Philosophers sometimes quibble over whether our perceptions are reliable indicators of reality, but this issue seems to be of less concern to scientists. Scientists start with the observable, or what can be defined in terms of the observable (operational definitions). In most cases, there is a strong consensus about what is really “out there,” a consensus that is in large part based upon the consistency among observations. Scientists then attempt to find relationships between these observable entities or events, an activity that produces factual statements called laws. Factual statements deal with what might be called objective reality, descriptions about how things are.
In addition to factual statements, there are statements of value. Value statements are assertions about what is “good,” “right,” or “wrong,” and how entities and events in the world should be, not the way they necessarily are. Value statements are a cornerstone of ethics. Ethical principles look beyond what is, and ask what should be.
Other chapters in this book describe principles that can be used in organizational settings to modify behavior. In effect, the authors are presenting laws describing relationships between antecedent conditions, behaviors, and consequences. The process of discovering and describing these laws is identical to the process of discovering and describing laws in all other sciences, and as such, is grounded in objective reality and statements of fact. This chapter goes beyond such objective considerations and deals with ethical issues associated with the discovery and use of such laws.
WHY WOULD ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT RAISE ETHICAL CONCERNS?
Organizational behavior management (OBM) utilizes information derived from the field of behavior analysis (Mawhinney, 1984). Behavior analysis attempts to find universal laws of behavior. As a scientist, the behavior analyst believes that human behavior is lawful in the same sense th ...
Ethics and Ethical Reasoningermissible, etc.)” One answeBetseyCalderon89
"Ethics and Ethical Reasoning"
"ermissible, etc.)”? One answer to this question is that such assertions can do nothing to solve the deep conflicts of value that we find in our world. We know that people disagree about abortion, gay marriage, animal rights, and other issues. If we are to make progress toward understanding each other, if we are to make progress toward establish-ing some consensus about these topics, then we have to understand why we think certain things are right and other things are wrong. We need to make arguments and give reasons in order to work out our own conclusions about these issues and in order to explain our conclusions to others with whom we disagree.It is also not sufficient to appeal to custom or authority in deriving our conclusions about moral issues. While it may be appropriate for children to simply obey their parents’ decisions, adults should strive for more than conformity and obedience to authority. Sometimes our parents and grandparents are wrong—or they disagree among themselves. Sometimes the law is wrong—or the laws conflict. And sometimes religious authorities are wrong—or the authorities do not agree. To appeal to authority on moral issues, we would first have to decide which authority is to be trusted and believed. Which reli-gion provides the best set of moral rules? Which set of laws in which country is to be followed? Even within the United States, there is currently a conflict of laws with regard to some of these issues: some states have legalized medical marijuana and gay marriage, and others have not. The world’s religions also disagree about a number of issues: for example, the status of women, the permissibility of abortion, and the question of whether war is justifiable. Many of these disagreements are internal to religions, with members of the same religion or denomination disagreeing among themselves. To begin resolv-ing the problem of laws that conflict and religions that disagree, we need critical philosophical inquiry into basic ethical questions. In the next chapter, we discuss the world’s diverse religious traditions and ask whether there is a set of common ethical ideas that is shared by these traditions. In this chapter, we clarify what ethics is and how ethical reasoning should proceed"
"What iS EthicS?On the first day of an ethics class, we often ask stu-dents to write one-paragraph answers to the ques-tion, “What is ethics?”How would you answer? Over the years, there have been significant differences of opinion among our students on this issue. Some have argued that ethics is a highly personal thing, a matter of private opinion. Others claim that our values come from family upbringing. Other students think that ethics is a set of social principles, the codes of one’s soci-ety or particular groups within it, such as medical or legal organizations. Some write that many people get their ethical beliefs from their religion.One general conclusion can be drawn from these students’ ...
Chapter 27 The purchase agreement 185After read.docxwalterl4
Chapter 27: The purchase agreement 185
After reading this chapter, you’ll be able to:
• describe the multiple functions of a purchase agreement form;
• identify various types of purchase agreements; and
• understand the sections and provisions that make up a purchase
agreement.
Learning
Objectives
The purchase
agreement
Chapter
27
A newcomer’s entry as a real estate agent into the vocation of soliciting and
negotiating real estate transactions typically begins with the marketing and
locating of single family residences (SFRs) as a seller’s agent or a buyer’s agent
(also known as listing agents or selling agents, respectively).
Other properties an agent might work with include:
• one-to-four unit residential properties;
• apartments;
• commercial income properties (office buildings, commercial units and
industrial space);
• agricultural property; or
• unimproved parcels of land.
For real estate sales conveying ownership of a property, the primary
document used to negotiate the transaction between a buyer and seller
Types and
variations
equity purchase (EP)
agreement
purchase agreement Key Terms
For a further discussion of this topic, see Chapter 51 of Real Estate
Practice.
186 Real Estate Principles, Second Edition
is a purchase agreement form. Different types of properties each require
a different variety of purchase agreement. Various purchase agreement
comprise provisions necessary to negotiate the sale of a particular type of
property.
Three basic categories of purchase agreements exist for the documentation of
real estate sales. The categories are influenced primarily by legislation and
court decisions addressing the handling of the disclosures and due diligence
investigations in the marketing of properties
The three categories of purchase agreements are for:
• one-to-four unit residential property sales transactions;
• other than one-to-four unit residential property sales transactions,
such as for residential and commercial income properties and owner-
occupied business/farming properties; and
• land acquisition transactions.
Within each category of purchase agreement, several variations exist.
The variations cater to the specialized use of some properties, the diverse
arrangements for payment of the price, and to the specific conditions which
affect a property, particularly within the one-to-four unit residential property
category.
Purchase agreement variations for one-to-four unit residential sales
transactions include purchase agreements for:
• negotiating the conventional financing of the purchase price [See
Figure 1, RPI Form 150 ];
• negotiating a short sale [See RPI Form 150-1];
• negotiating a cash to new or existing mortgage, or a seller carryback
note [See RPI Form 150-2];
• negotiating for separate brokerage fees paid each broker by their client
[See RPI Form 151];
• negotiating the government insured financing (FHA/VA) of t.
Chapter 27Gender and Media Content, Uses, and ImpactDar.docxwalterl4
Chapter 27
Gender and Media: Content, Uses, and Impact
Dara N. Greenwood and Julia R. Lippman
Although research offers compelling evidence to suggest that men and women are far more simi-
lar than they are different across a wide variety of domains, our perceptions of gender difference
can lead us to believe that men and women do inhabit distinct gendered universes and can trigger
self-fulfilling prophecies that confirm these expectations. These perceptions can even guide how aca-
demics choose to interpret the research literature. Hyde’s (2005) review of 46 meta-analyses supports
a “gender similarities hypothesis,” namely, the magnitude of gender differences across these studies
as measured by effect size is small or negligible in over three quarters of the cases assessed. Put
differently, a “small” effect size (i.e., d < 0.35; Hyde, 2005) means that 85% of the distributions for
women and men overlap. This is not to say that a 15% difference in distributions is an insignificant
percentage, but it certainly illustrates that emphasizing difference to the exclusion of similarity paints
an inaccurate picture. Further, where moderate or large gender differences did emerge, they were
often the product of social context. For example, women are more likely than men to smile when
they know they are being observed (LaFrance, Hecht, & Paluck, 2003, as cited in Hyde, 2005). The
latter finding suggests that a given social situation may be of paramount importance in the apparent
differences between men and women.
The social environment can influence the manifestation of present attitudes and behaviors, but
it is also a powerful shaping force throughout the lifespan. In their discussion of a social cognitive
approach to gender development, Bussey and Bandura (2004) suggested that the mass media, in
addition to ongoing input from parents and peers, offer a “pervasive cultural modeling of gender
roles” (p. 108). It is not just children who assimilate cultural models, however; research on the
phenomenon of “possible selves” (Markus & Nurius, 1986) suggests that over the course of our
lives, we continue to draw hoped for as well as feared selves from “the categories made salient by the
individual’s particular sociocultural and historical context and from the models, images, and symbols
provided by the media and by the individual’s immediate social experiences” (p. 954, emphasis
added).
So how does the media environment contribute to our gendered perceptions and experiences?
With a few exceptions, the basic cognitive and emotional processes by which media exert an impact
tend to be similar for both men and women. The most robust gender differences exist at the level
of media representation and content and the selective exposure patterns that are, in part, a response
to gender-typed content. In order to understand how media affect women and men, it is crucial first
to understand systematic gender differences in media content, as well as any gender difference.
CHAPTER 25Arab Unity and Disunity (since 1967)THE CRIS.docxwalterl4
CHAPTER 25
Arab Unity and Disunity (since 1967)
THE CRISIS OF 1973
'Abd al-Nasir lived for three years after his defeat. His position in the
world had been badly shaken by it; his relationships with the United States
and Britain were soured by his accusation and belief that they had helped
Israel militarily during the war, and by the American insistence that Israel
would withdraw from conquered territories only in return for peace. His
position in regard to other Arab rulers was weakened as the limitations of
his power became clear. One immediate result of the war of 1967 was that
he cut his losses in Yemen, and made an agreement with Saudi Arabia by
which his forces were withdrawn.
Inside Egypt, however, his position was still strong. At the end of the
fateful week in June 1967 he announced his resignation, but this aroused
widespread protests in Egypt and some other Arab countries, perhaps
because of skilful organization, but perhaps because of a feeling that his
resignation would be a deeper defeat and humiliation. His hold over
popular sentiment in other Arab countries also remained strong. Both
because of his own stature and because of the recognized position of Egypt,
he was the indispensable broker between the Palestinians and those among
whom they lived. In the years after 1967, the growth of Palestinian national
feeling and the increasing strength of Fatah, which controlled the PLO
from 1969, led to a number of incidents of guerilla action against Israel,
and Israeli reprisals against the lands where the Palestinians had some
freedom of action. In 1969, Egyptian intervention brought about an
agreement between the Lebanese government and the PLO, which set the
limits within which the PLO would be free to operate in southern Lebanon.
In the next year, 1970, severe fighting broke out in Jordan between the
army and Palestinian guerilla groups which seemed on the point of taking
over power in the country. The Jordanian government was able to impose
416
ARAB UNITY AND DISUNITY (SINCE 1967)
its authority and end the freedom of action of the Palestinian groups, and
once more it was the mediation of 'Abd al-Nasir which made peace between
them.
Immediately after this, 'Abd al-Nasir suddenly died. The extraordinary
scenes at his funeral, with millions weeping in the streets, certainly meant
something; at least for the moment, it was difficult to imagine Egypt or the
Arab world without him. His death was the end of an era of hope for an
Arab world united and made new.
'Abd al-Nasir was succeeded by a colleague of long standing, Anwar
Sadat (19 1 8-81). It seemed, at first, that Egypt would continue as before.
In other Arab countries, too, changes in 1969 and 1970 brought to power
people who seemed likely to follow a policy roughly similar to Nasirism or
at least consistent with it. In Morocco and Tunisia, it is true, there was no
basic change at this time; King Hasan and those around him, and Bourguiba
.
Chapter 28 presents historical challenges to creating a sense of pe.docxwalterl4
Chapter 28 presents historical challenges to creating “a sense of personal meaning and value in life” with the growth of technology. What additional supports/strategies might be used to complement using technology in the human services field? How can these services be used to enhance socialization?
.
Chapter 24 Palliative and End-of-Life CareThe hospice nur.docxwalterl4
Chapter 24
: Palliative and End-of-Life Care
The hospice nurse has a unique role in the provision of end of life services.
1. Mention important roles (at least 3) of the nurse while providing quality end -of-life care to seriously ill persons and their families. Explain your answer.
.
Chapter 3Linking IT to Business Metrics From the first time IT.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Linking IT to Business Metrics
From the first time IT started making a significant dent in corporate balance sheets, the holy grail of academics, consultants, and business and IT managers has been to show that what a company spends on IT has a direct impact on its performance. Early efforts to do this, such as those trying to link various measures of IT input (e.g., budget dollars, number of PCs, number of projects) with various measures of business performance (e.g., profit, productivity, stock value) all failed to show any relationship at all (Marchand et al. 2000). Since then, everyone has prop- erly concluded that the relationship between what is done in IT and what happens in the business is considerably more complex than these studies first supposed. In fact, many researchers would suggest that the relationship is so filtered through a variety of “conversion effects” (Cronk and Fitzgerald 1999) as to be practically impossible to demonstrate. Most IT managers would agree. They have long argued that technology is not the major stumbling block to achieving business performance; it is the business itself—the processes, the managers, the culture, and the skills—that makes the differ- ence. Therefore, it is simply not realistic to expect to see a clear correlation between IT and business performance at any level. When technology is successful, it is a team effort, and the contributions of the IT and business components of an initiative cannot and should not be separated.
Nevertheless, IT expenditures must be justified. Thus, most companies have concentrated on determining the “business value” that specific IT projects deliver. By focusing on a goal that matters to business (e.g., better information, faster transaction processing, reduced staff), then breaking this goal down into smaller projects that IT can affect directly, they have tried to “peel the onion” and show specifically how IT delivers value in a piecemeal fashion. Thus, a series of surrogate measures are usually used to demonstrate IT’s impact in an organization. (See Chapter 1 for more details.)
More recently, companies are taking another look at business performance met- rics and IT. They believe it is time to “put the onion back together” and focus on what
1 This chapter is based on the authors’ previously published article, Smith, H. A., J. D. McKeen, and C. Street. “Linking IT to Business Metrics.” Journal of Information Science and Technology 1, no. 1 (2004): 13–26. Reproduced by permission of the Information Institute.
1
27
28 Section I • Delivering Value with IT
really matters to the enterprise. This perspective argues that employees who truly understand what their business is trying to achieve can sense the right ways to per- sonally improve performance that will show up at a business unit and organizational level. “People who understand the business and are informed will be proactive and ... have a disposition to create business value every day in many.
Chapter 4 A Tour of the CellChapter 4 A Tour of the CellName.docxwalterl4
Chapter 4: A Tour of the Cell
Chapter 4: A Tour of the Cell
Name ________________________ Period _________
Chapter 4: A Tour of the Cell
Guided Reading Activities
Chapter Content: The Microscopic World of Cells
1. The ____________ states that all cells come from existing cells and that organisms are made of cells.
2. Complete the table that compares prokaryotic to eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Description of cells
3. A scientist discovers a cell in a sample of water from Utah’s Great Salt Lake. She discovers the cell has a cell wall, ribosomes, and a nucleoid region. Upon further microscopic observation the scientist notices the nucleoid region contains a single chromosome. Which of the following cells would it most likely be?
A) Prokaryote
B) Animal cell
C) Plant cell
D) Eukaryote
4. Complete the following table illustrating the differences between plant and animal cells.
Plant cells
Animal cells
Shared features
Unique features
Chapter Content: Membrane Structure
Complete the following questions as you read the fourth chapter content—Membrane Structure:
1. True or false: If false, please make it a correct statement. The plasma membrane regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
2. Students, when asked to diagram a simple cell membrane, many times draw the structure
below. What is wrong with this structure? In other words, briefly explain why it is incorrect.
3. Which of the following statements best describes the structure of a cell membrane?
A) Proteins sandwiched between two layers of phospholipids
B) Proteins embedded in two layers of phospholipids
C) A layer of protein coating a layer of phospholipids
D) Phospholipids sandwiched between two layers of protein
4. A cell’s plasma membrane is described as being a ______________ because it is composed of a variety of molecules that are constantly in motion around each other.
5. Figure 4.5b on page 60 of your textbook indicates that membrane proteins will have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. Briefly explain why a membrane protein would need both regions. Refer to the figure to aid you in answering the question.
7. List three common bacterial targets of antibiotics.
Chapter Content: The Nucleus and Ribosomes: Genetic Control of the Cell
Complete the following questions as you read the fourth chapter content—The Nucleus and Ribosomes: Genetic Control of the Cell:
1. Complete the following table regarding the nucleus.
Nuclear envelope
Nuclear pores
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Function
2. The nuclear envelope has passages for substances moving into and out of the nucleus. These passages are called nuclear pores and they are made by proteins that are inserted into the plasma membrane that makes up the nuclear envelope. These proteins would be assembled by:
A) Free-floating ribosomes
B) The nucleus
C) Ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum
D) Nuclear pores
3. What are the functions of a protein.
4. Does DNA lea.
Chapter 4 Data Communications and Networking 1 of 40 .docxwalterl4
Chapter 4: Data Communications and Networking
1 of 40
ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS: A DATABASE APPROACH
by: Uday S. Murthy, Ph.D., ACA and S. Michael Groomer, Ph.D., CPA, CISA
Data Communications and Networking
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
• identify the five components of a telecommunications network,
• distinguish between terminals and workstations,
• explain the various types of transmission links, including physical and “through
the air” links,
• differentiate between alternative transmission methods such as analog and digital
transmission, circuit switching and packet switching,
• describe in general terms the functioning of line sharing devices and switches,
• explain the role of network architecture and standards,
• explain the OSI telecommunications model,
• distinguish between local area networks and wide area networks,
• describe alternative computer network configurations including ring, star, and bus
networks,
• understand the various types of wide area networks, including the options for
centralized data processing networks and distributed data processing networks,
• explain the concept of a client/server system,
• understand the architecture and functioning of the Internet,
• distinguish between the Internet and Intranets,
• describe the operation of electronic data interchange arrangements between
organizations,
• explain the concept of e-business and its emerging importance in the global
economy.
The dramatic technological advances that swept the computer industry in the seventies
and eighties resulted in the development of extremely fast and powerful personal
Chapter 4: Data Communications and Networking
2 of 40
computers. These personal computers made it possible to maximize individual
productivity. However, most current hardware and software technological developments
have been aimed at maximizing group productivity. Increasingly, personal computers
are networked together to enable communication between users and to facilitate
sharing of data and resources. This chapter is aimed at providing a basic understanding
of a range of telecommunications concepts including local area and wide area networks.
We also discuss some recent communications technologies affecting business such as
client/server systems, the Internet, and electronic data interchange. Almost all
computer systems in organizations today are networked, and these networked
computer systems invariably house a wealth of accounting information. It is therefore
important for accountants to have a working knowledge of data communications and
networking concepts.
Telecommunications concepts
Telecommunications refers to the electronic transmission of information from a point of
origin to a point of destination. A telecommunications network is composed of five
components: (1) terminals and workstations, (2) transmission links, (3) tra.
Chapter 3 The APA Ethics Code and Ethical Decision MakingThe APA.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3 The APA Ethics Code and Ethical Decision Making
The APA’s Ethics Code provides a set of aspirational principles and behavioral rules written broadly to apply to psychologists’ varied roles and the diverse contexts in which the science and practice of psychology are conducted. The five aspirational principles described in Chapter 2 represent the core values of the discipline of psychology that guide members in recognizing in broad terms the moral rightness or wrongness of an act. As an articulation of the universal moral values intrinsic to the discipline, the aspirational principles are intended to inspire right actions but do not specify what those actions might be. The ethical standards that will be discussed in later chapters of this book are concerned with specific behaviors that reflect the application of these moral principles to the work of psychologists in specific settings and with specific populations. In their everyday activities, psychologists will find many instances in which familiarity with and adherence to specific Ethical Standards provide adequate foundation for ethical actions. There will also be many instances in which (a) the means by which to comply with a standard are not readily apparent, (b) two seemingly competing standards appear equally appropriate, (c) application of a single standard or set of standards appears consistent with one aspirational principle but inconsistent with another, or (d) a judgment is required to determine whether exemption criteria for a particular standard are met.
The Ethics Code is not a formula for solving these ethical challenges. Psychologists are not moral technocrats simply working their way through a decision tree of ethical rules. Rather, the Ethics Code provides psychologists with a set of aspirations and broad general rules of conduct that psychologists must interpret and apply as a function of the unique scientific and professional roles and relationships in which they are embedded. Successful application of the principles and standards of the Ethics Code involves a conception of psychologists as active moral agents committed to the good and just practice and science of psychology. Ethical decision making thus involves a commitment to applying the Ethics Code and other legal and professional standards to construct rather than simply discover solutions to ethical quandaries (APA, 2012f).
This chapter discusses the ethical attitudes and decision-making strategies that can help psychologists prepare for, identify, and resolve ethical challenges as they continuously emerge and evolve in the dynamic discipline of psychology. An opportunity to apply these strategies is provided in the cases at the end of each chapter and the 10 case studies presented in Appendix A.
Ethical Commitment and Virtues
The development of a dynamic set of ethical standards for psychologists’ work-related conduct requires a personal commitment and lifelong effort to act ethically; to encourage ethical.
Chapter 3 3Plainchant Alleluia, Caro mea”Composed ca. 1275This.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3 3Plainchant Alleluia, “Caro mea”
Composed: ca. 1275
This brief chant is from the Mass for the Feast of Corpus Christi. It is a responsorial chant in which a chorus “responds” to a solo singer. As is so often the case with medieval plainchant, we do not know the identity of the composer, though it was probably written by a monk or priest. This chapter's recording, by an all-male ensemble, reflects the way this chant would have been sung in a medieval monastery.Learning Objectives
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3.1Describe how the Alleluia functioned in the context of the Mass.
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3.2Define responsorial chant.
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3.3Identify the unison texture of plainchant as it is heard in “Caro mea” from the Mass for the Feast of Corpus Christi.
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3.4Explain the use of contrast in the performance of “Caro mea.”
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3.5Define melisma and identify melismas in “Caro mea.”
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3.6Describe how plainchant assists in promoting calm and well-being.
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Plainchant was an integral part of every service of worship in the Medieval church. The Alleluia “Caro mea” is one of many plainchants used during the Mass for the Feast of Corpus Christi (Latin for “Body of Christ”), which celebrates the Holy Sacrament, the body (bread) and blood (wine) of Christ. Like all Masses, the Mass for the Feast of Corpus Christi consists of a combination of elements that are unchanging (the “Ordinary”—the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei) and elements that change according to the specific Sunday or feast day (the “Propers”—Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Offertory, Communion). The texts for the Propers of the Mass for the Feast of Corpus Christi all deal in some way with the ritual of the Holy Sacrament.
The text for the Alleluia for this feast day is taken from the Gospel of John, 6:55–56. These are the words Jesus spoke to his disciples and others at the synagogue at Caprenaum, and they foreshadow the words he would say at the Last Supper the night before his crucifixion, when he distributed bread and wine to his disciples as part of the traditional Passover meal.
A priest (center) leads the celebration of Mass with the assistance of monks (left), who are singing from a notated manuscript.PERFORMANCEChilling to Chant
Plainchant has long been recognized as an element that enhances meditation, prayer, and devotion: It figures prominently in many of the world's religions (see Expand Your Playlist: Chant, Chapter 1). The gentle flow of the melodies, the absence of repetitive rhythms, and the relatively narrow range of timbre all help create a sense of calm and well-being. Scientists are gradually discovering that there is a physiological factor at work here as well. Dr. Alan Watkins, a senior lecturer in neuroscience at Imperial College London, has noted that “the musical structure of chanting can have a significant and positive physiological impact . . . studies also demonstrate that such practices have been shown to lower blood pressure, increase levels of the performance hormone DHEA as.
chapter 3
Chapter 3 Managerial Decision Making
1. Describe the phases of managerial decision making.
2. Describe the barriers to managerial decision making.
3. Describe the challenges involved in managing group decision making.
4. Describe the components involved in Herbert Simon’s organizational decision-making process.
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Chapter 3What are GPNs and how do they function and operate W.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
What are GPNs and how do they function and operate? Who are the GPN actors that are referred to in Chapter 3 and do they work with each other or against each other?
Discuss extent to which capital is becoming reterritorialized or disembodied. What does this currently mean to international business which attempts to expand internationally?
Discuss the extent to which TNCs and / or financialization affect process of globalization, and vice versa.
Are Non-Government Production entities (NGOs) an effective way to curb excesses of YNCs, or part of the problems?
Group #1 members will take the argument in support of this statement that NGOs are an effective way to curb excesses of TNCs.
Chapter 4
Technological change is defined as a socially and institutionalized embedded process. Do you agree with this statement and why or why not?
There are supposedly four types of technological change. List them and define what they mean. Are there more? List these as well.
Which is more significant, communications technology or transportation technology?
Group #2 members are to take the position in support of transportation technology.
Conduct the trends identified by this chapter and where they might lead to the future, if at all.
Book: ISBN:978146251955-2
GLOBAL SHIFT 7E
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CHAPTER 3the story of the slave ship, the Zong- in Novembe.docxwalterl4
CHAPTER 3
the story of the slave ship, the Zong:
- in November of 1781, after 3 months at sea the Zong was nearing the ‘New World’ from the western coast of Africa
- had started with 471 African individuals intended for the slave trade
- fresh water was very low and disease had broken out
- in accordance with the ‘economics’ of the slave trade and the norms of the time, the slaves were considered ‘cargo’ – no different from livestock
- the ‘cargo’ had been insured at the beginning of the trip
— slaves that died of natural causes (lack of water, disease) would not be covered by the insurance
— however, if the slaves died from being thrown overboard while still alive, the ship owners’ insurance would cover the lose
— hoping to save water and reduce the spread of disease, 54 sick slaves were chained together and thrown overboard
— over 2 days, more live slaves were thrown overboard (total: 132 persons)
at 1st the insurance company was going to pay, but a new freed slave, Equiano (living free in England now) made an abolitionist aware and a new trial determined the slaves were people, not cargo or livestock and the ship owners did not get the insurance
foundations of US
- beginning in 1600s and through 1700s the US is an agricultural society
- land and labor are needed
- to get land and labor 3 groups were made into minority status
— these groups joined the colonies, then the US through colonization
— these 3 groups are still having problems today (Native American, African American, Hispanic/Mexican American)
two themes throughout this text
1) what the current subsistence technology is for a specific time period) (impacts majority – minority relations at that time (subsistence technology: how a society provides for basic goods, services (shelter, food, water) for its people) (see table)
what’s important
hunting / gathering / foraging
human energy
little stratification
- dependent of what nature provides
agriculture
human energy and animal energy
- more surplus
- increased stratification
- majority / minority relationship is likely to be patriarchal
- land ownership
- cheap, easily controllable workforce
industrialization
addition of other energy sources, culminating in electricity
- even more surplus
- even more stratification
- capital to build factories, buy machinery and raw materials, pay workers
post industrialization / information
electricity
human energy
- high stratification
education
2) what the contact situation is when 2 or more groups first make contact (impacts majority – minority relations at the time and later)
the initial contact situation
- application of the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses
- they are not mutually exclusive; they look at similar, overlapping issues
- much can be learned by applying both hypotheses
— Noel hypothesis
Noel Hypotheses
at contact
conditions
result
Noel
Two or more groups come together
if the following conditions exist
- ethnocentrism
- competition
- power differential among the groups
resul.
Chapter 3What is the basic accounting equation Give an exampl.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
What is the basic accounting equation? Give an example of how a business transaction would effect the basic accounting equation.
Give an example of a journal entry using at least two accounts.
Give one example each of asset, liability, equity, revenue and expense accounts and the normal balance of debit or credit.
Give an example that shows the basic steps in the recording process.
What is the purpose of a trial balance?
Define cash activities as operating, investing, or financing and give one example of each.
Please rephrase for student A and student B. Attachments below is their answers.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptx
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreat.docx
1. Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and
recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a
violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and
ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral
judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered
is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the
behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard.
These comments are usually uttered based on observations
of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the
observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what
is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments:
From where docs the standard come that the person uses to
assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of
an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be
presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment
is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical
Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the
2. ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no
critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the
actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the
person making such comments. In part this is due to the
paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and
to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While
each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the
serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to
discover that most people are unaware of the bases for
moral judgment. This text aims to consider- ably reduce this
lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not
pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when
this does occur. For example, there arc times when
teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers
of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books
discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they
point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong.
These instances are few compared to the many times when we
have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there
is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to
learn how to conduct moral reasoning.
Divergent Assessment of Behavior
A list of contradictory statements appears at the start of this
chapter. These comments result from observations of blatant
acts. If both observers (in each set of statements) saw the same
action, yet came to hold different opinions, there is a need
to (1) explore how two observ-ers could possibly hold such
divergent views, and (2) devise a method that should enable
them, and us, to decide which is a justified view. We shortly
will undertake these tasks. To help us deal with these challenges
we need to turn our attention first. to some preliminary matters:
(1) the definition and elaboration of terns such as ethics,
morals, values, and norms, and (2) briefly deal with some
historical aspects of ethics (additional information on this
topic is presented in Chapter 4.). These discussions will
3. provide the basis for the development of the first model for
rendering moral judgments. A second, more elaborate and
complex model will be presented in the third chapter, "Factors
Influencing Decision Making."
Axiological Framework
In one sense it seems almost redundant to provide
definitions for such common terms as ethics, morals,
values, and norms since these words are often used in
everyday speech. Ironically, it is because of the widespread
use (and misuse at times) of these words that they have
taken on many meanings, thus indicating a need for the
provision of definitions to standardize our understanding.
Definitions are provided, along with pertinent elaborations,
to clarify current usage and to pro- vide additional insights
into the axiological framework. Understandings derived from
the definitions will facilitate the reading of the text.
Ethics is a sub-discipline of philosophy. Ethics, as the word is
commonly used, is concerned with issues of right and wrong in
human conduct. It is concerned with what is good and what is
bad; what is authentic and is not authentic. Ethics is also
concerned with the notions of duty, obligation, and moral
responsibility. As such, ethics are manifested in behavior
and assessed through the application of ethical inquiry
and critical moral reasoning.
An understanding of what is, and what ought to be, is basic to
assessing behavior in terms of right/wrong, good/bad, or
authentic/inauthentic. To assess behavior, what is ethical, as
a basis for rendering moral judgment, we need to know
what is right, what is good, and what is authentic. Although
the three terms, right, good, and authentic, refer to ethical
standards, there are differences among them. Generally, we
employ the terms right and wrong in situations where
rules and laws are applicable; we use the terms good and bad
when we focus our attention on the consequences of the
act; and we apply the terms authentic and inauthentic to
situations where the person examines his or her own behavior
4. critically. The section entitled "Three Ethical Bases" below
contains additional information regarding these differences.
Ethics, as the study of morals, refers to that specific branch of
philosophy that critically examines, clarifies, and reframes
the basic concepts and presuppositions of ethical theories and of
n1on:tlity generally. The contemporary organization of this
branch of philosophy is comprised, roughly, into two
categories, meta-ethics and applied ethics.
Meta-ethics is more theoretical in nature as it trains its
sights on the logic, coherence, and presuppositions found in
each ethical theory. In contrast, as the term suggests,
applied ethics is much more concerned with examining
behavior in terms of right and wrong, good or bad,
authentic and inauthentic.
Both meta-ethics and applied ethics interrelate at the level of
theory and practice. We must ground ethical theory in actual
human existence, f(n· if that were not so, it would be difficult
to imagine its applicability. And, as we base moral judgment
on some standard or ethical maxim, we must invoke some
ethical theory. Ethical theory unavoidably forms the basis of
moral judgment.
Morals, generally, is the term more often used when
referring to actions, behavior, and the principles that
guide them. Technically speaking, morality is a central
concept of ethics but it is not the whole of ethics. Morality
often refers to certain principles that seem to make absolute
and universal claims (e.g., thou shalt not kill).
In contemporary times, moral is the term applied to an
individual's actions. Through moral categories we can judge if
that particular behavior was right or wrong, good or bad,
virtuous or evil.
Three Ethical Bases
Throughout history, serious thinkers have explored and
proposed a wide range of sources as the base for ethics.
These bases are often called ethical theories. Some
approaches have persisted over time as generally accepted
5. bases for ethics. Three are of particular interest. A brief
introductory comment is presented here to serve as the basis for
a more extensive discussion in the next chapter.
Deontology (Categorical) is a rule-based approach, focusing on
obligation and duty, similar to the orientation found in the
Bible. Since attention is directed to the act itself, this approach
is non-consequentialist or categorical.
Teleology (Consequential) is an approach that focuses on
the consequences of the action, one that conceives of ethics
as concerned with measuring the amount of goodness, or
badness, arising from behavior. Attention is directed towards
assessing the consequences of a particular action rather than
examining the act itself.
In contemporary times, under the influence of post-World War
II European thought, generally called existentialism, attention
was directed squarely on the individual. Concepts such as
authenticity, which refers to how true the person is to himself
or herself) integrity, and genuineness are factors that must be
considered in judging each individual act at that particular
time within the context of the unique circumstances prevailing.
Each of the three bases or approaches listed above identifies a
source from which we derive ethical maxims. Problems can,
and usually will, arise during moral discourse if there is no
explicit agreement reached regarding which ethical maxim will
serve as the measuring rod. Using different ethical bases can
lead to divergent judgments.
An example will serve to illustrate the case. A hockey
player on Team A is about to skate free on a breakaway with
the likelihood of scoring a goal. A defender on Team B
deliberately trips the opposing player to prevent the goal
and the television announcer, in reporting the play, adds
that it was a good foul. Phrased in this manner, the
announcer is praising a violation of the rules. If a rule-based
orientation is the source of the ethical maxim, then clearly
the defender deliberately violated a rule and, therefore, it is
judged as wrong or bad. However, if one takes a
6. consequentialist approach, one can argue that the defender,
by tripping the opponent, ensured a win for Team B. This,
thereby, produces more good/happiness for the defending
team than bad/ sadness for the opposing team. Since the
good/happiness for one team outweighs the bad/sadness of the
other team, the deliberate rule violation was, in reality, a
good foul. From an existential perspective, the player
committing the foul would need to examine his or her
conscience to decide whether a deliberate violation of
the rules is an instance of authentic behavior.
Ethical Bases and Values Clarification
Three different and distinct sources have been briefly
sketched; ethical maxims can be derived from each of these
three sources. As illustrated in the case just described, the
behavior under scrutiny can be assessed from all three
ethical bases and, on occasion, somewhat surprisingly, contrary
ethical judgments can be rendered. This creates a new
problem that needs addressing. Which of the three moral
judgments do we accept and which do we reject?
Confronting this problem requires, among other things, the
clarification of your own values. Do you regard adhering to
higher principles and obeying the rules as more important
or valuable than evaluating the goodness (or badness)
resulting from an action'!) Or do you sub- scribe to the
view that the end justifies the means, particularly in situations
where the end creates more goodness than badness'? If this is
your belief, are you prepared to break rules in cases where, on
balance, you predict more goodness than badness will result
from your actions!) How important is it for you to be authentic,
to behave in a way that is consistent with what you truly
believe in?
When faced with a choice, which do you value more highly:
Obeying the rules under any circumstances? Or making
certain that the result of your actions produces more
goodness than badness, no matter the behavior used to attain
that goal? Or is it maintaining authenticity, that is, being true
7. to yourself at all times without regard for adherence to the
rules and possible outcomes regarding goodness and badness?
As you rank these options in order of your personal
preference you are engaging in a values clarification
exercise through which you will (1) learn more about
yourself and (2) obtain some insights into which ethical base
(theory), categorical (rules, non-consequentialism),
consequential (outcome, consequentialism), or existentialism
(authenticity), is more likely to influence your thinking and
moral reasoning.
Why Be Ethical?
There is an ethical dimension embedded in all of our behavior.
This observation applies equally to individuals and to
organizations, as people comprise these groups and make
decisions that lead to action. Ethics permeates all of our
behavior, encompassing our interactions with other human
beings, with animals, and with the environment. Viewed in
this light, we suggest that ethical considerations are more than
vague theoretical abstractions, since they apply to every move
we make. Usually the moral component remains unnoticed
because we generally treat each other ethically. When
behavior departs from the norm, we quickly become aware
of the ethical aspect.
Since there is an ethical dimension to all of our behavior, it
behooves us to consider carefully how we ought to behave.
Why should administrators, leaders, teachers, coaches,
players, students, participants, and professionals in all fields
behave morally?
Rendering Moral Judgment
Differences of opinion over moral issues have probably
existed since the beginning of Time, since our forebears
began interacting with each other. A review of contemporary
writings reveals disagreement and controversy between
philosophers, professional practitioners, theologians, and
throughout the public. We cannot expect to find unanimity in
ethics and in moral judgments except on rare occasions.
8. When we find agreement, it occurs mostly when the
exhibited behavior is at either one of the extreme ends of
the moral spectrum. Behavior that contains minimal ethical
content is rarely subject to scrutiny or cause for dispute.
Since we readily reach agreement in such cases without
serious discussion we learn very little. Similarly, blatant,
flagrant, obvious immoral acts provoke little, if any, moral
disagreement. In such cases discussion tends to focus on the
motivation that prompted the act or on the sanctions likely lo
be applied.
Between these two extremes are countless acts that invite
moral judgment. Ethical dilemmas emerge daily in every
facet of professional practice, incidents and events that
demand our scrutiny. When we begin discussing those
incidents and behavior we are engaged in doing ethics. Doing
ethics involves judging human beings in terms of ends or
goals attained and the means used t:o achieve them.
Included in this approach is an examination of the
relationship between the means and the ends. Doing ethics
involves using data and it also requires techniques of
describing, assessing, judging, and making decisions.
Examining data critically to render moral judgment is part of a
process called moral reasoning Moral reasoning is a
systematic approach that enables us to probe deeply in order to
see things with greater clarity. It frees us from dogmatic,
preconceived, and prejudiced thinking. Freedom from these
intellectual restrictions creates cognitive independence. Issues
and statements are analyzed critically using rational thought
in place of emotional appeal. An integral part of moral
reasoning is the requirement to provide reasons to support the
position taken or the rendered moral judgment.
Providing reasons places the discussion above the level of
mere opinion. If the discussion remains at: the level of mere
opinion, we make little, if any, advancement or progress. All
opinions are of equal value. We are each entitled to our
opinion. Stating, and restating, opinion gains us very little,
9. although this is often the case in moral discussion. When we
offer reasons in support of the view expressed, the impasse is
often broken. Once we offer reasons, we can evaluate them in
terms of their pertinence, cogency, and force. By comparing
the total strength of the reasons provided in support of one
view to the total force of a contrary view, we can
determine which is the more logical and/or stronger case.
Through critical examination of the reasons given, faulty
logic, inconsistent thinking or inapplicable rationales can be
detected. Disciplined, impartial, logical thinking is required
to criticize the reasons given and to ferret out
discrepancies. This analytical process, difficult and arduous at
times, leads to greater moral insights, thus placing· the
dialogue well beyond the realm of mere opinion. When moral
reasoning is used, the discussion is placed on a different
level, one well above what is found in a "bull session."
Based on rational thought and sound reasoning, the moral
judgments rendered through this process are apt to better
withstand criticism.
Moral reasoning is not conducted as an exercise in abstract
thought. As applied ethics, moral reasoning aims to identify and
delineate right conduct and correct behavior. As cases in
Chapters 8 and 9 are explored and analyzed, we become
aware of the moral options available to us as well as the wide
range of ethical dilemmas that are encountered as real-life
issues. Caution must be used before declaring an action
absolutely right or absolutely wrong, absolutely good or
absolutely bad. There are shades of grey when judging human
conduct.
Moral reasoning is a skill that needs to be acquired. Like all
other skills, practice, often guided by a more
knowledgeable person, is required in order to improve one's
ability. Ample opportunity to practice moral reasoning skills
is provided in Chapters 8 and 9, where a wide array of
case studies are found. As you tackle each one you will be
engaged in moral discourse.
10. Agent Accountability
A person is accountable for his or her actions. Technically, we
identify that person as an agent. To understand what it means
t:o be accountable requires an understanding of what it
means to be an agent. An agent has free will and the power
to act. Having free will and the power t:o act allows the
agent to choose, from among options, which action to do. By
choosing to act in a certain way, an agent accepts
responsibility for that action and its consequences. An agent
is accountable for actions done intentionally; here we link
accountability to intention, which is an integral part of action.
Involuntary actions and accidental actions are generally
placed in another moral category. Both motivation and
intention are not always obvious. Difficulties may be
encountered in determining the status of motivation and
intention in the act.
Five Steps for Rendering Ethical Judgment-Model I
Step One: Obtain and clarify all the pertinent facts of the case
or incident
To ensure that everyone involved in the discussion is operating
from the same base, it is important that all the facts be
presented. Everyone needs to know exactly what occurred. We
must consider the incident, not only in its proper chronological
order, but also in terms of who was present and their roles,
responsibilities, and understandings (both tacit and explicit)
that prevailed then. This step is similar to evidence being
presented at a trial in court. In order for the judge and jury to
arrive at a just verdict, all the facts of the case need to be
presented. The same line of thinking applies to moral reasoning.
Step Two: Identify and enunciate the ethical maxim(s) to be
used
Omission of this step will likely add confusion as the use of
different implicit maxims will create a situation where
people talk past each other. The identification and
enunciation of an ethical maxim serves to direct the
discussion along one path of moral reasoning. Here we can
11. focus the debate as everyone involved understands the
yardstick being used as the measuring rod.
An ethical maxim is a general moral principle, rule, law, or
moral doctrine one adopts or formulates to serve as a
yardstick against which behavior is to be measured. It can be
understood as a moral rule of thumb and, as such, it can also
serve to guide behavior.
As explained earlier, the three ethical theories, categorical,
consequential, and existentialism, are sources from which
ethical maxims can be derived. From a categorical (non-
consequential) perspective we can ask the following questions:
Are there any specific rules which apply? Are there any
"unwritten" but generally accepted procedures which are
pertinent.? Do any of the policies of the institution cover
the issue at hand? Are there broader social standards that can
be invoked? Do any of the particular laws of the jurisdiction
apply? If there is a rule governing that behavior then that rule
serves as an ethical maxim. lf no rule is applicable the next
step may be to consult the institution's policies, and procedures.
Generally speaking, it is easier to arrive at consensus where
explicit rules or clear statements are available. A consensus is
more difficult: to obtain in the realm of "unwritten" rules and
social standards since these areas are amenable to a wider array
of interpretation. Laws, clearly, can serve as ethical maxims.
Laws, rules, policies, and procedures can also be terribly
wrong (more on this in the next chapter).
A consequential approach focuses on the end results produced.
Did that particular action generate more good than bad?
Ethical maxims, formulated within this context, will be
phrased in a way that allows for the comparison of benefits
(goods) and drawbacks (bad) resulting from the action (e.g.,
ergogenic aids in sport). Attempting such calculations is a
difficult challenge since goodness and badness are not
readily amenable to quantification. Estimates can be made
of the impact. The action is likely to have on everyone
involved in that particular event. This step assists us in
12. calculating the sum total of good and sum total of bad
resulting from the incident.
Consideration given to the greatest good for the greatest
number serves as a general guide in public policy but that
notion is more difficult to apply to individuals. Despite this
caveat we can often determine if an event had minimal or
major impact. In calculating the sum of goodness and the
sum of badness, consideration needs to be given both to
quantity and quality; some events have more profound
impact than others (this will be discussed further in Chapter
5).
From an existential perspective, the focus is trained on the
person as agent with freedom of choice and responsibility, that
is, authenticity. Authenticity is a characteristic based upon
the concept of congruence -- congruence within the person
(affective and cognitive domains) and congruence between
the person, the person's actions, and the world. A person
is authentic to the degree to which the person's being in the
world is fundamentally in accord with the basis of that
person's own nature and own conception of the world. An
authentic person thinks, feels, and acts in a consistent,
congruent manner.
Authenticity is a personal matter. Only the person can know
the authenticity of his or her own being. To be genuine, honest,
congruent, or "real" means to be authentic to oneself. The
person is the only one who can know what is going on inside
his or her self.
The search for an ethical maxim cannot be conducted in
isolation, separate and apart from the incident under
scrutiny. Step Two cannot be the exclusive focus of
attention; some consideration needs to be given to Step One
at the same time.
More than one ethical maxim can be found to serve as the
moral yardstick against which we can measure behavior.
Invoking more than one ethical maxim promotes a wider-
ranging moral discourse. A more comprehensive examination
13. of the behavior/act/incident/event is preferable to a narrower
review, since the former produces greater insights and
therefore more, rather than less, ethical knowledge.
Step Three: Time
Chronologically we can look to (1) the time before the
incident, (2) the time of the incident, and (3) the consequences
that resulted because of the incident. In the quest for a
comprehensive description of what occurred, i. is usually
advantageous to know what prompted the action under
examination. That knowledge often helps us to understand
the act itself. Knowing precisely, and in detail, what
happened when the incident occurred adds to the foundation
upon which we conduct moral reasoning. Assessing the
consequences helps us to determine the gravity or severity of
the situation. As the moral reasoning exercise evolves,
knowledge of what happened before the incident, what
indeed happened, and the consequences resulting will be
considered. All this information helps to satisfy the
requirements of Step One in the Model.
In the first period, the time before the action, two factors
may be present that demand consideration: motivation and
intention. What motivated the action? At times good motives
produce bad results and, conversely, evil motives produce
good results. Knowledge of the motivation involved, which is
not readily or easily attained, is usually a factor considered in
moral reasoning. From the individual’s own perspective
authenticity is a moral characteristic that applies at all times
(i.e., prior to, during, and following the act). Intention, the
other factor, can often be discerned from the act itself --
but that is not always the case. In the absence of a statement
from the agent, there is no alternative other than assessment of
the act to impute intention.
This schema can also serve as a very general checklist of
factors to consider in an attempt to arrive at a complete
description of what occurred.
Step Four: Identify and discuss extenuating or special
14. circumstances
At times special or extenuating circumstances exist that shed
light on what occurred. For example, in an 800-meter race the
runner in second place stumbles, due to a pothole in the track,
just as she is about to pass the leader. This jolt is of sufficient
force to cause the leader to lose her balance. Thrown off-
balance, the leading runner pauses to right herself and in so
doing drops back into second place. Somehow that collision
helps the stumbling runner regain her balance and
launches her into the lead that she maintains for the rest of
the race. The second place finisher lodges a protest as she felt
she deserved the gold medal. A pothole in the track, easily
discovered only after the incident, represents a special
circumstance that needs to be considered when rendering moral
judgment.
Another scenario will add to the explanation. Team Alpha
arrives at the visitors, dressing room to discover the theft of
their soccer sweaters. League rules are strict and firm,
requiring teams to dress in uniforms bearing the color and
design registered. Without proper dress the team cannot
play. In addition, another rule says that games must start
on time. The opposing team receives one goal for each five-
minute delay. With full knowledge that. a rule violation
will occur, the manager of team Alpha requests permission
to use the home team's practice jerseys. She further asks for
a 20-minute delay in the start of the game and that no penalty
be applied. Here is a special circumstance that merits
consideration in moral reasoning.
In Step Four, the facts of the case or incident are further
amplified. Circumstances are best identified as extenuating or
special after a full basic description of the case has been
provided.
Step Five: Render judgment.
This, in one sense, is the culmination of moral reasoning. We
should render judgment only after all the facts of the case have
been considered and we reach agreement on the ethical
15. maxim(s) applicable.
Once we know as many facts as possible, and consider the
special or extenuating circumstances, is it possible to reach a
consensus among those involved in that particular moral
reasoning exercise. Not always is it possible to decide
absolutely in terms of black or white, right or wrong, good
or bad. Ethics also comes in shades of grey, that is, qualified
judgments that find some right or good and some wrong or bad
in a particular act. Reasons given for the judgments rendered
serve as warrants to support the decision reached.
Summary
Professional practitioners and laypersons utter ethical
pronouncements on certain acts that occur within the realm
of that specific specialty and in all aspects of life. Too often
these judgments are based on inadequate knowledge of moral
reasoning and a lack of awareness of the various bases from
where ethical maxims can be derived to serve as yardsticks
against which behavior is measured. Despite the need for
professionals in all fields to be aware of the ethical dimension
of their practice, very little attention is paid to this topic in the
curriculum that comprises their respective professional
education.
MGMT675 - CTU Library Resources
The following articles are from the Business Source Premier
database in the CTU Library.
Phase 1
Boseman, G. (2008). Effective leadership in a changing world.
Journal of Financial Service
Professionals, 62(3), 36-38. Retrieved from Business Source
16. Premier database.
The article focuses on the theoretical concept of leadership and
the traits of a leader. Two issues
are discussed: defining the leadership role and evaluating the
two types of leaders, transactional
and transformational. Three components in leadership theory are
the leader, the follower, and the
situation or context in which they take action. Traits that
followers look for in leaders are
honesty, competency, the ability to recognize trends and
mobilize, and the skill to inspire and
empower others. The definition used by Winston Churchill to
assess effective leadership is
mentioned, as well as the "4E" framework used by Jack Welch.
Characteristics of the
transformational and transactional leader are contrasted.
Buckingham, M. (2005). Managers and leaders. Leadership
Excellence, 22(12), 5-6. Retrieved
from Business Source Premier database.
The article presents insights on the roles of managers and
leaders. There are differences in the
roles of managers and leaders. Great managers bring out the
talents and strengths of people and
17. capitalize on them through techniques. Leaders transform
people strategically.
Singh, A. (2009). Organizational power in perspective.
Leadership & Management in
Engineering, 9(4), 165-176. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Power and influence are fundamental human phenomena that are
deeply ingrained on the psyche
and conscious personality of individuals. The difference
between proper and improper use of
power is the difference between success and failure, high and
low productivity, motivation and
disillusionment. This paper includes a review and analysis of
the classical concepts of power in
management literature, a description of power styles, and
classical research findings on the
optimum use of power. In it I describe power bases and cover
the relationship of power with
project uncertainty, organizational climate, situational
leadership, productivity, and individual
independence. Links are made to leadership styles, and
references are made to negative uses of
power. Overall, the concept of power is placed in perspective as
it relates to management needs,
18. and ideas are discussed for managing and controlling power for
the benefit of organizations. The
immense advantages of expert power and personal influence
(reference power) are emphasized.
Overwhelming evidence is presented regarding the negative
nature of coercion and
authoritativeness as viable management styles in well-developed
organizations. Any power base
is seen potentially to be double-edged: effective usage depends
entirely upon organizational
climate and culture. A developed organization must be designed
based on increasing use of
expert and reference powers that promote reflection and choice
in decision making.
Phase 2
Arrata, P., Despierre, A., & Kumra, G. (2007). Building an
effective change agent team.
McKinsey Quarterly, (4), 39-43. Retrieved from Business
Source Premier database.
The authors focus on the importance of change agents who
implement novel processes, train
employees in new skills and act as role models during the
process of organizational change. They
19. mention the value of an organizational change agent program.
They focus on the elements that
are essential to change agent programs, including their design.
The recruitment and development
of personnel for the program are discussed as well as the
integration between the team of change
agents and the organizational areas to be transformed.
Higgs, M. (2009). The good, the bad and the ugly: Leadership
and narcissism. Journal of Change
Management, 9(2), 165-178. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Leadership is becoming increasingly recognized as a crucial
issue for organizations facing
change in a complex and volatile environment. This leads to a
need for an understanding of the
extensive leadership literature. However, it is notable that this
literature is primarily focused on
'good' leadership. Until relatively recently it has ignored 'bad'
or 'dark-side' leadership. Yet recent
research in the field of change has provided evidence that such
'negative' leadership impacts
adversely on change implementation. The purpose of this paper,
therefore, is to review the
20. literature on 'bad' leadership and to explore the extent to which
leader narcissism provides an
explanation of 'bad' leadership behaviors. Building from this
review the paper presents
recommendations for future research.
McMurray, P., & Rosenke, S. (2005). Leadership in a changing
environment. Rural
Telecommunications, 24(5), 30-36. Retrieved from Business
Source Premier database.
Focuses on the leadership strategies to manage employee
resistance to corporate changes.
Perceptions of employees on changes; Impact of changes on
employees' expertise and
motivation; Adjustment shared by employees and corporate
leaders in the change process.
Why is the failure rate for organisation change so high?. (2008).
Management Services, 52(4),
10-19. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
The article explains the reasons for the failure of organizational
change. Among the reasons cited
are absence of dedicated and fully resourced implementation
teams, lack of structured
methodology and project management, failure to plan and
21. manage quick wins, failure to fully
mobilize change champions, lack of sympathetic human
resource policies, use of an outsider to
transact change, and failure to monitor and evaluate outcomes.
Strategies to manage transition
are also cited, notably change in leadership culture.
Phase 3
Da, Y., & Liang, J. (2004). A new model for examining the
leader - member exchange (LMX)
theory. Human Resource Development International, 7(2), 251-
264. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier database.
The theory of leader - member exchange (LMX) is re-examined.
The concepts of social and
economic exchange misused in previous research are clarified.
A model that describes the
exchange relationships between manager and subordinates is
presented. The model challenges
the well-accepted positive relationship between high quality of
LMXs and organizational
performance in previous studies by pointing out that the
relationship may lead to negative
22. results. New research propositions based upon the model are
offered to encourage further
research efforts.
Dixon, M., & Hart, L. (2010). The impact of path-goal
leadership styles on work group
effectiveness and turnover intention. Journal of Managerial
Issues, 22(1), 52-69.
Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
Leaders continuously seek to improve organizational
performance and enhance work group
effectiveness to drive competitiveness and curtail the cost of
employee turnover. The diversity of
many work groups in the U.S. creates potential benefits and
challenges for their leaders. Using
data gathered from a manufacturing facility in southeastern
U.S., this study examines how Path-
Goal leadership styles, diversity, work group effectiveness, and
work group members' turnover
intention are related. Although all three Path-Goal leadership
styles demonstrated significant
positive correlations with work group effectiveness, only the
Supportive style showed a
significant negative relationship with turnover intention.
23. Interestingly, work group effectiveness
showed no significant correlation with turnover intention.
Spinosa, C., Glennon, B., & Sota, L. (2008). The virtues of
transformational leaders. Business
Strategy Review, 19(4), 82-86. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
They are a rare breed: transformative leaders earn that heady
title by transforming not just
companies, but industries. Charles Spinosa, Billy Glennon and
Luis Sota believe there are four
virtues that such leaders manifest.
Vera, D., & Crossan, M. (2004). Strategic leadership and
organizational learning. Academy of
Management Review, 29(2), 222-240. Retrieved from Business
Source Premier database.
Adopting the strategic leadership perspective, we develop a
theoretical model of the impact of
CEO and top manager leadership styles and practices on
organizational learning. We take a fine-
grained look at the processes and levels of organizational
learning to describe how strategic
leaders influence each element of the learning system.
Researchers have implicitly assumed
24. transformational leadership approaches to organizational
learning. We challenge this
conventional wisdom by highlighting the value of transactional
leadership as well.
Phase 4
urockra
Highlight
Kellerman, B. (2004). Leadership warts and all. Harvard
Business Review, 82(1), 40-45.
Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
According to today's business literature, to be a leader is, by
definition, to be benevolent. But
leadership is not a moral concept, and it is high time we
acknowledge that fact. We have as much
to learn from those we would regard as bad examples as we do
from the far fewer good examples
we're presented with these days. Leaders are like the rest of us:
trustworthy and deceitful,
cowardly and brave, greedy and generous. To assume that all
good leaders are good people is to
be willfully blind to the reality of the human condition, and it
severely limits our ability to
25. become better leaders. Worse, it may cause senior executives to
think that, because they are
leaders, they are never deceitful, cowardly, or greedy. That way
lies disaster.
Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. Harvard
Business Review, 78(2), 78-90.
Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
According to the author, although effective leadership eludes
many people and organizations,
new research has determined six distinct leadership types that
appear to have a direct and unique
impact on the working atmosphere of an organization. Research
shows that leaders with the best
results do not rely on only one leadership style. The six styles
are coercive, authoritative,
affiliative, democratic, pacesetting and coaching. Findings
indicate that the more styles a leader
exhibits, the better. This can be accomplished by building a
team with members who employ
styles the leader lacks. An alternative approach is to expand
one's own style repertoires.
Maner, J., & Mead, N. (2010). The essential tension between
leadership and power: When
leaders sacrifice group goals for the sake of self-interest.
26. Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology, 99(3), 482-497. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Throughout human history, leaders have been responsible for
helping groups attain important
goals. Ideally, leaders use their power to steer groups toward
desired outcomes. However,
leaders can also use their power in the service of self-interest
rather than effective leadership.
Five experiments identified factors within both the person and
the social context that determine
whether leaders wield their power to promote group goals
versus self-interest. In most cases,
leaders behaved in a manner consistent with group goals.
However, when their power was
tenuous due to instability within the hierarchy, leaders high (but
not low) in dominance
motivation prioritized their own power over group goals: They
withheld valuable information
from the group, excluded a highly skilled group member, and
prevented a proficient group
member from having any influence over a group task. These
self-interested actions were
eliminated when the group was competing against a rival
27. outgroup. Findings provide important
insight into factors that influence the way leaders navigate the
essential tension between
leadership and power.
Yunxia, Z. (2007). Do cultural values shape employee
receptivity to leadership styles?. Academy
of Management Perspectives, 21(3), 89-90. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier
database.
This article discusses management science and the contextual
factors that influence how
employees respond to various leadership styles. Research has
explored how group level
collectivism might moderate the relationship between
transformational leadership and employee
attitudes. The author reflects on how the use of other leadership
styles, such as transactional,
might influence these relationships. With consideration of
increased diversity within work
groups and the growth of international business, cultural values
and the reaction of employees to
various leadership styles warrants increased attention.
28. Phase 5
Carson, J., Tesluk, P., & Marrone, J. (2007). Shared leadership
in teams: An investigation of
antecedent conditions and performance. Academy of
Management Journal, 50(5), 1217-
1234. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
Shared leadership refers to a team property whereby leadership
is distributed among team
members rather than focused on a single designated leader. We
examined antecedent conditions
that lead to the development of shared leadership and the
influence of shared leadership on team
performance in a sample of 59 consulting teams. Both the
internal team environment, consisting
of shared purpose, social support, and voice, and external
coaching were important predictors of
shared leadership emergence. In turn, shared leadership was
found to predict team performance
as rated by clients. We conclude by discussing the implications
of these findings for team
leadership and effectiveness.
Druskat, V., & Wheeler, J. (2003). Managing from the
boundary: The effective leadership of
29. self-managing work teams. Academy of Management Journal,
46(4), 435-457. Retrieved
from Business Source Premier database.
We used in-depth critical incident interviews with the external
leaders of self-managing work
teams and their team members, and interviews and surveys
provided by managers, to understand
how effective leader behaviors and strategies unfold over time.
Content analyses of the data
produced a process model showing that effective external
leaders move back and forth across
boundaries to build relationships, scout necessary information,
persuade their teams and outside
constituents to support one another, and empower their teams to
achieve success.
Hobson, C., Strupeck, D., & Szostek, J. (2010). A behavioral
roles approach to assessing and
improving the team leadership capabilities of managers.
International Journal of
Management, 27(1), 3-15. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Success in today's globally competitive marketplace requires
30. that managers have the ability to
effectively lead teams. While some individuals appear to have
an innate, almost effortless
capability to lead teams, most managers benefit from systematic
efforts to assess and improve
their performance in this critical area. Research on small group
interaction and leadership
behavior in teams is used to identify a set of task, social, and
dysfunctional behavioral roles that
are critical to team leader success. The widely used, well-
researched leaderless group discussion
(LGD) exercise is proposed as a potentially useful tool to
measure team leadership role
behaviors. A structured protocol is introduced, employing the
LGD to assess and improve team
leadership capabilities in individuals. Examples of protocol use
in business and academia are
discussed. Finally, several directions for future research are
considered.
Pearce, C. (2004). The future of leadership: Combining vertical
and shared leadership to
transform knowledge work. Academy of Management Executive,
18(1), 47-57. Retrieved
from Business Source Premier database.
31. Knowledge work is becoming increasingly team-based. With the
shift to team-based knowledge
work comes the need to question more traditional models of
leadership. Traditionally, leadership
has been conceived around the idea that one person is firmly "in
charge" while the rest are
simply followers--what is termed vertical leadership. However,
recent research indicates that
leadership can be shared by team leaders and team members--
rotating to the person with the key
knowledge, skills, and abilities for the particular issues facing
the team at any given moment. In
fact, research indicates that poor-performing teams tend to be
dominated by the team leader,
while high-performing teams display more dispersed leadership
patterns, i.e., shared leadership.
This is not to suggest that leadership from above is unnecessary.
On the contrary, the role of the
vertical leader is critical to the ongoing success of the shared-
leadership approach to knowledge
work. Thus, this article addresses the following questions: (1)
when is leadership most
appropriately shared? (2) how is shared leadership best
developed? and (3) how does one
32. effectively utilize both vertical and shared leadership to
leverage the capabilities of knowledge
workers?
Pinar, M., & Girard, T. (2008). Investigating the impact of
organizational excellence and
leadership on business performance: An exploratory study of
Turkish firms. SAM
Advanced Management Journal, 73(1), 29-45. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier
database.
The article focuses on the study of the impact of organizational
excellence and leadership on the
performance of firms in Turkey. It cites the three key factors
that are critical for business
performances including customer oriented, quality of personnel,
innovation and four key
leadership techniques. Furthermore, the seven factors, personal
interviews and surveys with 200
firms were folded up in three major cities in the western part of
the country and the outcome for
each factor was examined carefully to help managers weigh the
value of various approaches and
33. strategies. The study suggests the significant link of
organizational and leadership on business
performances.
Cascio, W. (2005). Strategies for responsible restructuring.
Academy of Management
Executive,19(4), 39-50. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
As organizations struggle to enhance their competitive
positions, employment downsizing
continues as a preferred part of a restructuring strategy. Its
objective is to reduce operating costs
as a way of increasing earnings and stock prices. A study of
S&P 500 firms from 1982-2000,
however, casts serious doubt on the long-term payoff of this
approach. The purpose of this article
is to suggest several alternative approaches to restructuring. In
contrast to employment
downsizing, a strategy that regards people as costs to be cut, a
responsible restructuring strategy
focuses on people as assets to be developed. This focus
recognizes that people are the source of
innovation and renewal, especially in knowledge-based
organizations, and that the development
34. of new markets, customers, and revenue streams depends on the
wise use of a firm's human
assets. The article presents company examples and research-
based findings that illustrate
mistakes to avoid and affirmative steps to take when
restructuring responsibly.
Coyne, K., Coyne, S., & Coyne, S. (2010). When You've Got to
Cut Costs Now. Harvard
Business Review, 88(5), 74-82. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
The article discusses strategies that managers can use to reduce
overhead costs by 10, 20, and 30
percent. The authors say that managers will have to look at a
combination of at least 10 actions
that will produce opportunities for administrative cost savings
and recognize the proportional
amount of organizational disruption that accompanies cost
control. Topics discussed include
consolidating incidentals such as organizational events,
resolving overdue personnel issues such
as under-performing employees, eliminating interdepartmental
liaisons, coordinating
departments' parallel activities such as purchasing, redesigning
the hiring and performance
35. management processes, and restructuring cross-department
activities.
Fryer, B., Stybel, L., Peabody, M., Dormann, J., & Sutton, R.
(2009). The Layoff. Harvard
Business Review, 87(3), 33-40. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Astrigo is in trouble. The home improvement chain has missed
its earnings forecast badly and
sales are falling. A 10% reduction in staff looks like the only
choice. Layoffs, however, would
undermine the retailer's longtime commitment to employees and
the ability to provide its famed
customer service. But tapping cash reserved for strategic
acquisitions goes against the firm's
values, too. What should the CEO do? Board advisers Laurence
J. Stybel and Maryanne
Peabody, of Stybel Peabody Lincolnshire, suggest that the
company borrow a page from
McDonald's and declare Astrigo's intention to focus on the
interests of long-term shareholders.
This move would establish a framework that would help
management make tactical decisions
with more clarity and flexibility. The company could then use
its cash to buy a little time to
36. study the options. If Astrigo can't avoid layoffs, a last-in, first-
out approach would be the least
costly. Former CEO Jürgen Dormann understands the challenge
Astrigo faces. When he took
over ABB, the company was in deep distress. After shaking up
his executive committee,
Dormann personally reached out to all 180,000 employees to
enlist their help. They came back
with ideas that saved $1.6 billion -- and rescued the company.
Management professor Robert I.
Sutton thinks too many executives assume that layoffs are the
best way to reduce costs. They
don't factor in how long it takes to realize the savings from job
cuts, the costs to hire and train
people once business picks up, or the damage to morale and
productivity. Astrigo's executives
should consider alternatives such as pay cuts, reduced benefits,
unpaid time off, and incentives
for departure. If layoffs are inevitable, Astrigo should do them
quickly, and firing the bottom
10% of employees would be the worst approach.
Kowske, B., Lundby, K., & Rasch, R. (2009). Turning 'Survive'
37. into 'Thrive': Managing Survivor
Engagement in a Downsized Organization. People & Strategy,
32(4), 48-56. Retrieved
from Business Source Premier database.
The articles discuss the effect that downsizing can have on the
workplace environment and the
attitudes and productivity of the workers who survived the
layoffs. Some research has shown that
while downsizing is usually undertaken to reduce costs and
increase efficiency, there may be
limited long term benefits due to worker turnover,
dissatisfaction and disengagement. The
authors suggest that managers can mitigate against the negative
aspects of downsizing by
communicating with employees about the changes and the
subsequent vision for the future of the
organization. Dealing with the remaining employees in a fair
and supportive manner can help
create an environment of trust after downsizing has taken place.
(2009). Maximize Productivity, Minimize Layoffs. (cover
story). HR Focus, 86(4), 1-15.
Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
The article focuses on the effort of human resource
38. professionals to maximize productivity and
minimize layoffs in the U.S. It explores the means to seek
alternatives to avoid layoffs and keep
as many employees as possible. It illustrates how an
organization can avoid and handle such
situation during a recession and gives an overview on how it
affected organizations and
operations in the country.
Parks, C. (2002). Instill Lean Thinking. Industrial Management,
44(5), 14. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier database.
Discusses the role of corporate culture and change management
in a company's transformation to
a lean organization. Need for strong project leadership and
support from top management;
Lessons from lean implementation initiatives that failed;
Description of the Toyota Production
System; Elements of effective change management strategies;
Need for cross-functional training
in order to have productive multifunctional workers.