THE EFFECTIVENESS OF BIOMETRIC VOTING TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM (A CASE STUDY OF 2015 GENERAL ELECTION)

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF BIOMETRIC VOTING
TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM
(A CASE STUDY OF 2015 GENERAL ELECTION)
KANU, AMANI EBIRIGOR
NOU132387138
SEPTEMBER, 2017.

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF BIOMETRIC VOTING
TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM
(A CASE STUDY OF 2015 GENERAL ELECTION)
A RESEARCH PROJECT
BY
KANU, AMANI EBIRIGOR
NOU132387138
SUBMITTED TO
THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE,
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIAABUJA.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
DEGREE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
SEPTEMBER, 2017.

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DECLARATION
I KANU, AMANI EBIRIGOR humbly declare that this work is as a result of my research
effort carried out in the Faculty of Science National Open University of Nigeria, under the
supervision of Professor. S. B. O. and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains
no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a
substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of any
University or any other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has
been made in the text.
Sign:--------------------------------------------- -------------------------
KANU, AMANI EBIRIGOR DATE
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research project was carried out by Kanu, Amani Ebirigor in the
faculty of Science, National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja.
--------------------------------- --------------------------------
Supervisor’s Signature Programme Leader’s Signature
Date------------------ Date-------------------
________________________
Dean’s Signature
Date----------------

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DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated first to “THE ALMIGHTY GOD” for his enabling strength
he bestowed on me in completing this work. Secondly to my wonderful Study Group
#TEAMSUCCESS.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am most grateful to God Almighty, the sole provider of knowledge, wisdom, love, mercy
and grace for his protections throughout the period of the programme. I sincerely appreciate
my supervisor, Mr. S.B. Oyong who offered timely criticism and corrections that led me
through the various stages of this project. I appreciate my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Ebirigor
Kanu, my siblings, Study Group (#TEAMSUCCESS) and friends for their unquantifiable
love and financial assistance during this period. May God bless you all in Jesus name, Amen.

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ABSTRACT
The democratization of politics in most post-colonial and transitional democracies like
Nigeria has not been successful in terms of reducing the incidence of voter intimidation,
ballot box snatching and stuffing, vote buying, multiple voting, underage voting, falsification
of results and other associated electoral malpractices. The historical trajectory of elections in
Nigeria is, therefore, inseparable from monumental and barefaced electoral manipulations. In
addition to the role of civil society organizations and other principal stakeholders on election,
the introduction of biometric smart card reader technology― an anti-rigging technological
device― for the authentication of voters’ cards seems to have made most of these electoral
ills largely unfashionable. Specifically, this research investigated the role of the card reader in
improving the credibility of the 2015 General Elections. Thus, it recommended that the
innovation should not only be fully embraced but e-voting be incorporated into Nigeria’s
electoral system as a panacea for electoral fraud. Section 52 of the Electoral Act, 2010 (as
amended) which prohibits e-voting should be amended in order to make its adoption
statutorily possible.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
COVER PAGE - - - - - - - - i
TITTLE PAGE - - - - - - - - ii
DECLARATION/CERTIFICATION - - - - - - iii
DEDICATION - - - - - - - - iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - - v
ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - vi
TABLE OF CONTENT - - - - - - - vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY - - - - - 1
1.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK - - - - - 3
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM - - - - 4
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY - - - - - - 4
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS - - - - - - 5
1.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS - - - - - - 5
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY - - - - - 5
1.8 SCOPE/DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY - - - 6
1.9 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY - - - - - 6
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS - - - - - - 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE CONCEPT OF ELECTIONS AND ELECTION CREDIBILITY 8
2.2 SELECTED ISSUES IN THE 2015 GENERAL ELECTIONS IN
NIGERIA - - - - - - - - 11
2.2.1 SECURITY THREATS AND ELECTION POSTPONEMENT - 11
2.2.2 EXPIRATION OF TENURE - - - - - - 16
2.3 CARD READER: THE REAL ISSUE IN 2015 GENERAL ELECTIONS 17
2.4 THE CHALLENGES OF BIOMETRIC VOTING TECHNOLOGY
(CARD READER) IN THE 2015 GENERAL ELECTIONS IN NIGERIA - 19

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2.5 EFFECTIVENESS OF BIOMETRIC VOTING TECHNOLOGY
(CARD READER) ON THE 2015 GENERAL ELECTION IN NIGERIA - 22
2.6 CARD READER AND THE FUTURE ELECTIONS IN NIGERIA:
WAYS FORWARD - - - - - - - - 23
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN - - - - - - - 26
3.2 RESEARCH AREA - - - - - - - - 26
3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY - - - - - - 27
3.4 SAMPLE SIZE/SAMPLING TECHNIQUE - - - - - 27
3.5 INSTRUMENTATION - - - - - - - 27
3.5.1 CONSTRUCTION - - - - - - - - 28
3.5.2 VALIDATION - - - - - - - - 28
3.5.3 ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTRUMENT - - - - 29
3.6 DATA PREPARATION FOR EACH HYPOTHESIS - - - 30
3.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF VARIABLE - - - - 32
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS/FINDINGS - - - - 33
4.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDING - - - - - - - 35
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY - - - - - - - - - 41
5.2 CONCLUSION - - - - - - - - 41
5.3 RECOMMENDATION - - - - - - - 42
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: LIST OF TABLE
APPENDIX 2: LETTER TO CORRESPONDENCE
APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The use of card readers at the 2015 general election in Nigeria has infused some level of
transparency and credibility into Nigeria's electoral process (Okonji, 2015). It was observed
that when the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) first announced its plan to
introduce card reader machine for the March 28 and April 11 2015 general elections, many
Nigerians, especially politicians, vehemently opposed to it. They felt the country has not
developed to a level where such technology can be employed for elections. Besides, they felt
the use of card reader would disrupt the entire electoral processes.
The public outcry that greeted the planned introduction of card reader machines was enough
to discourage INEC from introducing it. However, because of INEC confidence in the
efficacy of modern technologies in achieving quick results, coupled with its vision to
transform the country's electoral process from its old norm that was characterized by ballot
box snatching and multiplicity of ballot thumb-printing, INEC went ahead and introduced the
technology against all odds (Vanguard, 2015). However, many technology experts in Nigeria
and outside, who monitored the elections are full of praises for INEC for insisting on the use
of card reader machines, saying it is the best thing that has ever happened to the Nigerian
electoral process in the area of election transparency. They have called on the electoral
umpire to introduce card reader machines in subsequent elections, believing it is a sure way
to achieve transparency and credibility in every election.
Election is the process of choosing a candidate for public office. Election is a critical
component of any democratic society. As such, Nigeria’s returned to democratic rule and
engagement with the democratic process led to the conduct of its general elections in 1999,

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2003, 2007, 2011 and 2015. General elections are elections conducted in the federation at
large for Federal and State elective positions (The Electoral Institute, 2015). The 2015
presidential election appears to be the most keenly contested in the history of elections in
Nigeria because it was the first time about four major opposition parties came together to
form a very strong party, All Progressive Congress (APC) in order to challenge the
dominance of the ruling party, Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) in the polity. Indeed,
according to Omotola (2013), the election became the only game in town, shaping and
reshaping public discourse and political actions.
Prior to the 2015 general elections, a number of technologically based reforms (e.g. biometric
Register of Voters, Advanced Fingerprint Identification System) were embarked upon by the
new leadership (headed by Prof Attairu Jega) of the Independent National Electoral
Commission (INEC), the election management body empowered by the 1999 Constitution (as
amended) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria to organize, undertake and supervise all
elections in Nigeria.
However, despite the confidence of INEC in the use of card reader in the 2015 general
elections, the machines came with some challenges, even though the elections have been
widely adjudged as being successful. For instance, during the March 28 Presidential and
National Assembly elections across the country, the card readers malfunctioned in several
polling units, a situation that caused undue delay in the accreditation process. It, however,
worked perfectly in other polling units. The challenges ranged from rejection of permanent
voter's card (PVC) by the card readers, inability to capture the biometrics from fingertips, to
irregular capturing and fast battery drainage. INEC officials have to abandon their polling
units and took the card readers back to their office for proper configuration.

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In order to salvage the situation, which was almost becoming frustrating, INEC ordered the
use of manual process for accreditation, But before the order could go round the states and
local government areas, it was already late to conduct accreditation and actual voting in some
areas, a situation that forced INEC to extend the exercise to the next day in all affected areas.
Concerned about the massive electoral fraud witnessed in the past general elections in
Nigeria, INEC deployment of the card reader in 2015 general elections was to ensure a
credible, transparent, free and fair election in order to deepen Nigeria’s electoral democracy.
However, the use of the electronic device in the 2015 general elections generated debate
among election stakeholders before, during and after the elections.
1.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The study adopted Herbert Spencer (1964), theory of Survival of the fittest, which is also
known as Darwin theory of Natural Selection. In this theory, Spencer emphasizes the
situation in which only the strongest people or things continue to live or be successful, while
the others die or fail.
As such electioneering campaigns are fraught with toggry, intimidation, image battery and
character assassination. At the local levels, cultists are employed as local security, and guns
bought and armed such local security personnel.
The survival of the fittest syndrome does not end at campaigns, but extends to ballot box
snatching, use of police for the ruling party to intimidate opposition, and bribing electorates,
at the polling stations to vote for their candidates.

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After the elections, what next, consequences. The politicians will forget their “empty
promises”, the boys will vent their anger by way of rubbery of innocent citizen with the guns
bought for them by their “master”. Survival of the fittest, indeed.
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The 2015 presidential election was the closest electoral contest since the country’s post-1999
transition to multi-party democracy (International Republican Institute, 2015). The election is
the most politically engaged in the history of electoral democracy in Nigeria. Huge resources
were used for the elections including 120 billion naira expended by INEC, 750,000 ad-hoc
election staff with over 360,000 security personnel including the use of card readers to ensure
credibility and transparency. Fourteen candidates from different political parties contested the
presidential election. However, the candidates of the PDP (Dr Goodluck Jonathan) and APC
(General Muhammadu Buhari) were the major contenders in the election. However, the
researcher is out to examine the effect of card readers on the election credibility in Nigeria.
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The following are the objectives of this study:
1. To examine the effect of card readers on the election credibility in Nigeria.
2. To examine the reliability of the card reader during the electoral process.
3. To identify the limitations in the use of the card reader for elections in Nigeria.

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1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the effect of card readers on the election credibility in Nigeria?
2. What is the reliability of the card reader during the electoral process?
3. What are the challenges experienced in the use of the card reader for elections in
Nigeria?
1.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
HO.1: There isno significant relationship between card readers and 2015 General election
Credibility in Nigeria
HO.2: The Card reader was not a reliable Machine during electioneering process.
HO.3: There were no challenges in the use of card reader for elections in Nigeria.
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The following constitute the significance of this study:
1. The outcome of this study will educate the public on the benefits of the use of card
reader for elections.
1.5 This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers
interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied, will
go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.

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1.8 SCOPE/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study on the effectiveness of biometric voting technology in Nigerian electoral system
will cover the processes involved in the conduct of 2015 General election with special focus
on the influence of the card reader on the outcome of the election.
1.9 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
 Financial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in
sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data
collection (question
 Servicom: Although there ought to be free flow of information, the researcher could not
easily elicit information from party secretariat Insecurity at all level, no trust, no effect
law.
 Attitude to Research: Nigerian have lost interest in academic researches, for such
project are always left to rot on academic shelves. Hence, their lack of enthusiasm to
cooperate with the researcher with free information. They already believe that the
research will not be put to use.
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Biometric: is the measurement of biological data or the measurement and recording of the
physical characteristics of an individual for use in subsequent identification.
Technology: refers to a device, material or sequence of mathematical coded electronic
instructions created by a person’s mind that is build, assembled or produced and which is not
part of the natural world.

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Card Reader: is a data input device that reads data from a card-shaped storage medium.
Voting: is a process of formalizing choice on matters of administration or other democratic
activities.
Election: is a process of choosing a leader, members of parliament, councilors, or other
representatives by popular vote.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE CONCEPTOF ELECTIONS AND ELECTION
CREDIBILITY
The more general use of biometric in African elections is on the rise. No fewer than 25 sub-
Saharan African countries (e.g. Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia,
Malawi, Rwanda, Senegal, Somaliland, Mali, Togo, Ghana etc.) have already held elections
employing a biometric voter register (Piccolino, 2015). The Automated Fingerprint
Identification System was used in the 2011 general elections as a digital register to eliminate
duplications from the list, and was not capable or verifying the identity of voters at the
polling stations (Piccolino, 2015).
These technologically based reforms by INEC were further taken to another height in the
2015 general elections with the use of the Permanent Voter’s Card (PVC) and introduction of
Card Reader technology, a device used to scan the PVC in order to verify the identity of a
voter in a polling booth. The Card Reader was one of the greatest innovations of biometric
verification technology and controversial crucial aspect of the 2015 general elections in
Nigeria. African countries like Ghana, Kenya, Somaliland, etc had adopted the biometric
verification technology.
Concerned about the massive electoral fraud witnessed in the past general elections in
Nigeria, INEC deployment of the card reader in 2015 general elections was to ensure a
credible, transparent, free and fair election in order to deepen Nigeria’s electoral democracy.
However, the use of the electronic device in the 2015 general elections generated debate
among election stakeholders before, during and after the elections.

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Consequently, this paper focused on the roles and challenges of the card reader in the 2015
general elections. Furthermore, the project critically analyzes the debate and impact of the
card reader on the 2015 general elections; and also attempt to look at the way forward for the
card reader in future elections in Nigeria. The research work, however, examines other
selected issues around the election. It is believed that the research will contribute to the
ongoing debate on the use of technology in the electoral process especially in the
underdeveloped and developing countries of Africa.
Elections are said to be credible, when rules, regulations and laws governing the electoral
process are followed and ultimately, credible candidate are freely and fairly selected to
represent the electorate. In other words, a free and fair election legitimizes an electoral
outcome. According to Diamond (2002) cited in Kayode (2005), there are four major
variables on which the concept of free and fair elections rests. These are:
1. The political parties;
2. The individuals
3. The voting process, and
4. The election outcome.
Starting with the political parties, he argued that in a multiparty democracy, for an election to
be considered as free and fair, the Parties must be free to compete, to organize, to recruit
members, to articulate policies, to stage relies and to solicit for votes. The less the political
system restrains opposing parties from the business of organizing and campaigning, and the
less it systematically, favours a particular party (typically the ruling party), the freer and
fairer the election may be said to have been. By the same logic, for an election to be free and
fair, the Individuals must be free to participate in the political process – to join the party of

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their choice, to campaign for it, to seek political office in its platform and of course, to vote
for it (or not to vote at all).
Furthermore, on the voting process: Each person should have one and only one vote, and
each person should be counted equally, no one who satisfies some limited set of conditions
(such as minimum age and sound mind) should be refused registration, no registered voter
should be prevented from voting, nor should anyone be allowed to vote more than once, nor
should any votes be counted for a party except those individuals legally cast, nor should any
legally and properly cast votes be discarded or disregarded.
And, on the election outcome, an election would be free and fair if the results are accurately
reported and the legitimate Winners allowed to assume office.
Accordingly, when all the conditions germane to the four variables as defined above are
observed in the process, conduct and outcome of an election, that election could be
considered to be free and fair; hence, credible.
However, the taste of the pudding is often believed to be in the eating. It is common
knowledge that the above outlined conditions are hardly possible in any election, particularly
in Nigeria. The activities of such bodies or groups like the Electoral Commission, the
behaviour of politicians and security agents, often determine how far, such conditions as
highlighted can be possible. It is therefore, pertinent at this juncture, to examine the history of
the Independent National Electoral Commission of Nigeria, INEC, with a view to
determining the extent to which it has contributed to credible election or otherwise, in
Nigeria.

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2.2 SELECTED ISSUES IN THE 2015 GENERALELECTIONS IN
NIGERIA
The 2015 general election was the fifth general elections since Nigeria returned to democratic
rule in 1999. Nigerians went into the general elections with renewed determination to
exercise their voting rights and stood stoutly to monitor and protect their votes with anything
and everything (Momodu, 2015). Though, the 2015 general election has come and gone. The
elections was bedeviled with issues that almost denied Nigeria and Nigerians the opportunity
of voting in their representatives in government for another four years. These issues almost
affected the integrity, quality and management of the election. Indeed, quality election
management is crucial to the sustenance of democracy. This is because, if the citizenry does
not believe in the fairness, accuracy, openness, and basic integrity of election process, the
very basis of any democratic society might be threatened. This implies that public faith in the
integrity of election system is a cornerstone of democratic government (Alvarez and Hall,
2008: 134). Therefore, a legitimate electoral process and public confidence in democratic
governance depends on both the actual and perceived integrity of an election (International
Foundation for Electoral Systems, 2015).
Therefore, the just concluded elections subsisted on some issues that cannot be ignored.
These issues were the introduction of technology into the 2015 general elections with special
focus on Smart card reader; the expiration of tenure of the INEC Chairman; security threats
and election postponement.

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2.2.1 Security Threats and ElectionPostponement
The 2015 general election was conducted amidst security threats and challenges especially
the Boko Haram insurgency. The Boko Haram insurgents had engaged in kidnapping,
massive killings and wanton destruction of properties. The terrorist group had also captured
some territories (about twenty local government areas) in Nigeria which was effectively
under their control. Furthermore, the insurgents had also threatened to disrupt the 2015
general elections and intend to ensure that the elections were not held. Against this
background, the 2015 general elections which was schedule to hold on February 14 and 28,
2015 was postponed by INEC to March 28 and April 11, 2015.
The National Security Adviser (NSA), Col. Dasuki had claimed in a statement that the
general elections as schedule for February 2015 can not be guaranteed in view of the security
threats and challenges across the country. According to him, this was because most of the
men of the Nigerian Army were engaged in Nigeria’s north east, confronting the Boko Haram
insurgents. He therefore contended that the six weeks postponement of the general elections
would enable the armed forces to subdue and reclaime the territories under the effective
control of Boko Haram. Prior to this poll shift, INEC had repeatedly assured Nigerians of its
readiness to conduct the general elections. The postponement was received with mixed
feelings. Some individuals, groups and political parties especially the People’s Democratic
Party (PDP) supported and hailed the decisions of the poll shift. Supporters of the general
elections postponement were of the believed that the period of the election rescheduling will
guarantee peace and security across the country. Meanwhile, other individuals, groups and
political parties, particularly the All Progressive Congress (APC) out rightly rejected the
rescheduling of the 2015 general election. Some of the political parties including the APC

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accused the PDP led Federal Government of deliberately allowing insurgency in the north-
east, an opposition stronghold, to fester so it can cash in on it to get re-elected.
No doubt, INEC was arm-twisted by the security apparatus of the Nigerian state in
rescheduling the 2015 general elections; and this singular act embarrassed Nigeria and
Nigerians. Indeed, the postponement of the general election appears to almost erode public
credibility and confidence in the elections. It must also be stated that billions of naira of
public fund had been expended towards preparations for the election but the truth remains
that the Boko Haram insurgents are in effective control of some territories where elections
needed to be conducted.
Considering the security threats and challenges, how can men, materials and other logistical
arrangements be effectively distributed and managed for a violent free election during or after
the poll? The contention by some stakeholders in the 2015 election that the territories under
the captive of the terror group could have been excluded from the poll appears to me as
irrational. The question would be; are these groups of people not Nigerians? Had these
categories of people excluded in the 2015 general elections, it would have amounted to a
breach of their democratic and fundamental human rights. This may have led to legal actions
that would have impacted on the general elections negatively. Some of the 2015 general
election stakeholders were also quick to mention that countries like Afghanistan and Iraq
successfully held elections even though they were in a state of war. Again, this is completely
untrue of the true situations in these countries. However, the security of an election is unique
to the circumstances in which it is conducted. The stakes of any given election are different-
even if it is held periodically in the same country- due to the changing forces that shape the
national interest and corresponding political agenda (Dunne, 2006).

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Also none of the two countries of Afghanistan and Iraq had any of their territories under the
effective control of the terrorist groups (Taliban in AFGHANISTAN; Islamic State of Iraq
and Levant in IRAQ) operating in these countries as at when their general elections were
conducted in April, 2014. What the terror groups in these countries usually embarked upon
were suicide bombing and attacks. In fact, forty eight hours to their respective general
elections, security personnel and civilians lives and properties were destroyed.
Unarguably, Security is a critical component of electoral democracy. Indeed, security is part
of the measures for credible and transparent election. Ensuring a fairly secure environment
for voters and sensitive materials on Election Day in all areas of the country is a necessary
condition for holding democratic elections. The absence of basic security measures will
jeopardize, if not severely harm, the acceptability of the results (López-Pintor, 2010: 15).
To ensure the integrity of the electoral process, various security measures would need to be
instituted during all phases of an election (International Foundation for Electoral Systems,
2015). Indeed, the assurance of equitable security during an electoral process is essential to
retaining the participants confidence and commitment to an election. Consequently, security
is both integral to the goal of an electoral process (Dunne, 2006).
In view of this, INEC could not have continued with the 2015 general elections, if the
security agencies cannot guarantee the safety of lives and properties before, during and after
the elections. This however, calls to question the primary responsibility of government,
which is to provide security, and welfare for its citizens as enshrined in Section 14 (b) of the
1999 Constitution (as amended) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

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Furthermore, the 2015 general election rescheduling was still under the constitutionally
stipulated period for the conduct of the elections by INEC. The 1999 Constitution (as
amended) stipulated that elections into the offices of the President and Vice President;
Governors and Deputy Governors; membership of the National Assembly and Houses of
Assembly shall hold not earlier than one hundred and fifty (150) days and not later than thirty
(30) days before the expiration of the term of office of the last holder.
In addition, Section 25 of the Electoral Act (as amended) further empowers INEC to appoint
date not earlier than one hundred and fifty (150) days but not later than thirty (30) days
before the expiration of the term of office of the last holder. It is important to state that
Section 26 of the Electoral Act, 2010 (as amended) empowers INEC to postpone elections
where there is reason to believe that a serious breach of the peace would occur if the election
holds on a said date. Therefore, the postponement of the election is within the purview of
INEC powers following security concerns raised by the NSA (Policy and Legal Advocacy
Centre, 2015).
It is therefore my opinion that the postponement of the 2015 general elections was not in
breach of any law in Nigeria. Consequently, the rescheduling of the election was in order
considering the fact that May 29, 2015 (sixty three days from March 28, 2015) was the
handover date; and because the Nigerian armed forces was able to reclaimed the territories
during the period of postponement and subsequently went on to integrally involve the
military under a special arrangement in the 2015 general elections.
However, the deployment of the military for the 2015 elections generated controversy among
stakeholders in the election to the extent that court judgment was delivered on the issue. The
deployment of the military in the 2015 general elections became an issue in view of the
massive deployment of the military in the Ekiti and Osun States Governorship Elections

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2014, wherein some of the political parties accused the military of playing out a script in the
elections. However, let me categorically state that the military were not directly involved in
the 2015 general elections. The roles of the military in the elections were very limited. No
military officer was posted to any polling booth. They were deployed to major roads for
security checks in order to prevent security breach during and after the elections. While the
issue of security, deployment of the military and postponement of the 2015 general elections
was still generating controversy among the election stakeholders, the sudden debate on the
expiration of tenure of the INEC Chairman and subsequent call for his removal almost
disrupted the elections.
2.2.2 Expiration of Tenure
In the midst of issues calling for attention among the 2015 general elections. stakeholders
came the speculation that the INEC Chairman might be asked to proceed on a terminal leave
in March, 2015 before the expiration of his tenure in June, 2015. This issue further
compounded the fears in some quarters that the 2015 general elections might not hold after its
rescheduling.
The PDP led federal government was accused of plotting this inordinate agenda. Various
individuals and groups including the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State
of Biafra (MASSOB), the Oodua People‟s Congress (OPC), the Afenifere Renewal Group
(ARG) as well as some former militants in the Niger Delta and even some state governors
(e.g. Ekiti State Governor, Ayo Fayose) call for the sack of the INEC boss (Ebhomele, 2015).
Other groups and individuals kicked against the removal of Prof Jega.
However, INEC is a body established by law by virtue of Section 153 of the 1999
Constitution (as amended) of Nigeria. Furthermore, Section 157 categorically states that for

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the removal of the INEC boss, two-thirds majority of the Senate must support the prayer of
Mr President. This must however be as a result of the inability of the chairman to discharge
the functions of his office (whether arising from infirmity of mind or body or any other
cause) or for misconduct. Has the chairman of INEC been declared medically unfit? Has the
INEC boss failed to discharge his duties for any reason? Has he engaged in any misconduct
while carrying out his responsibilities?
These questions are fundamental to the ongoing discussion in order to put the issue in
perspective. That, the INEC boss predecessor, Prof Iwu was removed illegally in a manner
that was undemocratic and was not challenged, call to question the practice of rule of law and
constitutionalism in Nigeria‟s democratic process. The hullabaloo about the removal of the
INEC boss appears to me as an attempt to coerce him to rescind from some of the reforms he
embarked upon in the Nigerian electoral democracy towards the preparations for the 2015
general elections.
Prof Jega is the first Nigerian to ever conduct two consecutive general elections (2011 and
2015) in Nigeria. His appointment came at a time when the democratization process was
bedeviled by badly conducted elections that left Nigerians frustrated and questioning the
value and validity of electoral democracy (Jega, 2013: 4). To address this ugly situation, Prof
Jega started series of reforms in order to deepen Nigeria‟s electoral democracy. Chief among
these reforms was the introduction of the Card Reader for the 2015 general elections.

18
2.3 CARD READER:THE REAL ISSUE IN THE 2015 GENERAL
ELECTIONS
The Card Reader was the most highly contentious and the real issue in the 2015 general
elections in Nigeria. The Card Reader was a critical component in the 2015 general elections.
It was used for the first time in Nigeria’s electoral process and it remains one of the greatest
innovative technologies in the 2015 general elections.
Past elections in Nigeria had witnessed the desperate bid for political power by some
stakeholders with vested interests in the Nigerian electoral process. Some of these
stakeholders engaged in all forms of electoral malpractices including multiple voting,
impersonation, manipulation and falsification of results which had led to legal actions,
electoral conflicts and violence.
Electoral malpractices made the citizens to lose confidence in the electoral process; and lack
of confidence by the citizenry in the democratic process is an impediment in deepening
electoral democracy because if the citizenry does not believe in the fairness, accuracy,
openness, and basic integrity of the election process, the very basis of any democratic society
might be threatened (Alvarez and Hall, 2008: 134).
Electoral fraud according to López-Pintor (2010: 9) has more serious political implications,
in that it allows a party or candidate to take over public positions contrary to the popular will.
This undermines the democratic process and usually leads to electoral violence, insecurity
and political instability. The governments of Cote d’Ivoire, Peru, and Serbia all fell in the
year 2000 as a result of popular rebellions against fraudulent elections. Similarly, the so
called “Orange Revolution” in Ukraine in 2004 caused presidential elections to be completely
re-held after extensive fraud was demonstrated (López-Pintor, 2010: 5). In view of the
negative impacts of electoral malpractices, global attention is now focusing on how to

19
mitigate this undemocratic behaviour and improve the electoral process. One of such
strategies to combat electoral malpractices is the introduction of information and
communication technology into the electoral process.
Though, the use of technology in elections is not an end in itself, but assists in the various
aspects of electoral administration (ACE Project, n.d). It is against this background that an
electronic technologically based device, the Card Reader was introduced into the Nigerian
electoral process in 2015 to help improve and deepen electoral democracy.
The Card Reader is a technological device setup to authenticate and verify on election day a
Permanent Voter Card (PVC) issued by INEC. The device uses a cryptographic technology
that has ultra-low power consumption, with a single core frequency of 1.2GHz and an
Android 4.2.2. Operating System (INEC, 2015). In other words, the INEC card reader is
designed to read information contained in the embedded chip of the permanent voter's card
issued by INEC to verify the authenticity of the Permanent Voter's Card (PVC) and also carry
out a verification of the intending voter by matching the biometrics obtained from the voter
on the spot with the ones stored on the PVC (Engineering Network Team, 2015).
2.4. THE CHALLENGES OF BIOMETRIC VOTING TECHNOLOGY
(CARD READER)IN THE 2015 GENERALELECTIONSIN NIGERIA
In spite of the assurances given by INEC to address the issues that aroused with the card
readers after its test-run in twelve states of the federation, the 2015 general elections
witnessed the inability of the device to deliver effectively in a large number of polling units
especially in the Presidential and National Assembly Elections. Therefore, what are the
challenges the card reader was confronted with in its operation for the purpose of
accreditation in the 2015 general elections?

20
The level of awareness among the electorates about the card reader was poor. A large number
of Nigerians especially the electorates in rural communities are completely unaware of the
device. Many of these categories of people have neither seen nor heard about the card reader
until the Election Day. These categories of people have no information on the role of the card
reader in the elections. There was a lot of misconception about the device. To some of the
electorates, the card reader was a voting device. This inadequate information dissemination
and poor sensitization of the electorates on the card reader led to some poor human relations
and uncooperative attitudes between some of the illiterate electorates and election officials.
The training given to the ad hoc and INEC staff on the use of the card reader was inadequate.
Majority of the Presiding Officers and Assistant Presiding Officers I in the polling units were
not effectively trained on the proper use and handling of the card reader. In most cases the
venues provided by INEC for their training were crowded and not conducive such that most
of the trainees did not properly receive the instructions on the use of the card reader. There
were imperfect practical demonstrations of how the card reader would properly be effective.
In some cases two card readers were provided for a class of hundred trainees.
A large number of the trainees did not have the opportunities of operating the device. In some
few cases, those that received training were replaced with those that have no proper idea of
the effective use of the device. All of these led to the poor handling of the card reader during
the elections to the extent that the protective film of some of the card readers were not
removed thereby leading to the impossibility of the device to detect thumbprints in some
cases.
Card reader breakdown was also witnessed during the elections. Some of devices
malfunctioned on the day of election. Though, INEC had provided back-up in case of any
card reader breakdown. However, some of the back-up failed to also function. For instance,

21
five card readers were deployed for use at the polling unit of the Presidential Candidate for
PDP in Bayelsa State yet none of them functioned. Similarly, the card reader at the polling
unit of the Vice-Presidential Candidate of APC was non-functional.
A number of the Card Readers were not smart to function effectively. A few of the card
readers were unable to function due to blank screen, non-activation of the Subscriber
Identification Module (SIM) card in the device and low battery. Some INEC officials
according to Vanguard (2015) attributed the failure of the card readers to INEC engineers
who could not decode the inbuilt security installation in the card reader. The security code in
the card reader is reportedly designed to update the time and date of voting. One official
claimed that the cards were initially programmed for February 14 that with the postponement
to March 28, some of the cards readers had not been re-programmed (Vanguard, 2015).
Wherein the card readers functioned, a few of the devices were confronted with the challenge
of PVC authentication and biometric data verification of the voters in the polling units. The
authentication and verification of voters was part of the accreditation process for the election.
A number of the PVC issued to voters by INEC could not be authenticated thereby
disenfranchising some eligible voters in the elections. Wherein some voters’ cards were
authenticated, their biometric data could not be verified after several trials; and where it is
verified, it is slow in some cases especially the fingerprints.
For instance, in Borno State, ten percent of eligible voters cards were authenticated and
biometric data verified by the card readers at most of the polling units (Odiakose, 2015).
However, the inability of the device to capture the fingerprints of some voters was attributed
to greasy or dirty fingers of the voters. In most cases, people had to scrub their hands on the
ground just to ensure that the device recognizes their fingerprints (Okoro, 2015).
Following the widespread failure of the card reader, Prof. Jega, changed the guidelines (while
the election was ongoing and after millions of frustrated voters had gone home disenchanted)

22
in the conduct of the election on March 28 and approved the use of manual accreditation in
areas that the Card Readers malfunctioned during the Presidential and National Assembly
elections in the country (Odiakose, 2015).
The announcement by the INEC Chairman seemed to have eased accreditation in many
places. However, the extent to which this announcement may have inadvertently opened the
flood gates for electoral fraud is yet to be fully analyzed (Amenaghawon, 2015). It is
unfortunate that the rules of the game were changed in the middle of the electoral
competition. In spite of this, the Card Reader had an impact on the 2015 general elections.
2.5 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE BIOMETRIC VOTING TECHNOLOGY
(CARD READER)ON THE 2015 GENERALELECTIONSIN NIGERIA
Despite the challenges that confronted the operation of some of the Card Readers during the
2015 general election, a significant impact of the device usage was observed after the
elections.
First, the use of the card reader led to the increase and reinforcement of public confidence
and trust in the electoral process. This public confidence is dependent on the integrity of an
election which the 2015 general election appears to possess.
Majority of Nigerians after the elections believed that their votes could count and as such
their will could be respected in future elections; and this has reinforced the legitimacy of
Nigerians in the democratic process.
Secondly, electoral fraud was reduced. Inflation of the number of voters present and multiple
voting at polling stations were reduced. The device checked the undemocratic attitude of
politicians in polling booth electoral malpractices.

23
Thirdly, election litigations were minimized. There was a departure from the past where
every election outcome is being contested at the election tribunal. Most of the candidates that
lost in the 2015 general election did not challenge the outcome. In fact, some of the major
contenders that did not win in the election embraced and congratulated the winners. For
instance, the PDP presidential candidate immediately congratulated the APC presidential
candidate, the winner of the presidential election. This attitude also happened across many
states of the federation in the governorship and house of assembly elections and national
assembly elections.
In addition, electoral conflicts and violence was very minimal as the election was seen to be
transparent and credible due to the use of the card reader. The usually excessive and pointless
attacking and degrading between the election winners and losers in past electoral contest was
significantly reduced. In view of the minimal level of electoral fraud due to the use of the
card reader, tensions were reduced among the political gladiators, and as such, electoral
conflict and violence was grossly diminished in the 2015 general elections outcome compare
to past elections in Nigeria. Furthermore, Nigeria’s democratic capacity has increased and its
democratic institutions strengthened. Nigerians and Nigeria’s democratic institutions now
understood the knowledge needed to have a free and fair election in order to deepen the
democratic process.
2.6 CARD READER AND FUTURE ELECTIONS IN NIGERIA: THE WAY
FORWARD
The introduction of information and communications technologies (ICT) into the electoral
process is generating both interest and concern among voters, as well as practitioners across
the globe. Today, most electoral management bodies (EMBs) around the world use new

24
technologies with the aim of improving the electoral process (ACE Project, n.d.). These
technological software and devices including the Card Reader must however be deployed in
manner that will lead to their effectiveness.
No doubt, the Card Reader had played a very significant role in the 2015 general elections in
Nigeria. However, there is need to ensure that the issues and challenges which confronted the
use of the device before, during and after the elections do not reoccur in future elections.
Therefore, a number of mechanisms would need to be in place by INEC for the deployment
of the card reader in future elections to strengthen the democratic process.
INEC should ensure that its conduct and activities in future elections is transparent especially
with the use of technology like the card reader. This is because transparency is a key
principle in credible elections; and this will bring about trust and public confidence in the
electoral process. Also, INEC should consult widely and carryout effective campaigns on the
card reader and any other technology to be deployed in future elections.
Stakeholders including the media, political parties, civil societies, national assembly and the
electorate should be adequately consulted. INEC should partner with them to carryout
massive dissemination of information; sensitize them on the need to key into the technology
in order to improve the electoral process and deepen the democratic process.
INEC should endeavour to manage information about the technology and changes so that
stakeholders do not have unrealistic expectations and do not impose impossible deadlines
(ACE Project, n.d.). These stakeholders can be engaged to make rules and regulations on the
electoral process The need to strengthen the electoral law in conformity to the technology
deployed for future elections is germane. The Electoral Act, 2010 (as amended) should be
amended to include the use of the card reader for biometric verification of voters for the
purpose of accreditation in future elections. Therefore, the National Assembly should quickly

25
be approached by INEC to amend the electoral legal frameworks on the use of card reader in
order to address the issue of legality which the card reader had generated.
Furthermore, adequate training of election officials both temporary and permanent staff of
INEC should be conducted in a conducive environment ahead of time in future elections so as
to give rooms for practical demonstrations of how to use the device effectively. Enough card
reader should be made available during the training session. Every one of the trainee should
undergo a mock test during training. Strict compliance with all instructions handed down to
the trainees should be monitored. The trainees‟ allowances should be paid in full in order to
motivate them in handling the device properly.
INEC must regularly update and re-examine the relevance of the card reader to future
elections in Nigeria because technology is not static and the level of technological change is
rapid such that a device used five years ago may not be too relevant to the present day.
Therefore, to conduct a credible, transparent, free and fair election in the future with the use
of the card reader, INEC must invest in regular staff training and development in order to be
in tune with modern day technological changes that is fast occupying the democratic
landscape and electoral process. Consequently, future general elections in Nigeria should
gradually continue to be technologically driven.

26
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 ResearchDesign
The research design adopted in this research is a survey design which according to kerlinger
(1986) “it is that which is directed towards determining the nature of a situation as it exists at
the time of investigation’’. It refers to the method or process of collecting data from a
sampled population through the administration of questionnaire and subjecting such data to
statistical analysis to arrive at a conclusion.
This method is economical as it enables the study of representative sample to provide
inference for generalization on large populations that cannot be studied as a whole. The
survey design makes for a holistic view of the Effectiveness of Biometry voting technology
in Nigerian electoral system.
3.2 ResearchArea
As the topic indicates, the research area for this study is Nigeria whose land mass is
923,770Km2. Nigeria is located within the tropical rainforest of West Africa and is bounded
in the west by Benin Republic, by Chad and Cameroon in the East, Niger in the north and the
Atlantic Ocean in the South. With an estimated population of more than 140 million
people(Annual Abstract of Statistics, 2012), Agriculture is the main occupation of the people
who form about 250 ethnic groups but with Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba’s and Igbo Being the three
dominant ethnic groups and English as its official language. Christianity and Islam are the
major religions in the country with the traditional worship still practical in some areas.
Politically, the country has Abuja as its Federal Capital with thirty Six (36) states structure
and Seven hundred and seventy four (774) Local Government Areas. The climate is
equatorial and semi-equatorial in nature, characterized by high humidity and substantial

27
rainfall. There are two seasons – the wet and dry seasons. The wet season lasts from April to
October, while the dry season lasts from November through March.
3.3 Population of Study
According to (Asika 2000:39) “population refers to the total collection of items or element
that falls within the scope of a statistical investigation” The National Population Census of
Nigeria in 2006 puts the population of Nigeria at one hundred and forty million, four hundred
and thirty one thousand, seven hundred and ninety(140,431,790), with eligible voters in 2015
election at sixty seven million, four hundred and twenty two thousand and five (67,422,005).
3.4 Sample Size/Sampling Technique
A sample size of6,795,039 respondents was used being the Ten Percent (10%) of the
population. This size covers two States of Akwa Ibom and Cross River. The technique used
to gather data is questionnaire.
3.5 ResearchInstrumentation
The standardized questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. It
guarantees subjects anonymity and encourages high response rate. The questionnaire
comprised of questions structured to appropriately elicit useful information from the
respondents.

28
3.5.1 Construction
The questionnaire was constructed based on the hypothesis of the research. The questionnaire
was divided into two sections, sections A and B. Question in section A dwells on the bio-data
of respondents – sex, age, educational qualifications, gender and occupation. Section B
comprised of questions that relate to the effectiveness of card readers on election credibility
in Nigeria and other related issues which enabled us to get the required information or data
for the analysis.
Also, officials of the State Independent Electoral Commission and officials of the State
political parties’ secretariats were interviewed.
Table 3.1 Biodata
S/N BIO-DATA
1 Gender
2 Age
3 Educational Qualification
4 Marital Statue
5 Political Awareness
Table 3.2 LIKERT SCALE OF RANKING WITH WEIGTH
RANGE DESCRIPTION POSITIVE
WEIGHT
3.51- 4.50 Strongly Agree (SA) 4
2.51- 3.50 Agree (A) 3
1.51- 2.50 Disagree (DA) 2
1.00 - 1.50 Strongly Disagree(SD) 1
3.5.2 Validation
Validity of research instrument refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it
is design to measure, both content and face validity were measured face validity according to
Ndiyo (2008) refers to the outward appearance of the questionnaire items. Content validity
seeks to show whether the questionnaire items took care of relevant contents which the

29
questionnaire was based. Validity of the data was fortified by allowing the supervisor to
make useful inputs on the research instruments. The questionnaire construct was also given to
experts in Social Science to scrutinize so as to ensure that the research instruments were
consistent with variables raised in the hypotheses and that they actually measure the issues
under study by the
Researcher. This therefore improved without doubt the validity of the research Instruments.
3.5.3 Administration of Instrument
The researcher attached a letter to each questionnaire addressed to the respondent, soliciting
his her cooperation in filling the questionnaire; and that the information he or she would give
will be treaded in strict confidence.
The distribution took the researcher to Uyo in Akwa Ibom State and two hundred (200)
questionnaires were distributed. Similarly two hundred (200) questionnaires were distributed
in Cross River State.
The respondents were given one week to complete the questionnaire after which the
researcher returned for them. A total of one hundred and thirty five (135) copies were
returned from Akwa Ibom State while one hundred and eighty (180) were returned from
Cross River State. This summed them up to three hundred and fifteen (315) respondents
returned the questionnaires giving 78.75% participation in the exercise approximately 79%.

30
Table 3.3 DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Source: field survey June 2017.
3.6 Data Preparationfor EachHypothesis
The data collected was analyzed using standardized methods. A five likert type answer to the
questionnaire on the questionnaire ranging from “Strongly Agreed”, “agreed”, Undecided”
“disagreed” and “Strongly Disagreed” was adopted for the responses to the questions.
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (PPMC)was used to analyze the
data.(http://www.statistics.laerd.com) The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is
a measure of the strength of a linear association between two variables and is denoted by r.
basically, a Pearson product-moment correlation attempts to draw a line of best fit through
the data of two variables. The data was presented in tables according to bio-data information
like Gender, age, marital status, educational qualification, and Political Awareness.
NAME OF
STATE
SENATORIAL DISTRICT
No. of
questionnaire
distributed
No. of
questionnaire
returned
% of
questionnai
re returned
AKWA
IBOM
Akwa Ibom North East (Uyo
Senatorial District)
70 60 86
Akwa Ibom South (Eket
Senatorial District)
70 43 61
Akwa Ibom North West (Ikot
Ekpene Senatorial District)
60 32 53
TOTAL 200 135 68
CROSS
RIVER
North Senatorial District 70 63 90
Central Senatorial District 50 46 92
South Senatorial District 80 71 89
TOTAL 200 180 90
SAMPLE TOTAL 400 315 78.75

31
Hypothesis one
There is no significant relationship between card readers and 2015 General election
credibility in Nigeria
Independent variable - card readers
Dependent variable - election credibility
Test Statistic - Pearson product-moment correlation
Hypothesis Two
The Card reader was not a reliable Machine during electioneering process.
Independent variable - Electioneering process
Dependent variable - Reliable Machine
Hypothesis Three
There were no challenges in the use of the card reader in 2015 presidential
election.
Independent variable - challenges in the use of the card
Dependent variable - 2015 presidential election

32
3.7 OperationalDefinition of Variable
The dependent variable is usually the result of the experiment, the thing you measure. While
the independent variable is what causes the results, what you used in measuring in the
experiment.
Card Reader: is a data input device that reads data from a card-shaped storage medium that
is used in 2015 general election.
Election Credibility is when the election process is free and fair that reflect the will of the
people which is participated by all qualified political parties and it is trusted by the citizens.
Electioneering Process refers to the whole process that constitutes the selection of leader in
the formal 2015 election starting from nomination at party primary elections to the general
election
Reliable Machine The ability of card reader to consistently perform its intended or required
function, on demand and without degradation or failure.
Challenges in the use of card reader this are the problems encounter in the used of Card
reader in 2015 general election
2015 presidential election is the process where a country select their president through ballot
boxes.

33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS/FINDINGS
4.1.1 HYPOTHESIS 1
State that there is no significant relationship between card readers and 2015 General election
credibility in Nigeria.
Items 1-8 of the instrument were used to elicit responses from the respondent. The data for
this hypothesis were analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. The
statistical analysis of the result is presented in Table 4.1 below.
TABLE 4.1: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for Hypothesis 1.
N = 315, df = 313, α=0.05,critical value r=0.195
Interpretation: from the above table 4.1, Error rate of ɑ<0.05 significant level, the
calculated r value of 0.813 is greater than the critical value of 0.195 with degree of freedom
313.Thus the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence there exist a significant relationship between
card readers and 2015 General election credibility in Nigeria.
Variables
∑x ∑x2
∑xy r
∑y ∑y2
card readers (x)
3,263 887,685
4293408 0.813
election credibility
(y) 3,856 2,247,136

34
4.1.2 HYPOTHESIS 2:
The hypothesis states that the Card Reader was not a reliable Machine during electioneering
process. Items 9-16 of the instrument were used to gather data from the respondents. To test
this hypothesis, Pearson product moment correlation coefficient analysis was used. The result
is presented in Table 4.2 below.
TABLE 4.2: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for Hypothesis 2.
Variables
∑x ∑x2
∑xy r
∑y ∑y2
Electioneering
process (x) 2,794
2396350
2952793 0.653
Reliable Machine(y)
3,543
1206045
N = 315, df = 313,α =0.05, critical value r=0.195
Interpretation: the information depicted in table 4.2 above, at 0.05 significant
levels, the calculated r value of 0.653 is greater than the critical value of r = 0.195
with degree of freedom 313. Thus the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence Card
Reader was reliable during electioneering process.
4.1.3 HYPOTHESIS 3:
The hypothesis states that there were no challenges in the use of the card reader in 2015
presidential election. Items 17-24 of the instrument were used to elicit responses from the
respondent. To test this hypothesis, Pearson product moment correlation coefficient analysis
was used. The analyzed result is presented in Table 4.3 below.

35
TABLE 4.3: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for
Hypothesis 3.
Variables
∑x ∑x2
∑xy r
∑y ∑y2
Challenges in the use
of Card Reader (x) 3,750
5270900
4864110 0.829
2015 Presidential
Election (y) 3,499
5139769
N = 315, df = 312, α =0.05,critical value r=0.195
Interpretation:
The information presented in table 4.2 shows that, at 0.05 significant level the calculated
value of 0.829 is greater than the critical value of r = 0.195, thus the null hypothesis is
rejected. Hence there was a lot of challenges in the use of the card reader in 2015 presidential
election.
4.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.2.1 HYPOTHESIS 1
Card readers and election credibility. The results of the data analysis in table 4.1 in respect of
hypothesis one revealed that there is a significant relationship between card readers and2015
General election credibility in Nigeria. The above findings show that Card Reader had
significant effect on 2015 General election. Democracy in Nigeria has not been successful in
terms of reducing the incidence of voter intimidation, ballot box snatching and stuffing, vote
buying, multiple voting, underage voting, falsification of results and other associated
electoral malfeasances. But the introduction of biometric smart card reader technology― an

36
anti-rigging technological device― for the authentication of voters’ cards seems to have
made most of these electoral ills largely unfashionable.
It reduces election rigging and it can ensure credibility in Nigerian Electoral system if being
used to conduct future elections and electronic voting should is passed into law to have a
legal backing.
This was surported by Alebiosu (2016), which states that
“The real issue in the 2015 general elections in Nigeria was the use of the smart card reader.
The smart card reader was a critical component in the elections. It was used for the first time
in the electoral process of Nigeria and it remains one of the greatest technological
innovations of the 2015 general elections.”
The election process was followed by limited cases of fraud andMalpractices. The biometric
system significantly reduced the incidence of fake and multiple voting, inflated figures, vote
buying and other popular forms of rigging in the country Hakeem (2015).
This hypotheses is supported by the Herbert Spencer (1964), theory of Survival of the fittest
which is also known as Darwin theory of Natural Selection. Which was adopted in theoretical
framework in Chapter one of this research, in this theory Spencer emphasizes the situation in
which only the strongest people or things continue to live or be successful, while the others
die or fail. The political elite/godfathers who need political power by all means has
tendencies to secure the power because they will try to be more powerful and influential by
any means of self-actualization to sustain their existence against the common.
In the survival of the fittest, the interest currently satisfies the end that the politicians of the
day want to arrive at. Sometimes, they camouflage their interests as identical with the
populace, but that is no more than a smokescreen Adedokun (2015). “Notwithstanding the
organizational and technical deficiencies, the conduct of the Presidential and National

37
Assembly Elections were generally peaceful and transparent due to card reader technology”
(COG, 2015).
4.2.2 HYPOTHESIS 2
Electioneering process and reliable Machine. The results of the data analysis
shown in table 4.2 in respect of hypothesis two revealed that Card reader was a
reliable Machine during electioneering process. The above findings show that the
Card Reader was able to authenticate voter’s fingerprint and identify fake voter’s
card and electronic voting and it should be adopted to strengthen the Nigerian
electoral process. The process of accreditation and voting which was done
simultaneously to discourage double voting should be encouraged, although there
were problems of frequent breakdown of the Machine but INEC provided back-up
in case of any card reader breakdown so that any voter that the card reader didn’t
authenticate Electronically should result to manual accreditation there was no
disenfranchisement of any voter.
Peters (2015) believed that the card reader procedure has the capacity to prevent
or minimize rigging in the sense that there would not be multiple voting.
The biometric system significantly reduced the incidence of fake and multiple
voting, inflated figures, vote buying and other popular forms of rigging in the
country (Hakeem 2015).
The ability of the card reader to perform the above described functions as well as
keeping a tally of the total numbers of voters accredited at the polling unit and
forwarding the information to a central database server over a Global System for
Mobile (GSM) network makes the card reader most welcome at this point in time in
the nation's electoral history (Engineering Network Team, 2015).

38
The analysis also revealed that the process where Military men were used to safeguard the
electoral material and it environment was a welcome development and it should be
encourage.
In contrast to the previous elections conducted in the country, there was relative peace on
the Election Day. Election observers commended the security of election-related materials
and personnel. For example, the CLEEN Foundation noted in its report that “In 95 per cent of
the units observed, security officials were described as very approachable and only in 5 per
cent of units were they described as ‘‘somewhat approachable’ ’Consequently, 89 per cent of
the polling units were observed to be safe and secure” (Premium Times, 2015).
However, the deployment of the military for the 2015 elections generated controversy
among stakeholders in the election to the extent that court judgment was delivered on the
issue. Femi Falana, a human right activist argued that the military involvement in providing
security for the elections was unconstitutional. He maintained that INEC was wrong to insist
that only the military could guarantee security during the 2015 general elections. He noted
that the obligation to provide security and maintain law and order during the elections rests
on the police and not the military.
However military were not directly involved in the 2015 general elections. The role of the
military in the elections was very limited. No military officer was posted to any polling
booth. They were deployed to major roads for security checks in order to prevent security
breaches during and after the elections.

39
4.2.3 HYPOTHESIS 3
Challenges in the use of Card Reader and 2015 Presidential Election. The results of the data
analysis in respect of hypothesis three revealed that there were challenges in the use of the
card reader in 2015 presidential election.
In spite of the assurances given by INEC to address the issues that arose with the card
readers after its test-run in twelve states of the federation, the 2015 general elections
witnessed the inability of the device to deliver effectively in a large number of polling units
especially in the Presidential and National Assembly Elections.
The above findings show that there were cases of.
1. Finger print and PVC rejection, especially of cards brought from other polling units.
2. There were cases of card readers not working at all.
3. There were delays in using the card readers in some polling units.
4. Network failure.
5. There were cases where voter’s pictures did not appear on card reader.
6. Some of the card readers functioned slowly and did not pick up on time.
7. Some card readers rejected their passwords initially.
8. There were a few cases of low battery strength and in some instances the batteries were
completely drained.
9. There was a case where the card reader did not correspond with the manual.
10. some card readers stated card mismatch information and
11. Some of the card readers had incorrect setting.
The most apparent problem in 2015 election, which nearly marred the entire process, was the
technical hitches experienced in the use of the card reader. A number of voters, including the

40
president and his wife, could not be verified electronically given the malfunctioning of the
card readers. Electoral officials and some politicians suspected a deliberate sabotage by some
individuals initially opposed to the use of card reader with the aim of discrediting the process.
INEC was however able to salvage the process by announcing an alternative process –
manual accreditation – which accommodated the voters that encountered the problem. This
did not, however, stop the re-scheduling of elections in 300 polling units where the problem
occurred (Onapajo, 2015). Some observers suspected that the use of manual accreditation at
some polling units would have encouraged the malpractices, which INEC was trying to
prevent through the electronic system (EU EOM, 2015:1).

41
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY
The researcher dogged into the effectiveness of biometric voting technology in Nigerian
electoral system with a case study of 2015 general election. Survey research method was
adopted and the instrument used for the research was questionnaire. Four hundred (400)
questionnaires were administered and only three hundred and fifteen (315) respondents
returned theirs. This formed 79% of the total questionnaires administered.
The null hypotheses propounded by the researcher were all rejected, meaning that card
Reader has significant effect on 2015 general election, The Card reader was reliable during
2015 electioneering process and there were challenges in the use of the card reader in 2015
election.
5.2 CONCLUSION
This research analyzed the role of biometric voting technology in improving the credibility of
the 2015 General Elections in Nigeria. It acknowledged the contributions of core institutional
actors like political parties, media, professional groups, civil society organizations, among
others, in the entrenchment of democracy in the country. Nevertheless, using the Maslow
Human Hierarchic Theory of Needs, the project found that the deployment of SCR had
rekindled the confidence of many Nigerian voters and that of development partners in
INEC and Nigeria’s elections. Reports from many accredited media organizations as well as
international observers like Commonwealth, EU, AU, ECOWAS, and International IDEA
attest to the fact that the 2015 general elections were peaceful and credible. Although the
technology experienced some glitches in its functionality, it largely accounted for the
significant drop in the volume of election petitions filed by aggrieved candidates and political
parties. This is because of the use of the device for organizing (authentication of PVCs and

42
accreditation of voters) and counting votes (validation of the total votes cast by querying the
machine).
The significant impact of the device despite its challenges during the election cannot be
quantified. Though, INEC deployment of the card reader was to improve the electoral process
and deepen the democratic process. However, lack of trust, suspicion and altercations among
the stakeholders with vested interest in the election created tension within the body polity.
With the use of the card reader in the 2015 general elections and the gradual deployment of
technology in subsequent general elections in Nigeria, the prospect of Nigeria belonging to
one of the countries of the world where elections are driven largely by technology is nearby.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations were made based on the findings of this study:
1. INEC should maintain the usage of the card readers in all subsequent elections. Despite the
hiccups associated with the use of the machines, it is very important that their usage be
maintained in all subsequent elections. These elections show that technology has its merit and
is the way to go in Nigeria’s elections.
2. Accreditation should be done simultaneously with voting. The reason for having
accreditation and then voting is to prevent voters who wish to vote at more than one polling
unit on Election Day from doing so. The card reader makes it impossible to get accredited in
two places (card reader only works with PVC specifically programmed for that unit). For this
reason, there is no major reason to continue separating the two activities especially since the
card reader has addressed this issue.
3. INEC should embark on full implementation of e-voting and other technology- based
approach to elections administrations. To achieve this, however, the Commission should

43
work with the NASS to get Section 52 of the Electoral Act 2010 amended. It is also
important to test-run the e-voting on smaller mid-season elections in Bayelsa, Kogi, Edo,
Anambra, Ekiti and Osun States before the main deployment of 2019. Only a phased
implementation would give maximum impact.
4. The armed force, or other well-resourced special forces (such as the DSS personnel) should
be used to protect voters and election materials in election days.
5. INEC should embark on Sensitization of the populace well in advance by even translating
the processes into local related languages, not necessarily the three major languages of Igbo,
Hausa and Youroba.

44
REFERENCES
Okonji, E. (2015) Card Reader: Clash of Technology and Politics. Available at
http://dailyindependentnig.com/2015/03/card-reader-clash-technology-politics/.
Accessed 24, June
Vanguard (2015) After Initial Card Reader Failure: Nigerians Persevere, Vote in Peaceful
Elections. Available at: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/03/after-initial-card-
reader-failure-nigerians-persevere-vote-in-peaceful-elections/ Accessed 21, June
The Electoral Institute (2015) Frequently Asked Questions. Available at
tei.portal.crockerandwestride.com/faq/. Accessed 18, June, 2015.
Omotola, J.S. (2013) Trapped In Transition: Nigeria‟s First Democratic Decade and Beyond.
Taiwan Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9 No. 2
Herbert Spencer (1964), the Principles Of Biology 444 (Univ. Press of the Pac. 2002.)
International Republican Institute (2015) Nigerian Voters Demonstrate Commitment to
Process, Election Day Logistics Need Improvement. Available at
http://www.iri.org/resource/nigerian-voters-demonstrate-commitment-process-
election-day-logistics-need-improvement. Accessed 12, June
Piccolino, G. (2015) What other African Elections tell us about Nigeria‟s Bet on Biometrics.
Available at www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/03/10/what-other-
african-elections-tell-us-about-nigerias-bet-on-biometrics/. Accessed 18,June
kayode, L. (2005). The spirit of democracy: The struggle to build free societies throughout the
world. New York: Times Books.
Momodu, D, (2015) Saraki and the Battle for 2019. Available at
http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/saraki-and-the-battle-for-2019/211856/. Accessed
18, June.
Alvarez, R. M. and Hall, T. E. (2008) Electronic Elections:The Perils and Promises of Digital
Democracy.Princeton; Princeton University Press
International Foundation for Electoral Systems (2015) Protecting the Vote: Election Security
Worldwide. Available at http://www.ifes.com/Content/Galleries/P/Protecting-the-Vote-
Election-Security-Worldwide.aspx. Accesses,18, June
Dunne, S. (2006) Elections and Security. Available at aceproject.org/ace-en/focus/elections-and-
security/about-this-focus-on/mobile-browising. Accessed,5 June.
López-Pintor, R. (2010) Assessing Electoral Fraud in New Democracies:A Basic Conceptual
Framework. International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Electoral Fraud White
Paper Series. Washington, D.C.; December.
Policy and Legal Advocacy Centre (2015) Concerns over Postponement of the General Elections.
Available at http://placng.org/legist/concerns-over-postponement-of-the-general-elections/.
Accessed 20,June
Ebhomele, E. (2015) Jega: The Real Nigerian Hero. Available at
http://thenewsnigeria.com.ng/2015/04/13/jega-the-real-nigerian-hero/ Accessed 9,June.

45
Jega,A. (2013) Challenges of Fraud-Free Elections under a Democratic Dispensation. A Paper
Presented at the Mustapha Akanbi Foundation Public Lecture. Ilorin, March 12.
ACE Project (n.d.) Elections and Technology. Available at http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/et/et10.
Accessed 16,June, 2015
Independent National Electoral Commission (2015) Frequently Asked Questions. Available at
http://www.inecnigeria.org/?page_id=28. Accessed 10,June.
Engineering Network Team (2015) Gains of the INEC Card Reader in the 2015 Elections. Available
at Go.engineer-ng.net/m/blogpost?id=6404812%3ABlogPost%3A103341. Accessed 7,June.
Peters,S. C. (2015) Opinion: Illegality or otherwise of Card Readers in Nigerian Electoral
Jurisprudence. Available at http://thewillnigeria.com/news/opinion-illegality-or-otherwise-of-
card-readers-in-nigerian-electoral-jurisprudence/. Accessed 18,June.
Oderemi, K. (2015) Card Readers:To be or not to be? Available at
http://www.latestnigeriannews.com/news/1261223/card-reader-of-controversy.html. Accessed
20, June
Falana, F. (2015) Card Readers: the real issue? Available at
http://www.latestnigeriannews.com/news/1261298/card-reader-of-controversy.html.
Accessed 20, June
Banire, M. (2015) Card Reader and the Electoral Act – Any Conflict? Available at
http://thenationonlineng.net/new/card-reader-and-the-electoral-act-any-conflict/. Accessed 14,
June
Odiakose, M. (2015) INEC and Use of Card Readers. Available at http://nigerianpilot.com/inec-and-
use-of-card-readers/. Accesses24,June
Okoro, E. (2015) Card Reader:Clash of Technology and Politics. Available at
http://dailyindependentnig.com/2015/03/card-reader-clash-technology-politics/. Accessed 24,
June
Amenaghawon, J. (2015) 2015 Nigeria Elections: The Gains, the Challenges and the Lessons.
Available at http://blogs.premiumtimesng.com/?p=167419. Accessed 20, June.
Kerlinger, F.N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research (3rd. ed.). Fort Worth, TX:Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.
Annual Abstract of Statistics, (2012) - National Bureau of Statistics available at
www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pdfuploads/annual_abstract_2012.pdf
Asika, N. (2000): research methodology in the behavioural science (Logos, Longman Nigeria Plc)
Ndiyo, N. A. (2008) statistics and computer programing, Heinemann Education Nigeria
Alebiosu, A. (2016) Smart Card Reader and the 2015 General Elections in Nigeria
conference paper
Hakeem O. (2015) Nigerian 2015 General Elections? An “Electoral Integrity” Framework of
Analysis
Commonwealth Observation Group (COG). (2015) Interim Statement on the Nigerian
Presidential and National Assembly, at:http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/nigeria-
elections-2015-interim-statement-commonwealth-observer-group

46
Adedokun, N (2015) Elections over, Civil Society must take back How Credible Were the
Premium Times. (19 April 2015). Jonathan denies spending N2 trillion on election campaign.
Onapajo, H. (2015). The positive outcome of the 2015 general elections: The salience of electoral
reforms. The Round Table: Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs (in press).
European Union Election Observation Mission (EU EOM). (2015) Second preliminary
statement: More efficient polling although increased incidents of violence and
interference.

47
APPENDIX1: LIST OF TBALE
Table 3.1 Biodata - - - - - - - - 28
Table 3.2 Likert Scale of Ranking with Weights - - - - 28
Table 3.3 Distribution of Questionnaires - - - - - 30
TABLE 4.1: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for Hypothesis 1. 33

48
APPENDIX 2: LETTER TO CORRESPONDENCE
Department of Computer Science,
Faculty of Science,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Calabar Study Centre,
Calabar.
1st June, 2017.
Dear Respondent,
I am an under-graduate student currently carrying out research on the Effectiveness of
Biometric Voting Technology in NigerianElectoral System. Please, kindly study
the questionnaire and supply all the information required. You are also required to tick
[√] in the boxes provided against your choice of answer.
Finally, please note that all information given would be strictly treated with
Utmost confidentiality.
Yours faithfully,
……………………………….
Kanu Amani E.
NOU132387138

49
APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTION: Please endeavor to complete the questionnaire by ticking the correct answer(s)
from the options or supply the information required where necessary.
SECTION A: Personal Information/Data
1.Gender
Male Female
2.Age
Below 18yrs 18-30yrs 31-40yrs 41-50yrs 50-60yrs Above 60yrs
3.Educational
Qualification
WASCE/SSCE/NEC
O
OND/HND/BSC PGD/MSC/PHD Others
4.Marital status
Single Married Divorced Widowed
SECTION B: questions on the EffectivenessofBiometric Voting Technology in Nigerian
Electoral System.
S/N Statement
Strongly
agreed
Agreed Disagreed
Strongly
disagreed
1 Card Reader has significant
effect on 2015 Election
2 2015 election was credible
enough due to Biometric voting
technology (Card Reader)
3 Card Reader can ensure
credibility in Nigerian electoral
system
4 The card was efficient enough
5.Years ofexperience in Voting
1-3yrs 4-7yrs 8-11yrs Above 11yrs

50
and should be adopted for
future election
5 Card Reader minimize election
rigging in 2015 election
6 Card Reader disenfranchise
eligible voters by not
Authenticating them in 2015
election.
7 There was issue of network
failure in most of the poling
boot, in 2015 election
8 Electronic voting should be
passed in to law
9 the simultaneous Accreditation
and voting ensure free and fair
election processin 2015 election
10 The process where Army men
were used to secure the pooling
Boots should be Encouraged
11 The process were Card Reader
was used to authenticate voter
Card in 2015 election should be
used in subsequent elections
12 The 2015 election process
where accreditation and voting
started simultaneously should
be adopted for future elections
13 Card reader was a reliable
machine in 2015 election
14 There was frequent breakdown
of the machine in 2015 election
in most of the poling boot.
15 There were a lots of issues in
identifying voter’s finger print
16 The card reader was able to
identify fake voter’s card
17 There were no challenges in
2015 presidential
18 There was no frequent
breakdown of the machine
19 There was a lot of mismatch of
information between the card
reader information and manual
information.
20 The process of voting in 2015
presidential election should be
adopted.
21 There were limitations
associated with Card Reader
22 The INEC and abhor Staff were
not well training in the used of
the Card Reader for 2015
presidential election.
23 Voter were not enlighten

51
enough about the use of Card
reader used in the presidential
election
24 Card Read were deployed on
time to the pooling boot on the
day of the presidential Election

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