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knowledge, but have at the same time made considerable adjustments necessary in
the skills required and in working patterns” (White Paper on Education and Training,
European Commission, 1996, 6). They use different terms to refer to the period of
transformation through which we are passing, “post-industrial”, “post-modern”
“information age”, “learning society” and the like. But they all believe in the
challenges of the new reality. We shall look at the educational paradigm shift in
Chapter 3.
Futurologist John Naisbitt (1982) describes the most important trends that shape the
world at the end of the century. His megatrends include shifting from:
• an industrial society to an information based society,
• a forced technology to a high tech/high touch mode,
• a national economy to a truly global economy,
• short range planning to long-term planning,
• centralization to decentralization,
• institutional help to self-help in various fields,
• representative democracy to participatory democracy,
• authority dominated hierarchies to networking,
• single option choices to multiple option choices.
All that facilitated the development of the theory and practice of language teaching
giving it a strong impetus.
Today, numerous ELT methodology textbooks expound on the nature of
communicative language teaching. All the work that has been done on the CA has
led to the evolution of two quite distinct orientations: a “weak” version and a
“strong” version of the CA method. Anthony Howatt (1984, 279) holds that if the
former could be described as ‘learning to use’ the target language, the latter entails
‘using [the target language] to learn it’. The weak version advances the claim that
communicative syllabi and teaching materials should provide the learner with
opportunities to acquire communicative competence necessary and sufficient to be
used in actual communication. This idea is the basis for the unfolding of a whole new
field of study in language teaching and ELT methodology, referred to as
communicative syllabus design, which we shall discuss separately in Chapter 4.
Howatt (1984, 280) writes that language teaching requires “a closer study of the
language itself and a return to the traditional concept that utterances carried
meaning in themselves and expressed the meanings and the intentions of the
speakers and writers who created them”.
The strong version of the CA, on the other hand, has given rise to the planning and
implementation of realistic communicative tasks, which give the learner a chance to
acquire the target language itself while using it. The proponents of the strong version
did not go to the radical solution of “deschooling” language learning altogether but
they advocated real communication within the language classroom. If the teacher
shows genuine interest in the concerns and activities of the students, and if the
students can talk to each other and share their thoughts and feelings, real
communication is likely to occur.
The CA stresses the need to teach communicative competence, i.e. the ability to use
the target language effectively and appropriately, as opposed to linguistic
competence. Thus, language functions are emphasized over language forms.
Students usually work in small groups on communicative activities, during which](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a0ddb41d-eada-4957-8b3d-9158c168c7a6-150219204235-conversion-gate02/85/TEFL-Textbook-Camargo-34-320.jpg)
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4.2. The General versus Specific Courses Conjecture
In the early seventies, Anthony Howatt argued that, “Special courses have fairly
specific objectives and are rather simpler to discuss. General courses tend to be
diffuse in their aims and take their overall shape more from tradition, contemporary
fashion and the vague but powerful influences exerted by the social attitudes and
economic needs of the community” (1974). In fact, the distinction is embedded in
the objectivist tradition of language teaching. It is best expressed by William Mackey
(1965) in his famous claim that there is no language teaching without “selection,
gradation, presentation and repetition” of the content. In that period, techniques like
frequency, coverage and availability were applied in the process of choosing common
everyday language for “communicative syllabi”. In addition, the notion of
“appropriate language” was used as a criterion of usefulness. The organization of the
course was based on a priori decisions on the order in which “new teaching points
should come” and on “how much to teach”. The method of needs identification was
developed by a Swiss scholar, Rene Richterich (Richterich & Chancerel 1977). A
British linguist, John Munby (1978), elaborated the theory and methodology of
language needs analysis and curriculum design. Language courses for specific
purposes (e.g. English for Specific Purposes or “ESP”) were represented by their
proponents as an alternative to general courses.
The English in Focus series of “specialist English materials for students who use
English as the medium of instruction for the subject they are studying” was
published in England in the seventies (e.g. Allen & Widdowson 1994). The authors
wrote, “The series assumes that students have already completed a basic course in
English and that they have some knowledge of their specialist subject. This course is
therefore intended for students […] who already know how to handle the common
English sentence patterns and who need to learn how these sentences are used in
scientific writing to convey information…” (op. cit.). The course had a great success
because the approach adopted was new.
Peter Strevens outlined the “new orientations in the teaching of English” and of any
language for that matter in the mid-seventies. Some ten years before, he had
published one of the most successful audio-lingual textbooks, English 901 (see
Section 1.2.). The times had changed though. Strevens argued, “Broadly defined,
ESP courses are those in which the aims and the content are determined, principally
or wholly, not by criteria of general education (as when ‘English’ is a foreign
language subject in school) but by functional and practical English language
requirements of the learner” (Strevens 1977, 90). This was certainly new a quarter
of a century ago but today we find the conjecture rather misleading.
It seems to us, at this junction, that the methodological opposition of “general
purposes” to “specific purposes” in language teaching is inadequate and
inappropriate. We do not think that “the aims and the content are determined” a
priori by any criteria. They cannot be precompiled or prepackaged. We can discern
two arguments in the literature to support this strong claim. One refers to the fact
that language teaching is a complex process characterized by network of
relationships in a social and cultural context and the other to the idea that language
teaching is an ill-structured knowledge domain. We claim that a holistic
approach, which emphasizes the priority of the whole over its parts, can
solve the problem of curriculum design.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a0ddb41d-eada-4957-8b3d-9158c168c7a6-150219204235-conversion-gate02/85/TEFL-Textbook-Camargo-48-320.jpg)
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In that respect, an improvement on the theory of curriculum design has been offered
by Rand Spiro and his colleagues at the University of Illinois in their theory of
Random Access Instruction (Spiro et al. 1992). We shall discuss this theory in the
next section.
4.3. Random Access Instruction in Complex & Ill-Structured Knowledge
Domains
Random Access Instruction is a theory, which accounts for the complexity of the
process of language learning and the ill-structuredness of the domain of language
knowledge and/or proficiency.
Eve Sweetser and Gilles Fauconnier (1996) maintain that “The initially overwhelming
complexity of socio-linguistic usages is, then, not an independent and autonomous
complexity. It is a reflection of the complex – and economically interrelated –
structure of cognition”.
Eric Lenneberg sees language proficiency as a process of “(a) extracting relations
from (or computing relations in) the physical environment, and (b) of relating these
relationships” (Lenneberg 1975, 17). Continuous, not discrete, cognitive and
physiological processes produce those relationships. Lenneberg argues persuasively
that “These deeper continuities [the continuous cognitive and physiological
processes] are reflected in the “fuzzy” nature of semantic, syntactic and phonological
categories, making sharp, formal distinctions and decisions difficult” (op. cit., 17). He
concludes that “everything in language is of relational nature and what has to be
learnt in language acquisition is how to relate, or how to compute a relationship upon
given physical data” (op. cit., 32).
Constructivists hold that “Characteristics of ill-structuredness found in most
knowledge domains (especially when knowledge application is considered) lead to
serious obstacles to the attainment of advanced learning goals (such as the mastery
of conceptual complexity and the ability to independently use instructed knowledge
in new situations that differ from the conditions of initial instruction). These obstacles
can be overcome by shifting from a constructive orientation that emphasizes the
retrieval from memory of intact preexisting knowledge to an alternative
constructivist stance which stresses the flexible reassembling of preexisting
knowledge to adaptively fit the needs of a new situation. Instruction based on this
new constructivist orientation can promote the development of cognitive flexibility
using theory-based hypertext systems that themselves possess characteristics of
flexibility that mirror those desired for the learner” (Spiro et al. 1992, 59).
Complex and ill-structured domains have two properties: “(a) each case or example
of knowledge application typically involves the simultaneous interactive involvement
of multiple, wide-application conceptual structures (multiple schemas, perspectives,
organizational principles and so on), each of which is individually complex (i.e. the
domain involves concept- and case-complexity); and (b) the pattern of conceptual
incidence and interaction varies substantially across cases nominally of the same
type (i.e. the domain involves across-case irregularity)” (Spiro et al. 1992, 60). For
example, basic grammar is well structured, while the process of applying grammar
rules in real-world communication is ill structured.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a0ddb41d-eada-4957-8b3d-9158c168c7a6-150219204235-conversion-gate02/85/TEFL-Textbook-Camargo-49-320.jpg)
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Random Access Instruction can be represented by the metaphor of a rhizome,
spreading in all directions. It was first used by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari in
the book On the Line as a method of organizing information (quoted in Burbules
1997). Seppo Tella uses it to describe open learning environments based on a
communal educational value system. He maintains that “it [rhizome] transmits the
idea of something growing, something developing, yet it gives ample scope for
individual action and decision-making” and suggests that “a rhizome is a rhizome is a
rhizome…” (Tella et al. 1998, 132). Nicholas Burbules (1997, 3) holds that “Each
particular step or link within a rhizomatic whole can be conceived as a line between
two points, but the overall pattern is not linear, because there is no beginning and
end, no center and periphery, to be traced”.
Random Access Instruction is a rhizomatic system. It can be applied in the design of
nonlinear learning environments, which we shall present in the next section.
4.4. Language Curriculum as a “Knowledge Strategic Hypertext”—The Ohana
ELT Method
What is “knowledge” and what does “knowledge strategy” mean? Tella (Tella et al.
1998, 26) maintains that knowledge is to be “understood as mental information
structures modified by the individual on the basis of thinking and earlier knowledge”.
Clearly, knowledge is not simply data and information. Tella defines knowledge
strategy as the “long-term methodical reflection […], which finds concrete expression
as operational procedures or tactical measures, slogans, goals, forms of operation,
working methods arising from discussion about values, and evaluation measures
connected with them”. He emphasizes the view that “instead of simply reforming
their curriculum, we think schools and municipalities should progress towards
developing their knowledge strategy thinking” (Tella et al. 1998, 25).
We define the Knowledge Strategic Hypertext (KSH) as a nonlinear and non-
sequential language curriculum model based on constructivist epistemology and the
idea of knowledge strategy (Figure 3). The term model is employed here somewhat
loosely. It is a way to make clear how our hypothesis hangs together to make a
coherent explanation. As far as the components of the KSH are concerned, their
number is unlimited. That reflects the complexity and ill-structuredness of the
language proficiency domain. In such a nonlinear and non-sequential learning
environment, each element is related to all other elements. The KSH is a network
model, which allows the user to move from node to node following the links between
them. Nodes store socio-linguistic, etc., information and links represent semantic
associations between the nodes. Learning is seen as a process that modifies the
information structures in specified ways under specified conditions.
The semantic nature of the links in the KSH forms the basis of the model. This is
supported by scientific research, which has shown that the mind holds memories
semantically, according to meaning (Fauconnier & Sweetser).
The model accommodates two conditions for learning, which are necessary and
sufficient. The first is the automatic processing passively invoked by the incoming
data. And the second is the active control of the incoming data. Thus, the KSH can
predict what parts of the input would be accepted and what would be tuned out. The](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a0ddb41d-eada-4957-8b3d-9158c168c7a6-150219204235-conversion-gate02/85/TEFL-Textbook-Camargo-50-320.jpg)
![106
appropriate and it should always be clearly focused on something that the student
did that you want to bring out for the student or the class. It does not always have
to be something the student did right, because often we learn more from our
mistakes than if we did it correctly the first time. In some cases, making an effort or
voicing an opinion, even an unpopular one, is cause for a positive comment from the
instructor. “Teachers must build student self-esteem on the real success experiences
[students] have in school” (Campbell, 1999, p. 13).
You can use several formats when grading and giving feedback to students, all
designed to give positive comments whenever possible. Some instructors use the S-
W-I (strength, weakness, area for improvement) model while others strive to
temper their negative comments with something positive. Other instructors who use
a peer review process will direct their students to find two positive things to say for
every negative comment. It does not matter how you choose to provide the
information to the students, but it is important that you balance the positive and the
negative whenever possible. Occasionally silence can also have a negative effect on
students, when just the opposite is true. If you give grades on an assignment and no
feedback, you are not helping the student to improve. Almost every assignment has
good points and points that can be improved. It is not as though you have to make
lengthy comments on every single assignment, but consider doing so on significant
assignments such as papers or tests where a positive comment or even a note for
the student to consider helps that student to grow and improve.
Another benefit of effective praise is to reinforce the behavior for the student,
encouraging them to repeat that behavior. Positive attention is better than negative
attention at all times. Even if students do not have the correct answer, praise the act
of speaking up during a discussion while correcting the student in a positive way. You
want to reinforce the discussion and student participation, even when the student
does not know all of the answers. “If a student has a history of being reinforced
properly for effort and performance on a wide range of school tasks, it is likely that
he/she will develop general motivation” (Campbell, 1999, p. 24). You want to let
the students know that it is acceptable not to know the answers because
that is what the rest of the class can help do, determine the right answer,
but that the key is to ask the question in the first place. Reinforcing the
behaviors you want to see, either individually or for the class as a whole, can have a
positive effect on everyone.
Trust in the classroom
Another method for developing strong relationships with students lies in your ability
to establish trust within the classroom. Several factors can contribute to this feeling
of trust between you and the students and between the students themselves. If you
establish a classroom culture that is respectful and courteous from the beginning,
where all student ideas and opinions can be freely expressed, you can help students
learn to direct their own learning. However learning is sometimes a scary
undertaking for students. This is when the trust that you have built up can help you.
Students need to know that you will be there for them when they have problems or
issues, that you will not be judgmental of their confusion or lack of understanding,
and that you will work with them to arrive at a solution instead of abandoning them
to their own devices.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a0ddb41d-eada-4957-8b3d-9158c168c7a6-150219204235-conversion-gate02/85/TEFL-Textbook-Camargo-106-320.jpg)
TEFL-Textbook-Camargo
This document provides an overview of principles for effective language teaching. It discusses three main categories of principles: cognitive principles, social principles, and socio-linguistic principles. For cognitive principles, it examines theories of automaticity of acquisition and meaningful learning. It argues that both are important, contradicting each other, and that meaningful learning which associates new concepts with existing knowledge is key. The document also provides brief introductions to the other principle categories and chapters that will further explore language teaching methods, paradigms, curriculum design, and classroom management strategies.
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- 1. 1 Ohana TEFL Foundations ofEnglish Language Teaching Strategies for Success in the EFL Classroom Carlos F. Camargo, Ph. D. Ohana Foundation Cupertino, CA 2006
- 2. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD............................................................................. Synopsis: ........................................................................................................6 Chapter 1: Principles of Teaching ........................................................................7 1.1 Cognitive Principles ..................................................................................7 Automaticity of Acquisition ..........................................................................8 Meaningful Learning ...................................................................................8 Metaphors We Live By: Structure, Orientation, & Ontology...............................9 Teaching and Learning Through Metaphors ..................................................14 I. On the diachronic level.......................................................................14 II. On the synchronic level .....................................................................16 1.2. Social Principles....................................................................................17 (1) The Self and Self-awareness.................................................................17 (2) The Language-Culture Connection.........................................................18 1.3. Socio-linguistic Principles .......................................................................21 (1) The Native Language Effect..................................................................22 (2) Language Universals ...........................................................................23 (3) Socio-linguistics in Structuring the Syllabus............................................24 (a) The syntactic syllabus ......................................................................25 (b) The morphological syllabus ...............................................................25 (c) The lexical syllabus ..........................................................................25 Chapter 2: Exploring Language Teaching Methods ...............................................28 2.1. Period I: Direct Language Teaching .........................................................28 2.2. Period II: Audio-lingual Teaching and the Innovative Methods of the 1970s...29 2.3. Period III: Communicative Language Teaching..........................................31 Chapter 3: Paradigm Shift in Education..............................................................36 3.1. Changing the Focus of Education.............................................................36 Contemporary Learning Environments: Process v. Product .............................36 3.2. A Teaching Paradigm to Meet Psychosocial Needs ......................................38 Ourselves Among Others: Groups, Individuals & Learning .............................38 3.3. Factors of Cooperative Learning ..............................................................40 3.4. Cooperative Language Learning ..............................................................42 Chapter 4: The Language Curriculum.................................................................45 4.1. Constructivist: Dialogic & Symbolic Interaction.........................................46 4.2. The General versus Specific Courses Conjecture........................................48 4.3. Random Access Instruction in Complex & Ill-Structured Knowledge Domains.49 4.4. Language Curriculum as a “Knowledge Strategic Hypertext”—The Ohana ELT Method ......................................................................................................50 4.5. Instead of a Conclusion..........................................................................53 Chapter 5: MULTIMEDIA LITERACY IN EFL TEACHER TRAINING.............................54 5.1. What do we mean by Multimedia Literacy.................................................54 5.2. In search of a comprehensive definition ...................................................54 5.3. Objectives of multimedia literacy as a means of teacher training..................57 5.4. Multimedia as a basic principle of literacy for teachers & students................58
- 3. 3 5.5. Chapter References:..............................................................................60 Chapter6: OHANA LEARNING SOLUTIONS--DEVELOPING BEGINNER EFL LANGUAGE SKILLS THROUGH MULTIMEDIA ........................................................................61 6.1. Role of visual and verbal information in language learning ..........................61 6.2. Helping EFL beginners learn with video ....................................................62 6.3. Some considerations for selecting videos for EFL beginners.........................62 6.4. Some techniques for teaching with Ohana multimedia................................63 6.4.1. Silent viewing.................................................................................63 6.4.2. Sound only ....................................................................................63 6.4.3. Jigsaw viewing/listening...................................................................63 6.4.4. Freeze frame..................................................................................64 6.5. Summary ............................................................................................64 6.6. Chapter References...............................................................................64 Chapter 7: AN INTRODUCTION TO OHANA PHONICS FOR K-3 ...............................65 7.1. Why Phonics Matter..............................................................................65 7.1.1. Language Development in Children ...................................................65 7.1.2. Definition of Terms .........................................................................66 7.1.3. Speech Sounds: Vowels...................................................................67 7.1.4. Consonant Sounds ..........................................................................68 7.1.5. Voiced and Unvoiced Speech Sounds .................................................70 7.2. The Phonics System ..............................................................................71 7.2.1. Reading and Writing........................................................................72 7.2.2. A Guide for Teaching Phonics to Children............................................74 7.2.3. Steps for Teaching Phonics...............................................................74 Chapter 8: Classroom management overview ....................................................83 What is classroom management?...................................................................84 Classroom management models ....................................................................84 Goals of classroom management ...................................................................86 Instructor responsibilities .............................................................................87 Keeping discussions on track.........................................................................88 Time spent on learning (course) outcomes......................................................88 Student versus class issues ..........................................................................88 Addressing problems ...................................................................................88 Professional standards .................................................................................89 Positive learning environment .......................................................................90 Planning.....................................................................................................91 Course planning ..........................................................................................91 Session planning .........................................................................................92 Lesson outlines ...........................................................................................93 Student accountability .................................................................................94 Classroom challenges...................................................................................96 Academic challenges....................................................................................97 Non-academic challenges .............................................................................98 Physical challenges......................................................................................99 Common factors affecting learning............................................................... 101 Instructional style ..................................................................................... 101 Personality conflicts ................................................................................... 102 Student understanding............................................................................... 102 Attendance............................................................................................... 102 Classroom control tips................................................................................ 103
- 4. 4 Setting expectations ..................................................................................103 Accountability ........................................................................................... 104 Consistency.............................................................................................. 104 Student involvement.................................................................................. 104 Developing strong relationships................................................................... 105 Praise...................................................................................................... 105 Trust in the classroom................................................................................ 106 Disruptions............................................................................................... 107 Student names ......................................................................................... 107 Motivating students ................................................................................... 107 Choice ..................................................................................................... 108 Improvements .......................................................................................... 108 When things go wrong ............................................................................... 109 Suggestions for dealing with problem students .............................................. 110 Things to avoid when dealing with problem students ...................................... 111 Conclusion................................................................................................... 112 Chapter 8: References................................................................................... 113 Appendix A: Dealing with difficult students....................................................... 115 BOOK REFERENCES..........................................................................
- 5. 5 Foreword The title indicatesour holistic approach to the analysis and synthesis of the concepts of language, personality, ELT methodology, communication and inter- comprehension, etc. This approach emphasizes the priority of the whole over its parts. We hold that language teaching and learning is a complex knowledge domain, characterized by network of relationships in a social and cultural context. In addition, we believe that ELT methodology is an interdisciplinary field, which cannot be understood in isolation. Our perspective sees it in terms of its relations to other knowledge domains. We shall look into a range of issues, which are not only interesting themselves, but also relevant to the objectives of the Ohana Foundation and, hopefully, to the Reader. The nature and extent of the relevance is difficult, if not impossible, to determine a priori. However, the book supplements Ohana Learning solutions and serves as a concise reference guide on the theory of the teaching and learning of modern languages. Linguistics & EFL teaching literature is of course extensive, so we shall be pointing out some of the good books on the topics presented. We have just mentioned the term “EFL”; throughout the book we shall use it interchangeably with the term “second language”. Here, we shall consider them synonymous albeit we realize that they can be easily distinguished. In the literature, “second language” usually refers to a target language that is being taught in the country where it is the dominant language, whereas “EFL” usually refers to a target language that is being taught in the country where it is not the dominant language. However, we do not find this distinction quite relevant for the focus of this monograph. A decade ago, N. S. Prabhu, the famous Indian instructional methodologist, pointed out that language teaching faced three major problems, “(1) the measurement of language competence involves elicitation (in some form) of specific language behavior but the relationship between such elicited behavior and language competence which manifests itself in natural use is unclear, (2) given the view that the development of socio-linguistic competence is a holistic process, there is not enough knowledge available either to identify and assess different intermediate stages of that development or to relate those stages to some table of norms which can be said to represent expectations, and (3) there is, ultimately, no way of attributing with any certainty any specific piece of learning to any specific teaching: language learning can take place independently of teaching intentions and it is impossible to tell what has been learnt because of some teaching, and what in spite of it” (Prabhu 1987, 8). Many things have happened in the field of language teaching ELT methodology since then. For example, the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe 1996 and 1998) was published, European Language Council (http://www.fu-berlin.de/elc) was founded, European Language Portfolio (Scharer 1999) was launched and so on. Nonetheless, Prabhu’s claims are still valid. We shall focus on a range of questions in the light of modern methodological developments trying to state the scientific facts. Our own opinion emerges in the discussion now and then, though. We hope our fortuitous academic bias will be understood.
- 6. 6 Synopsis: Chapter 1 offersa theoretical orientation into the philosophical foundations of ELT methodology. Cognitive and other principles of language teaching and learning are discussed. It is claimed that the Picture of the World, which we all keep in our minds, determines the way we speak. This relativistic perspective and other ideas have found different applications in teaching. They are explored in Chapter 2. It is a brief historical overview of teaching methods. The three major periods of the development of ELT methodology in the twentieth century are presented. Chapter 3 discusses the more specific theme of the approach level of teaching methods. The authors argue that educational paradigm shift has had a pronounced impact on language ELT methodology. Particular plans for a language curriculum, which constitutes the relatively concrete design level of teaching methods, are made in Chapter 4. The question of modern and contemporary EFL curriculum design and development is examined in it. The book functions as a whole text. We recommend that the reader speed-read the book first. Then, the appropriate readings can be selected easily.
- 7. 7 Chapter 1: Principlesof Teaching In his Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, H. Douglas Brown notes that there are “…best of times and worst of times” in the language teaching profession (Brown 1994a). We can safely say that this is the best of times for the EFL teacher. Today, we know much about language acquisition, about childhood acquisition of language, about cognitive processes, etc. It is also very important that we have come to an appreciation of the extreme complexity of this field. This gives us cautious optimism to plunge even deeper into the problems. EFL teachers and educators are often confronted with the question "What method or what system do you use in teaching EFL?" Most often the answer does not come easily or if one gives a straightforward answer, he risks being subjected to criticism. Teachers always have to make choices. These choices are motivated by the fact that they rest on certain principles of language learning and teaching. Now that we know much more about human language and its various aspects, we can take the next step and formulate at least some of these principles, which are based on what we know about language itself. Often, swept by fashionable theories or a desire to sound “scholarly”, we forget a simple truth – we, as human beings, teach a human language to human beings. “Students and teachers of language”, says Osgood, “will discover the principles of their science in the universalities of humanness” (Osgood et al. 1957, 301). A concise but true definition of man will probably include three major characteristics: (i) one who can reflect and interpret the world around him; (ii) one who can express feelings; and (iii) one who can use language. These characteristics underlie three major principles of language teaching and learning. Well known and novice teaching techniques can be subsumed under these three headings. The bewildering multiplicity of instructional techniques can be brought down to a number of methods and the methods reduced to a number of principles. Ohana ELT curriculum and programs are designed to incorporate these distilled principles of effective ELA instruction. Mastering a great number of teaching techniques will not save you in new situations, “not predicted” by the theory but predictable. It will not give you the all-important ability to rationalize what you are doing and why are you doing it. To do that one must be aware of deeper principles of language acquisition and use, stemming from the foundations of human language as such. 1.1 Cognitive Principles We shall call the first set of principles “cognitive” because they relate to mental, intellectual and psychological faculties in operating with language. It should be made clear, however, that the three types of principles described in this chapter, cognitive, social and socio-linguistic principles, do not exist as if in three watertight compartments but rather spill across each other to make up the most remarkable ability of man – the socio-linguistic ability. It is no wonder that the achievements of modern cognitive science have found such a warm and fast response in socio-linguistics. Some of the postulates of cognitive science today are crucial to our understanding of how language operates and how we acquire this ability, respectively. Because one of the most difficult questions in EFL acquisition and child acquisition of language is, How is it possible that children at an early age and adults, late in their life, can master a system of such immense
- 8. 8 complexity? Is itonly a matter of memory capacity and automatic reproduction or is there something else that helps us acquire a language? Let us begin with some long established postulates of EFL acquisition and see what cognitive theory has to say about them. Automaticity of Acquisition No one can dispute the fact that children acquire a foreign language, or any language, quickly and successfully. This ease is commonly attributed to children’s ability to acquire language structures automatically and subconsciously, that is, without actually analyzing the forms of language themselves. They appear to learn languages without “thinking” about them. This has been called by B. McLaughlin “automatic processing” (McLaughlin 1990). In order to operate with the incredible complexity of language both children and adult learners do not process language “unit by unit” but employ operations in which language structures and forms (words, affixes, endings, word order, grammatical rules, etc.) are peripheral. The Principle of Automaticity, as stated above, aims at an “automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms”. Overanalyzing language, thinking too much about its forms tends to impede the acquisition process. This leads to the recommendation to teachers to focus on the use of language and its functional aspects. But focus on use and functionality presupposes meaningful learning, which is in strong contradiction with automaticity. What is more, one major characteristic both of child acquisition and adult learning of a language is the phenomenon called hypercorrection. Again hypercorrection cannot exist without meaningful analysis of language structures and their “classification” into “regular patterns” and “exceptions” with respect to a language function. Meaningful Learning Meaningful learning “subsumes” new information into existing structures and memory systems. The resulting associative links create stronger retention. “Children are good meaningful acquirers of language because they associate…words, structures and discourse elements with that which is relevant and important in their daily quest for knowledge and survival” (Brown 1994b, 18). We must pay special attention to this sentence of H. D. Brown, especially the last words, underlined here. It will be relevant in our argument in favor of the cognitive principles of language acquisition. One of the recommendations for classroom application of Meaningful Learning is also of relevance to our further argument in this direction. It states “Whenever a new topic or concept is introduced, attempt to anchor it in students’ existing knowledge and background so that it gets associated with something they already know”. Some forty years ago, a new science was born. Now called “Cognitive Science”, it combines tools from psychology, computer science, socio-linguistics, philosophy, child psychology, and neurobiology to explain the workings of human intelligence. Socio-linguistics, in particular, has seen spectacular advances in the years since. There are many phenomena of language that we are coming to understand. Language is not a cultural artifact that we learn the way we learn to tell the time. Instead, it is a distinct characteristic of our brains. Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child. For that reason cognitive scientists have described language as a psychological and mental faculty. The idea that thought is
- 9. 9 the same thingas language is an example of what can be called a conventional absurdity. Now that cognitive scientists know how to think about thinking, there is less of a temptation to equate it with language and we are in a better position to understand how language works. In essence, to reason is to deduce new pieces of knowledge from old ones. But “knowledge” is something complex, the product of social and cultural experience from living in a particular “world”. In his Philosophy of Language, Wilhelm von Humboldt claims that speaking a language means living in a specific conceptual domain. Acquiring a foreign language means entering a new conceptual domain. This statement poses a major problem or perhaps the major problem of acquiring a foreign language – are these conceptual domains so different that they are incompatible? Or are there certain mechanisms by which we can make transitions from the one into the other? We shall present arguments in support of the second stance. The pivotal question is how we interpret Humboldt’s conceptual domains. We will refer to them by the term Picture of the World, initially used in analyzing mythology and today employed by cognitive science. The word “picture”, though usually used metaphorically, expresses truly the essence of the phenomenon – it is a picture, not a mirror reflection, but a snapshot of the world around us. Like any other picture, it presupposes a definite point of view or the attitude of its creator. It involves interpretation, representations of the world from various angles (the so- called “facet viewing”). This of course implies the possibility of having a number of different pictures of one object. What is important here is that our conceptualization of the world is not “an objective reflection of reality”, but a subjective picture, which reflects our views, beliefs, and attitudes. “Subjective” in the sense of the collective interpretation or point of view of a society or cultural and socio-linguistic community. This picture explicates the relativity of human cognition. In semiotics it goes under the name of “passive” cultural memory. Cognitive science, however, rejects the qualification “passive” and claims that common cognitive models actively and currently structure Pictures of the World. In connection with Humboldt’s statement, it is possible to pass from one picture of the world into another by means of a set of universal cognitive mechanisms. This is crucial for explaining EFL acquisition. But what are those mechanisms? And what is the nature of the evidence? Metaphors We Live By: Structure, Orientation, & Ontology Our conceptual system or Picture of the World is not something that we are normally aware of. But human language is an important source of evidence for what a picture of the world is like. On the basis of socio-linguistic evidence we can say that most of our everyday conceptual system is metaphorical in nature. Cognitive science explains the essence of metaphor as understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another. The first thing is called a Target Domain (what we want to express) and the second one is called a Source Domain (by means of which we express the first). We can use, as an example, the way we conceive of time in our everyday life. Let us review the following socio-linguistic expressions: • You are wasting my time. • This gadget will save you hours. • How do you spend your time? • That flat tire will cost me an hour.
- 10. 10 • I’m runningout of time. The central postulate of cognitive science is that metaphorical transfer is not just a matter of language, of mere words. Human thought processes are largely metaphorical. Metaphor means metaphorical concepts. And these are specifically structured. If we generalize the examples above, we come up with the metaphor /TIME IS MONEY/. This metaphor entails the treatment of time as a limited resource and a valuable commodity. The examples demonstrate one type of metaphorical transfer – structural metaphor. On the more socio-linguistic side of the problem, when metaphorical concepts become lexicalized, they help a variety of people understand what the concepts mean. In other words, they have a certain didactic role. Metaphors in computer terminology, for example, aid users speaking different languages but using English to understand and remember new concepts. At the same time they allow users to associate unfamiliar concepts with old ones, thereby helping to palliate techno- stress. The “user friendliness” of computer metaphorical terms can be illustrated by the numerous examples found in the vocabulary of user interfaces – e.g. desktop, wallpaper, and menu, to mention just a few. It appears that conceptual domains are shaped by several themes. The domain of the Internet features several conceptual themes. Most of these are based on the functions that the Internet is perceived to have: (1) helping people “move” across vast distances; (2) facilitating communication; and (3) sending and storing data. The following metaphorical domains can present these themes: 1. Transportation The theme of transportation dominates Internet terminology, specified sometimes as marine navigation, highway transportation: • to navigate/cruise/surf the Internet (or the Web) • internaut • cybersurfer • anchor • information highway, data highway • to ride/get on the Internet • router • ramp/on-ramp, access ramp • infobahn • cyberspace 2. Mail and Postal Services • e-mail • snailmail • mailbox • virtual postcard • envelope 3. Architecture • site • gateway • bridge • frame
- 11. 11 4. The PrintedMedium • Web page • bookmark • White pages • to browse • e-magazine • carbon copy Some metaphorical terms have spawned numerous conceptually related ones by metaphorical extension. Gopher, for example, has given rise to Gopherspace, Gopher hole. The famous desktop metaphor has given rise to files, folders, and trashcans. The mouse metaphor has generated mouse trails and so on. A different type of metaphorical model is a second one, which organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another – the so-called orientation metaphor. They rely on bodily experience: up-down, in-out, front-back, deep- shallow, center-periphery, etc. Such orientation metaphors are grounded in physical perception and hence universal. For example: Up vs. Down happy sad I’m feeling up. I’m down today. I’m in high spirits. My spirits sank. Thinking about her gives me a lift. I’m depressed. good health sickness He is in top shape. He fell ill. He is at the peak of health. He came down with a flue. have control over be subject to control He is in a superior position. He is my social inferior. I have control over the situation. He is under my control. high status low status He’s climbing the social ladder fast. He is at the bottom of the social hierarchy. virtue depravity He is an upstanding citizen. I wouldn’t stoop to that. She is high-minded. That’s beneath me. rational emotional His arguments rose above emotions. Discussion fell to the emotional level. The third type of metaphor is called ontological. Cognitive science has it that we understand our experience in terms of objects and substances. This allows us to pick fragments of our experience and treat them as discrete entities or substances. Thus, we interpret the human mind as a material object with specific properties – i.e. the /MIND IS A MACHINE/ metaphor:
- 12. 12 • My mindjust isn’t working today. • I’m a little rusty today. • The experience shattered her. • He is easily crushed. • He broke under cross-examination. The conception of /MIND IS A MACHINE/ also enables us to view mind as having an off-state, a level of efficiency, productive capacity, internal mechanisms, etc. What is more, and it is very important, we view both conceptual domains (The Mind and The Machine) as internally structured, so that we can make transfers not only between the domains as a whole but also between parts of these domains. This process is known as “metaphorical mapping”. In this way, when we use a metaphorical model, we can also use elements of that model with the same effect. Let’s illustrate this with an example: /LIFE IS A JOURNEY/. The mapping between the two domains is not simple. The structure of Journey includes, for example, point of departure, path to destination, means of transportation, co-travelers, obstacles along the way to destination, crossroads, etc. It is amazing how our concept of life repeats all the details of our concept of journeys. What is much more amazing, however, is not that we have many metaphors for life, but that we have just a few. They are among the basic metaphors we live by. Basic metaphors are limited in number. Among them are: /STATES ARE LOCATIONS/ /EVENTS ARE ACTIONS/ /PEOPLE ARE PLANTS/ /PEOPLE ARE CONTAINERS/ /LIFE IS A JOURNEY/ By means of them we can interpret all existing metaphorical models: /LIFE IS A JOURNEY/ /LIFE IS A PLAY/ < /EVENTS ARE ACTIONS/ /LIFE IS A PRECIOUS POSSESSION/ /LIFE IS A SUBSTANCE/ /LIFE IS A FLUID/ < /PEOPLE ARE CONTAINERS/ /LIFE IS LIGHT/ /DEATH IS DARKNESS/ < /PEOPLE ARE PLANTS/ /DEATH IS DEPARTURE/ < /LIFE IS A JOURNEY/ /DEATH IS SLEEP/REST/ < /STATES ARE LOCATIONS/. We understand the Source Domains of basic metaphors relying on our everyday experience – bodily experience and social experience. This means that they are not independent of thinking and cognition. What motivates our ability to create and understand metaphorical structures? According to cognitive science, these are cognitive and psychological characteristics, which are elements of our species being, specific to us as human beings. They are:
- 13. 13 • Our abilityto create structures in concepts that do not exist independent of the metaphor, i.e. our ability for modeling, • Our ability to choose and explicate optional elements from conceptual structures, • Our ability to make conclusions and inferences, • Our ability to evaluate and transfer evaluations of elements of the Source Domain onto the Target Domain. Our mental ability for modeling enables us to operate easily with extremely complex conceptual structures. A very good example is the notion of ‘mother’. It comprises six sub-models: (i) Birth Mother is the one who gives birth to a child. (ii) Genetic Mother is the one who carries the embryo. (iii) Breeding Mother is the one who feeds and cares for the baby. (iv) Marriage Mother is the one who is married to the child’s father. (v) Genealogical Mother is the closest female relative. (vi) Housewife Mothers stay at home and care for the family. Sub-models (i), (iii), and (iv) form the core of the concept. They build the stereotype image of a mother. Sub-models (i), (ii), and (v) describe what a mother is “objectively” (biologically). And (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) describe what a mother normally is, i.e. the prototypical mother. This prototype remains stable cross- culturally. All six sub-models describe the ideal mother. This ideal changes historically and across cultures. Thus, we operate with several images. The most important are the stereotype and the ideal. Very often they have separate socio-linguistic expressions. Thus in English we distinguish between the biological and the ideal father. We can normally ask Who is the child’s father? but not *Who is the child’s daddy? because the ideal implies caring for the family and being married to the child’s mother. In the ‘mother’ concept the biological and the social are inseparable. All deviations from the model are interpreted as highly marked, i.e. exceptions from the ideal. For that reason they are consistently marked socio-linguistically: • stepmother • surrogate mother
- 14. 14 • foster mother •adoptive mother • donor mother • biological mother Teaching and Learning Through Metaphors We can summarize all metaphorical models into a small number of Basic Models: /GENERAL IS SPECIFIC/ /ABSTRACT IS CONCRETE/ /TIME IS SPACE/ /SOCIAL IS NATURAL/ /MENTAL IS PHYSICAL/ How can we apply these principles, mechanisms and models in teaching a language and teaching about language? We can do that in a number of ways: I. On the diachronic level There is a marked parallelism between current English metaphors and models of semantic change. Living metaphors and semantic change are related and mutually reinforcing. This explains the commonality of such metaphors in the Indo-European languages through time. By using cognitive models we can explain but also teach the established one-way directions of semantic change. For example, Indo-European languages consistently follow certain metaphorical transfers: 1. /MENTAL ACTIVITY IS MOTION IN PHYSICAL SPACE/, e.g. report < Latin ‘carry back’ refer This direction of semantic change is paralleled by the existence of synchronic metaphorical schemes in which physical motion is used as the Source Domain for more abstract notions like ‘time’ or ‘mental activity’. Shifts in the opposite direction are unknown. 2. /MENTAL STATES ARE PHYSICAL PERCEPTION/, e.g. know < ‘see’ remark < observe, < ‘look closely at’ 3. /MENTAL STATES ARE PHYSICAL MOTION/, e.g. suppose ‘understand’ < Latin sub + ponere ‘put under’ 4. /MENTAL STATES ARE MANIPULATION OF OBJECTS IN SPACE/, e.g. comprehend < Latin ‘seize’ grasp2 ‘understand’ < grasp1 ‘ seize in the hand’ get2 ‘understand’ < get1 ‘acquire a physical entity’ decide < Latin de + caedo ‘cut off from’ confuse < Latin con + fundere ‘pour together, mix’
- 15. 15 prefer < Latinprae + ferre ‘carry before’ deduce < Latin de + ducere ‘lead out from’ infer < Latin in + fere ‘carry in’ presume < Latin prae + sumere ‘take before’ This is the most productive metaphor with ‘Mental state’ verbs in English. The manipulation with ideas is seen as holding, touching, moving, uniting, separating, arranging, and re-ordering them, like physical objects. 5. /SPEECH COMMUNICATION IS SPATIAL RELATION/, e.g. propose < Latin pro + ponere ‘put forward’ Data demonstrate a stable direction in meaning change: • verbs of ‘Physical motion/location’ > verbs of ‘Mental state’/’Speech acts’; • verbs of ‘Mental state’ > verbs of ‘Speech acts’, but never in the opposite direction. Therefore semantic change tends to move towards more personal meanings, meanings closer to the Self. 6. /SPEECH ACTS ARE MANIPULATION OF OBJECTS IN SPACE/, e.g. admit < Latin ad + mittere ‘send to’ assert < Latin ad + serere ‘connect to’ ad- expressing ‘direction from speaker to hearer’ reply < Latin re + plicare ‘feed back’ refuse < Latin re + futare ‘beat back’ re- expressing ‘direction from hearer to speaker’ 7. /MENTAL ACTIVITY/SPEECH ACT IS TRAVEL IN SPACE/, e.g. We haven’t got anywhere in this conversation. Now we must go back to the main issue. Notice also the use of spatial prepositions both with ‘Speech act’ and ‘Mental activity’ verbs: e.g. talk think about over walk go This shows that we conceive of a speech act as a distance between the two communicating parties, a route along which ideas=objects can travel or be exchanged. This is a replica of the model of ‘Physical action’ verbs, with their regular contrast between to and at prepositions: e.g. throw to talk to shout to at at at to, expressing active participation on the part of the receiver=hearer, a successful completion of the trajectory of the action, and at, expressing an inactive receiver=hearer. Since ‘Speech act’ verbs involve exchange between two parties, i.e. action, they can also have a metaphorical variant like /SPEECH ACTS ARE WARFARE/, e.g. concede < Latin con + cedere ‘give up’
- 16. 16 insist < Latinin + sistere ‘stand in’ convince < Latin con + vincere ‘conquer together’. II. On the synchronic level Synchronically, we can employ metaphorical transfer models to teach semantic fields and explain semantic extension. Thus, ‘Human emotions’ can be explained through ‘Temperature’, ‘Cooking activities’, or ‘Colors’, e.g. hot temper cold person warm friendship our friendship has cooled boil with indignation keeping cool burn with emotion simmer with anger stew over something. Other spheres of language teaching or socio-linguistic analysis where we can apply the same mechanism of explanation are synonymy, diction, development of grammatical categories and forms of their expression, predominant word order, etc. We shall demonstrate the validity of this approach in teaching grammar, using auxiliary verbs as an example. There is a stable tendency for a limited set of notional verbs, with specific meaning, to turn, over time, into auxiliary verbs of analytical constructions (the perfect tenses, the progressive tenses, and the future tense). The lexical sources for auxiliaries in such constructions usually include notions like: • PHYSICAL LOCATION: be + on/at/in + nominal form • MOVEMENT TO A GOAL: go(to)/come(to) + nominal form • DEVELOPMENT OF ACTION IN TIME: begin/become/finish + nominal form • VOLITION: want/will + nominal form • OBLIGATION: must + verbal form • PERMISSION: let + verbal form. In other words, there is ”selectivity” with respect to the initial lexical meaning of verbs that are likely to evolve into auxiliaries of analytical constructions across languages. Thus the initial meaning of 117 auxiliary verbs forms from 15 languages involve 20 lexical sources: • be at/on • be + adjective/participle • have • come • go(to) • walk • sit • stand • lie • begin • become • remain
- 17. 17 • finish • do •want • must • permit • take care, put • give. There are a number of immediate questions that arise. Is this “rule of auxiliation” due to pure coincidence; does it result from geographic or genetic closeness of languages; or could this be the reflection of some fundamental cognitive principle that gets actualized in socio-linguistic structures? We can postulate that this process of auxiliation is the reflection of a basic principle in human conceptualization, namely that abstract notions are conceptualized by means of a limited number of concrete basic concepts. We can make an even stronger claim that lexical sources for grammatization in general involve notions basic to human experience (bodily and social) that provide central reference points. 1.2. Social Principles We now turn our attention to those principles of language acquisition that are central to human beings as social entities. We shall look at the concept of self and self- awareness, at relationships in a community (of speakers and learners), and at the relationships between language and culture. In speaking, learning and teaching a language we are taking part in one of the wonders of the world. For we all belong to a species with a remarkable ability: we can shape events and ideas in each other’s brains. The ability is language. Language is not just any cultural invention but the product of society and culture, and the ability of man to cope with them and to create them. But it is much more than that. There must be something, then, that makes language accessible to all, manageable and flexible enough to accommodate various cultures and societies, and to be the most widely used instrument in interpersonal relations. (1) The Self and Self-awareness One of the products of social development is the formation of the concept of self and awareness of the ego, which model a specific pattern of socio-linguistic behavior and the structure of socio-linguistic categories. In the context of the problems discussed here, this touches onto the old and widely disputed idea of language relativity, i.e. the idea that the structure of our mother tongue and its categories, which are a reflection of our way of life and the environment, give particular shape to our way of thinking. That is, speaking a particular language, you are also a particular socio- linguistic self. As human beings learn a foreign language, they also develop a new mode of thinking and acting – they enter a new identity. But this new “language ego,” intertwined with the new language itself, can create a sense of uncertainty, defensiveness, even humiliation, and raise inhibitions. Learners can feel this because the arsenals of their native-language egos may be suddenly useless in developing a “second self”.
- 18. 18 The EFL teacheris the major factor in the formation of this “second self”. His or her choice of techniques needs to be cognitively challenging to achieve the accommodation of the learner to his “new world”. If the student is learning the foreign language in the milieu of the country where it is spoken, then he is likely to experience an “identity crisis.” To avoid this the teacher must “create” appropriate “natural” situations for the learner so that he can practice his new identity. Let us take one ordinary example – learning to write compositions or essays in English. Students whose teachers urge them to reduce the number of times they use the pronoun “I” in their essays (or, conversely, encourage the use of “I”) may be surprised to discover that in some cultures this grammatical choice has profound cultural and even political connotations. A Chinese student is taught to use always “we” instead of “I” lest he give the impression of being selfish and individualistic. Starting to study English he is required to “imagine looking at the world with his head upside down” and to invent a new “English self” that could use the pronoun “I”. Learning to write an essay in English is not an isolated classroom activity, but a social and cultural experience. Learning the rules of English essay writing is, to a certain extent, learning the values of Anglo-American society. Writing essays in English, a Chinese student has to “reprogram” his mind, to redefine some of the basic concepts and values that he had about himself, and about society. Rule number one in English composition writing is: “Be yourself”. But writing many “I’s” is only the beginning of the process of redefining oneself. By such a redefinition is meant not only the change of how one envisions oneself, but also a change in how one perceives the world. The Chinese student gradually creates his new “English Self”. (2) The Language-Culture Connection Everyone “knows” what is supposed to happen when two Englishmen who have never met before come face to face in a railway compartment – they start talking about the weather. By talking to the other person about some neutral topic like the weather, it is possible to strike up a relationship with him without actually having to say very much. Conversations of this kind are a good example of the sort of important social function that is often fulfilled by language. By trying to master this function of language, the learner is building part of his new language identity. It is well known, and often humorously exaggerated, that the British always talk about the weather. In his famous book, How To Be an Alien, George Mikes (1970) discusses the weather as the first and most important topic for a person who wants to learn English. Here is his comment: “This is the most important topic in the land. Do not be misled by memories of your youth when, on the Continent, wanting to describe someone as exceptionally dull, you remarked: ‘He is the type who would discuss the weather with you.’ In England, this is an ever-interesting, even thrilling topic, and you must be good at discussing the weather.
- 19. 19 EXAMPLES FOR CONVERSATION ForGood Weather • ‘Lovely day, isn’t it?’ • ‘Isn’t it beautiful?’ • ‘The sun…’ • ‘Isn’t it gorgeous?’ • ‘Wonderful, isn’t it?’ • ‘It’s so nice and hot…’ • ‘Personally, I think it’s so nice when it’s hot – isn’t it?’ • ‘I adore it – don’t you?’ For Bad Weather • ‘Nasty day, isn’t it?’ • ‘Isn’t it dreadful?’ • ‘The rain…I hate rain…’ • ‘I don’t like it at all. Do you?’ • ‘Fancy such a day in July. Rain in the morning, then a bit of sunshine, and then rain, rain, rain, all day long.’ • ‘I remember exactly the same July in 1996.’ • ‘Yes, I remember too.’ • ‘Or was it in 1998?’ • ‘Yes, it was.’ • ‘Or in 1999?’ • ‘Yes, that’s right.’ Now, observe the last few sentences of this conversation. A very important rule emerges from it. You must never contradict anybody when discussing the weather in England. Should it hail and snow, should hurricanes uproot trees, and should someone remark to you: ‘Nice day, isn’t it?’ – answer without hesitation: ‘Isn’t it lovely?’” And here is Mikes’ advice to the learner of English: “Learn the above conversations by heart. If you are a bit slow in picking things up, learn at least one conversation, it would do wonderfully for any occasion.” All this is of course a very good joke but it says much about the British and their social behavior. Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling and acting. A teacher must necessarily attract his students’ attention to the cultural connotations, especially of socio-linguistic aspects of language. An easy way to do this is to discuss cross- cultural differences with the students, emphasising that no culture is “better” than any another. What is important in such a discussion is to make them aware that they will never master the foreign language without “entering a new world” or “acquiring a new self”. A second aspect of the language – culture connection is the extent to which the students will be affected by the process of acculturation, which will vary with the context and the goals of learning. In many language-learning contexts such as ESL, students are faced with the full-blown realities of adapting to life in a foreign country, complete with varying stages of acculturation. Then, cultural adaptation,
- 20. 20 social distance, andpsychological adjustment are also factors to deal with. The success with which learners adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in some significant ways. We cannot be certain that all the functions of language described in socio-linguistic literature are to be found in all cultures. The relative importance of these different functions may vary from culture to culture; their distribution may vary. For anyone to participate in the life of a community he has to be able to communicate and be communicated to. That is why the learner is learning a language. This does not mean that the range of functions aimed at by an EFL learner will be that at the command of the native speaker. A language learner may know exactly what he wants the foreign language for, or he may have no clear idea at all. But for many teaching operations we need to specify the aims. Our ability to participate as members of social and language communities depends upon our control of socio-linguistic and other behavior considered appropriate. The learner of EFL is preparing to use that language for certain purposes, in certain roles and in certain situations. Many writers speak of the socio-linguistic needs of the learner in terms of roles he may assume. The primary role ascribed to him will be that of foreigner, in which his communicative needs are normally going to be more restricted than those of the native speaker. In preparing a teaching program or choosing a teaching strategy, we have to take into account what the learner’s needs may be and we must do so in terms of the social situations she is going to have to participate in, perhaps not as a “full member” but as a “foreign associate”. In this connection, it is appropriate to rehearse again the wonderful book of George Mikes advising to foreigners not to pretend to be native speakers. Here is what Mikes says about foreigners, trying to acquire “perfect” English to sound like native speakers. “In the first week after my coming to England I picked up a tolerable working knowledge of the language and the next seven years convinced me gradually but thoroughly that I would never know it really well, let alone perfectly. This is sad. My only consolation being that nobody speaks English perfectly. If you live here long enough you will find out to your greatest amazement that the adjective nice is not the only adjective the language possesses, in spite of the fact that in the first three years you do not need to learn or use any other adjective. Then you have to decide on your accent. You will have your foreign accent all right, but many people like to mix it with something else. The easiest way to give the impression of having a good accent or no foreign accent at all is to hold an unlit pipe in your mouth, to mutter between your teeth and finish your sentences with the question: ‘isn’t it?’ People will not understand much, but they are accustomed to that and they will get the most excellent impression. The most successful attempts to put on a highly cultured air have been on the polysyllabic line. Many foreigners, who have learned Latin and Greek in school, discover with amazement and satisfaction that the English language has absorbed a huge amount of ancient Greek and Latin expressions, and they realize that (a) it is much easier to learn these expressions than the much simpler English words; (b) that these words are as a rule interminably long and make a simply superb impression when talking to the greengrocer…”
- 21. 21 1.3. Socio-linguistic Principles Thelast category of principles of language learning and teaching centers on language itself and on how learners deal with this complex and ill-formed system (see Chapter 4). Earlier in the last century, anthropologist Edward Sapir wrote: “When it comes to socio-linguistic form, Plato walks with the Macedonian swineherd, Confucius with the head-hunting savage of Assam.” There is a considerable body of knowledge available about the nature of human language. Socio-linguistics provides a growing body of scientific knowledge about language, which can guide the activity of the language teacher. Language is such a complex phenomenon that it cannot be fully accounted for within one consistent and comprehensive theory. For this reason, when asked the question "What is language?" the linguist is likely to reply by asking another question "Why do you want to know?" If we teach language, the way we approach the task will be influenced, or even determined, by what we believe language to be. There is generally a close connection between the way we talk about something and the way we regard it. Linguists, especially, often talk about how language “works”. The socio-linguistic approach to language is the most “objectivizing” approach: it is concerned with language as a system; it aims to elucidate the structure of language. To do this it has set up various “levels of description”. These levels bear such familiar names as syntax, morphology, phonology and phonetics, lexis and semantics, pragmatics, etc. The study of language is beset by the difficulty that it deals with something utterly familiar. Everybody “knows” about language, because they use it all the time. The problem with studying phenomena like language is to separate it from ourselves, to achieve a “psychic distance” (Chomsky 1968). Perhaps the most cogent criticism of traditional language teaching with its insistence on correctness, the rules of grammar, and its limited objectives, is that it lacks the socio-cultural dimension. Little thought seems to have been given to the notion of appropriateness, to the way that language behavior is responsive to differing social situations. It is one of the great values of contemporary language teaching that it adopts a more social approach to language, and it is concerned with the problems of its communicative function. The relevance of the socio-linguistic approach to language teaching is too obvious to need much discussion here. One point must be mentioned, however. Modern teachers of language are actually teaching their students not only the language but also about language. Modern socio-linguistics requires that a grammar should accord with a native speaker’s intuitions about language. This formulates a new goal for socio-linguistic theory. Now linguists describe what native speakers conceive to be the nature of their language. The emphasis has shifted from the nature of language data to the nature of the human capacity, which makes it possible to produce the language data. Some linguists, Chomsky among them, would claim that the objectives of the socio-linguistic study of language have always implicitly been the characterization of the internalized set of rules by a speaker-hearer (and learner) when he uses language. Such linguists do not study what people do when they speak and understand language, but seek to discover the rules underlying this
- 22. 22 performance. This iswhat Chomsky calls competence (1966a, 9): "A distinction must be made between what the speaker of a language knows implicitly (what we may call his competence) and what he does (his performance). A grammar, in the traditional view, is an account of competence". The speaker’s competence, then, can be characterized as a set of rules for producing and understanding sentences in a language. The grammar of a language, thus, in its socio-linguistic sense, is a characterization of the native speaker’s competence. All speakers of a language vary slightly in the rules they follow, as well, of course, as in their performance. When we are teaching EFL, we are trying to develop in the learner not just grammatical competence, in the Chomskyan sense, but communicative competence. We are teaching him or her not only what we call “the formation rules” of the language, but also in addition, what Hymes has called “the speaking rules”. The learner must develop the ability to distinguish grammatical from ungrammatical sequences, but he must also know when to select a particular grammatical sequence, appropriate to the context, both socio-linguistic and situational. Different functions of language can be associated with the factors involved in a speech act – the speaker, the hearer, contact between them, the socio-linguistic code used, the topic and the form of the message. If the orientation is towards the speaker, then we have the personal function of language. It is through this function that the speaker reveals his attitude towards what he is speaking about. It is not just that he expresses his thoughts and emotions through language, but also his emotions and attitudes about what he is discussing. Hearer-oriented speech acts involve the directive function of language. It is the function of controlling the behavior of a participant. This can be done by command, request or warning, or by some general admonitory statement, by invoking legal, moral or customary rules of society. Where the focus is on the contact between the participants, speech functions to establish relations, maintain them, or promote social solidarity. These are typically ritual, or formulaic speech acts: leave-taking, greetings, remarks about the weather, inquiries about health, etc. This function, sometimes called phatic, is also performed or supported by gestures and facial expression. The topic-oriented function of speech, often called the referential function, is that which usually stands first in people’s minds. It is the function that gave rise to the traditional notion that language was created solely for the communication of thought, for making statements about how the speaker perceives the way things in the world are. There are two more functions, associated with the code used and the message. They are the most difficult to formulate. We usually test them by asking the questions "Do you hear me?" and "Do you follow?" (1) The Native Language Effect S. Pit Corder claims that when people learn a second language they are not acquiring language: they already possess it. The learning of a second language is rather a question of increasing a repertoire, or learning a set of alternatives for something they already know. The assumption then is that some of the rules they
- 23. 23 already know arealso used in the production and understanding of the second language. This is what is meant by “transfer”. Learners transfer what they already know. Making errors in the second language can, in part, be explained by the notion of transfer. It is also called “negative transfer” or interference. But this tendency of transfer can be also positive (facilitation). It is just as well that different languages do, in fact, have resemblances to each other. On this account, it has to be established what is different between the mother tongue and English as a Foreign Language. Describing language, or part of language, is part of the process of developing socio- linguistic theory itself. But we must now outline the hierarchy of applications of socio-linguistics to language teaching. There are a number of stages in the application of socio-linguistics to language teaching. The first has already been identified as that of socio-linguistic description. The second is concerned with operations performed on the descriptions of language. Each stage has the function of answering some questions or solving some problems relevant to language teaching. Thus, the application of first order answers the very general question: what is the nature of the language, which is to be taught? The next stage answers the question: what is to be taught and how is it to be taught? The criteria for selecting material for language teaching are various: utility to the learner, that is, selecting what he needs to know, his proposed repertoire – those varieties of the language which will be useful to him, those speech functions which he will need to command. Or we can invoke the criterion of difference. In a sense, all parts of EFL are different from the mother tongue. But difference is relative. Some parts will be more different than others. For example, if the learner’s mother tongue has no grammatical system of aspect, the learning of such a system presents a serious learning task. Where the learner’s mother tongue, however, has such a system, the size of the learning problem will depend on the nature and degree of difference. A third criterion might be difficulty. What is different in EFL does not necessarily in all cases represent a difficulty. For example, at the phonological level, what is so totally different from anything encountered in the mother tongue does not seem to be so difficult to learn as something, which is liable to cause confusion with some similar feature in the mother tongue. The procedures and techniques involved in all these cases of the application of socio- linguistics to EFL teaching are comparative. This is called interlingual comparison, or “contrastive” comparison (Contrastive Analysis). The other type of comparison is often called Error Analysis. The errors performed by the learners may be an important part of the data on which the comparison is made. But what is being compared in this case is not two existing and already known languages, but the language of the learner at some particular point in the process of learning, with the target language. A learner’s so called errors are systematic, and it is precisely this regularity which shows that the learner is following a set of rules. These rules are not those of the target language but a “transitional” form of language, similar to the target language, but also similar to the learner’s mother tongue (what Larry Selinker calls “interlanguage”). (2) Language Universals In the context of discussing similarities and differences between languages, we must touch upon the theme of language universals and their place in EFL teaching. The 4,000 to 6,000 languages of the world do look impressively different from English and from one another. On the other hand, one can also find striking uniformities. In
- 24. 24 1963 the linguistJoseph Greenberg examined a sample of 30 far-flung languages from five continents. Greenberg wanted to see if any properties of grammar could be found in all these languages. In the first investigation, which focused on the order of words and morphemes, he found no fewer than forty-five universal features. Since then, many other surveys have been conducted, involving scores of languages from every part of the world, and literally hundreds of universal patterns have been documented. Some hold absolutely. For example, no language forms questions by reversing the order within a sentence, like *Built Jack that house the this is? Some universals are statistical: subjects normally precede objects in almost all languages, and verbs and their objects tend to be adjacent. Thus most languages have SVO or SOV word order; fewer have VSO; VOS and OVS are rare (less than 1%); and OSV may be non-existent. The largest number of universals involve implications: if a language has X, it will also have Y. Universal implications are found in all aspects of language, from phonology (if a language has nasal vowels, it will have non-nasal vowels) to word meanings (if a language has a word for ‘purple’, it will also have a word for ‘red’; if a language has a word for ‘leg’, it will also have a word for ‘arm’). The knowledge of the existence of language universals may save some procedures of comparison between the mother tongue and the EFL taught. In the second place, it can be part of the teaching material (mostly implicitly) and the methods of explanation. (3) Socio-linguistics in Structuring the Syllabus A finished syllabus (cf. Chapter 4) is the overall plan for the learning process. It must specify what components must be available, or learned by a certain timeframe; what is the most efficient sequence in which they are learned; what items can be learned “simultaneously”; what items are already known. The structure of language is a “system of systems”, or a “network” of interrelated categories, no part of which is wholly independent or wholly dependent upon another. In language, nothing is learned completely until everything is learned. If this is so, then no simple linear sequence for a syllabus is appropriate. A logical solution to this problem seems to be a cyclic, or spiral, structure, which requires the learner to return time and again to some aspects of language structure, language process, or domain of language use. This is the approach taken in the instructional design of Ohana EFL content. Language learning is not just cumulative; it is an integrative process. In Chapter 4, we shall offer a new “Ohana” approach to syllabus/curriculum design. The major problem that faces us in syllabus organization is whether to take the formal criteria as dominant, leaving alternative ways of expressing the same idea to some other part of the syllabus, or to base our grouping on semantic criteria. The teaching of modal verbs is a perfect example of the dilemma. Should we bring all alternative ways of expressing necessity, obligation, possibility and probability, etc. together into separate single units? In other words, are we going to regard ‘modal verbs’, or alternatively ‘the expression of obligation’, as a syllabus item? There is no simple answer to this problem. The more we take account of semantic considerations, the more evident it becomes that the relationship between meaning and surface form is a complex and indirect one. At the time when less attention was paid to the whole problem of meaning, and language learning was thought of as a
- 25. 25 matter of acquiringthe ability to produce automatically ‘sentence patterns’, it was logical (or was it?) to group materials in a syllabus on the basis of superficial formal criteria. But with the increasing emphasis on language learning as training the learner in communication, the relevance of semantic criteria in organizing the socio- linguistic material increases. We are now trying to classify the socio-linguistic material in terms of more abstract semantic categories as time, deixis, modality, aspectuality, futurity, possession, quantification, causation, etc. We have seen that the systematic interconnectedness of language makes it unrealistic to think of any item as teachable or learnable in isolation. We should consider an item in a more general way, i.e. as a process, or as some grammatical category, such as tense or number. (a) The syntactic syllabus Nowadays, descriptions of language give us a relatively satisfactory account of the structure of the system to be learned, which is a characterization of the ‘formation rules’ of the language. But we are concerned with more than this in language teaching – we are concerned with performance ability. There are some general types of syntactic processes, such as nominalization, relativization or thematization, passivization, interrogativization, negation, which could be regarded as ‘items’ of performance ability in a syllabus. Socio-linguistically speaking, all these involve performing certain operations. (b) The morphological syllabus The most frequent claim for the appropriate application of sequencing, otherwise denied in principle, is made at the level of morphology. For example, the verb "to have" and "to be" are used as auxiliaries in the formation of perfect or progressive aspect. Most logically, we must present and teach these verbs before introducing the formation of these aspectual forms. This seems a good argument until we specify what we mean by '‘teaching'’ the verbs to have and to be. Learning a verb involves not only discovering the relations in enters into with nominals, whether it is transitive or copulative, but also learning the morphological system together with their associated meanings: time, duration, completion, frequency, etc. The learning of something must surely involve the ability to use it acceptably, i.e. discover its functions. The function of the auxiliary to be in the progressive aspect, or passive voice, is different from that of the verb to be in copulative structures. To say that in teaching copulative sentences one is teaching the verb "to be" so that it can be available for later auxiliary use is a categorical error. (c) The lexical syllabus In order to present and exemplify grammatical categories and syntactic structures, we have to use lexical words. This does not mean that the teaching of vocabulary is logically dependent on the teaching of grammar. The teaching of vocabulary provides us with another concept of syllabus grouping – lexico-semantic. An example of this could be the co-occurrence of adverbs of past time, yesterday, last week, three years ago, etc., with tense verbs; or co-occurrence of verbs of speaking and believing, say, tell, cry, believe, hope, expect, etc., with nominalized sentences of different types.
- 26. 26 We must outline‘the network of relations’ which binds the vocabulary of a language into a structure. It is possible to isolate ‘sub-fields’ within the lexical structure of a language. Such groupings of lexical items bearing more or less close semantic relations to each other are usually called ‘semantic fields’. Semantic fields provide groupings of the vocabulary, which could serve as ‘items in a syllabus’. The field of cooking will be used as an example. Cooking words provide a good source of examples because there are clear reference relations that one can appeal to; the words do not normally carry strong connotations, so we can concentrate on the cognitive meaning. The basic words in the culinary field in English are cook, bake, boil, roast, fry, and broil (or grill for British English). The set also includes steam, simmer, stew, poach, braise, sauté, French-fry, deep-fry, barbecue, grill and charcoal. There are, in addition, a number of peripheral words: parboil, plank, shirr, scallop, flambere, rissoler and several compounds: steam-bake, pot-roast, oven-poach, pan-broil, pan- fry, oven-fry. It is more than obvious that not all of the words are widely used and need to be included in the syllabus. Some are even unknown to ordinary native speakers of English. Cook can be used in two ways – once as the superordinate term of the field, naming the activity expressed (‘preparing food’), and second, as a more specific word opposed to bake. Cook and bake are the most general terms, they appear freely intransitively with human subjects. Boil and its subordinate terms (simmer, poach, stew, braise) differ from the others in the field in that water or liquid must be used, whereas the absence of liquid is necessary for fry, broil, roast and bake. It is easy to demonstrate the set of words of this kind as they pattern in semantic fields. But we must also add, and it is very important for language teaching, that this approach has a strong explanatory value – it enables us to predict and explain some semantic and cognitive processes in language. First, it enables us to explain how is it that words come to have new meanings in certain contexts. Secondly, we can predict what semantic and syntactic features a totally new word will have when added to a lexical field. And thirdly, we can offer an explanation as to how we are able to understand and even offer explanations of our understanding of the meanings of totally unknown words and expressions. The first question – the semantic extension of words – can be illustrated by looking at the items hot-warm-cool-cold. These exhibit more or less the same relationships to one another: Hot and cold are gradable antonyms at end points of a scale, and warm and cool are antonyms which are closer to some center point that separates hot and cold. All four words are used and have standard meanings when talking about the weather, psycho-physical features (I feel cold; This water feels cold to me), emotions (John has a hot temper; My brother is a cold person; Our former warm friendship has cooled), guessing games like ‘I spy’, colors (You should paint this room a warm color, like orange), etc. Other fields of discourse use only one or two words from the field: We speak of hot news items but not of a *cold or a *cool news item, a cold war or a hot war, but not a *cool war or a *warm war. There is hot jazz and cool jazz but not *warm jazz. One can get a hot tip on a horse, but not a *cool tip. Since hot, warm, cool, and cold bear a certain relationship to one another, even when a word does not possess a certain meaning, it can acquire a new one in a
- 27. 27 context by virtueof that relationship. Hence, these new coinages are more easily understood. Such extensions of meaning related to semantic fields are usually performed by means of metaphorical transfer. Cognitive psychologists claim that metaphors are strongly memorable. This is due to the fact that they furnish conceptually rich, image-evoking conceptualizations. Metaphorical vehicles facilitate memory to the extent that they evoke vivid mental images. One question that is central to language learning is whether the occurrence of imagery with metaphor is simply epiphenomenal to its comprehension or a key element in understanding and memorizing the meaning. Various empirical studies on the communicative function of metaphor suggest a number of possibilities about the positive influence of metaphor on learning. In the next chapter, we will look at the development of language teaching methods in the twentieth century and into the 21st.
- 28. 28 Chapter 2: ExploringLanguage Teaching Methods In the twentieth century and early 21st century, the teaching of modern languages has progressed through three major periods. In this chapter, we shall briefly sketch the facts and indicate the salient features of the teaching methods, which have been designed and implemented by several generations of instructional methodologists and teachers. Our historical perspective is limited although we realize that there have been many interesting theories and practices through the ages. For example, this is what Joseph Aickin wrote in the year 1693: “for no Tongue can be acquired without Grammatical rules; since then all other Tongues, and Languages are taught by Grammar, why ought not the English Tongue to be taught so too. Imitation will never do it, under twenty years; I have known some Foreigners who have been longer in learning to speak English and yet are far from it: the not learning by Grammar, is the true cause” (quoted in Yule 1985, 150). Louis Kelly (1969) in his book 25 Centuries of Language Teaching provides an extensive historical analysis of the development of language teaching methodology from the time of Ancient Greece to the present. Many scholars have explored the development of language teaching over the past centuries. Here, we shall mention but a few, whose work we have been using successfully with our students, William Francis Mackey (1965), H. H. Stern (1983), Anthony Howatt (1984), Jack T. Richards and Theodore S. Rogers (1986), Diane Larsen-Freeman (1986), H. Douglas Brown (1987, 1994). They, and many other colleagues, have inspired the discussion in this chapter. 2.1. Period I: Direct Language Teaching The first half of the century was dominated by a teaching method, which is known as Direct Language Teaching or Direct Method (DM). It emerged as a result of the language education reform movement at the end of the nineteenth century and was prominent until the middle of the twentieth century. At the beginning of the century, the DM became the only officially approved method for the teaching of modern foreign languages in France through a decree of the French Minister of Public Instruction (1902). The term, which was used in the decree, was "methode directe". The method was soon established in many European countries and was used with enthusiasm by its proponents on both sides of the Atlantic. Some of the commercial ventures in the area were very successful and became quite popular. For example, in 1878, the German born Maximilian Delphinus Berlitz opened his first language school in Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A. Today, Berlitz Languages Inc. (www.berlitz.com/free) is still thriving. Direct Method is of course only a general term, which covers a range of different teaching methods. We shall mention two of them, which have been influencing language teaching methodology to the present. In 1923, Harold Palmer developed his Oral Method to be adapted some fifty years later in the innovative approaches of the 1970s as the Total Physical Response Method (Asher 1977, 1982). The second one, Michael West’s Reading Method, was designed in 1926. And only recently, Stephen Krashen revived it in the method, which he named the Easy Way (1997).
- 29. 29 The basic premiseof the DM is that a second language should be taught by making a direct connection in the mind of the learner between what he thinks and what he says. In other words, no use is made of the learner's own language. Thus, the target language becomes both the aim and the means of the teaching and learning process. The following list sums up eight salient features of direct language teaching, or DM: • Teaching is executed orally through the medium of the target language. • Teachers should be either native speakers or extremely fluent in the target language. • Grammar is taught inductively by situation. • Concrete vocabulary is taught in context through ostensive definition and pictures. • Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas. • Language skills are ordered in a “natural way”: listening, speaking, reading and writing. • Pronunciation is emphasized; the first few weeks are devoted to pronunciation. • All reading matter is first presented orally. However, in the second quarter of the 20th century, the method began to decline. The era of the Direct Method had ended. Its principles were questioned. A group of prominent American experts opined that "the ability to converse should not be regarded as a thing of primary importance for its own sake but as an auxiliary to the higher ends of linguistic scholarship and literary culture" (Report of the Committee of Twelve, Modern Language Association of America 1892). Moreover, the DM demanded highly competent teachers who have always been difficult to recruit. So by the middle of the twentieth century modern languages were being taught by “the method,” most of which had been developed before the turn of the century. 2.2. Period II: Audio-lingual Teaching and the Innovative Methods of the 1970s The next stage of development started with the decade of 1940 to 1950 and continued until the mid-seventies. Language teachers and the general public were dissatisfied with the methodological theory and practice of the previous era. For example, Leonard Bloomfield (1942) stated, “Often enough the student, after two, three, or four years of instruction, cannot really use the language he has been studying.” In 1943, The American Army initiated the Army Specialized Training Program (hence, "Army Method") to teach intensive language courses that focused on aural/oral skills. The “revolution” in language teaching of that period created a new methodological ideology, which came to be known in the late fifties as the Audio-lingual Method (ALM). According to the U.S. Army Language School in Monterey, California, 1300 hours are sufficient for an adult to attain near-native competence in Vietnamese (Burke, quoted in Reich 1986). Two major scientific theories were applied as methodological principles: linguistic structuralism (e.g. Bloomfield 1933) and psychological neo-behaviorism (e.g. Skinner 1957). The proponents of the ALM believed that language learning was a process of habit formation in which the student over-learned carefully sequenced lists of set phrases or "base sentences". The method was extremely successful and enjoyed considerable popularity. Courses like English 901 (Strevens 1964), the British edition of the original textbook in American English, English 900, and Realistic
- 30. 30 English (Abbs, Cook& Underwood 1968) became widely accepted in Europe and Latin American in the 1960s for EFL instruction. In 1961, the American linguist William Moulton proclaimed the linguistic principles of ALM: “language is speech, not writing… a language is a set of habits… teach the language, not about the language… a language is what native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say… languages are different” (quoted in Richards & Rogers 1986). The following list sums up eight salient features of audio-lingual teaching: • Language input is provided in dialog form. • Learning activities are based on mimicry and memorization and pattern practice. • Successful responses are immediately rewarded. • Mistakes are not tolerated. • Language structure is taught using pattern drills. • Vocabulary is strictly controlled and learnt in context. • Pronunciation is emphasized. • Audio-visual technology is used extensively, e.g. slide projectors, tape recorders, and language laboratories. Robert Ian Scott invented a “sentence generator” (1969, quoted in Roberts 1973, 99) as an aid to be used in the teaching of reading. The machine could be programmed to generate 4-word sentences of the simple, active declarative type. Words of each syntactic function could be entered on a separate wheel, the machine consisting of 4 wheels mounted side by side on a cranking device. The wheels could be turned independently of each other to make a new sentence at each spin. With 60 words on each wheel, it would be possible to generate 12,960,000 sentences, which, assuming that it were possible to speak one sentence per second, would take about half a year of talking to get through. The machine did not gain popularity though. The comparative merits of the ALM and traditional grammar-translation instruction were evaluated in a two-year study of beginning students of German in America (Scherer & Wertheimer 1964, quoted in Reich 1986). At the end of the two years, the results were that ALM and traditional instruction were equal on listening, reading and English-to-German translation; ALM was far superior to traditional instruction in speaking but traditional instruction was superior to ALM in writing and far superior to ALM in German-to-English translation. Thus neither method is clearly superior. Which you prefer depends on what you deem most important. In the late sixties, the ALM was subjected to criticism and its popularity waned. Controlled studies of the effectiveness of the language laboratories as actually used in schools in the 1960s found that they were either a not particularly effective teaching aid or they were actually detrimental to language learning (Keating 1963, quoted in Reich 1986). Noam Chomsky openly criticized audio-lingual theory and practice in his address to language teachers at the Northeast Conference, U.S.A., in 1966, “I am, frankly, rather skeptical about the significance, for the teaching of languages, of such insights and understanding as have been attained in socio- linguistics and psychology”. The pattern practice procedure was rejected together with the disillusionment over neo-behaviorism as a psychological theory. Structural linguistics was also denounced and with it the ALM gave way to fresher teaching methods.
- 31. 31 The innovative approachesof the seventies were an attempt to bring ELT methodology in line with modern scientific developments in the related areas and to discover the new orientations in the teaching of modern foreign languages. The theoretical basis of Caleb Gattegno’s method (1972), The Silent Way, is the idea that teaching must be subordinated to learning and thus students must develop their own inner criteria for correctness. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers and creates in a problem-solving process involving the material to be learnt. All four skills are taught from the beginning. Students’ errors are expected as a normal part of learning. The teacher’s silence helps foster students’ self-reliance and initiative. The teacher is active in setting up situations using special teaching aids, Fidel charts and Cuisenaire rods, while the students do most of the talking and interacting. Georgi Lozanov’s Suggestopedia (1972) seeks to help learners eliminate psychological barriers to learning. The learning environment is comfortable and subdued, with low lighting and soft slow music in the background. Students choose a name and character in the target language and culture and imagine being that person. Dialogues are presented to the accompaniment of Baroque concertos. Students are in a relaxed but focused state of “pseudo-passiveness”. They listen to the dialogues being read aloud with varying intonations and a coordination of sound and printed word or illustration. The students are expected to read the texts at home “cursorily once before going to bed and again before getting up in the morning” (Lozanov 1972). In Charles Curran’s method (1976), Community Language Learning, learners become members of a community - their fellow learners and the teacher - and learn through interacting with the members of that community. The teacher considers learners as “whole persons” with intellect, feelings, instincts and a desire to learn. The teacher also recognizes that learning can be threatening. By understanding and accepting students’ fears, the teacher helps students feel secure and overcome their fears. The syllabus used is learner-generated, in that students choose what they want to learn to say in the target language. Learning is linked to a set of practices granting “consensual validation” in which mutual warmth and a positive evaluation of the other person’s worth develops between the teacher and the learner (Curran 1976). James Asher’s Total Physical Response (1977) places primary importance on listening comprehension, emulating the early stages of native language acquisition, and then moving to speaking, reading and writing. Asher (1977) claims that “the brain and nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language… in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronize language with the individual’s body”. Students practice their comprehension by acting out commands issued by the teacher. Activities, including games and skits, are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active learning roles. 2.3. Period III: Communicative Language Teaching The year 1975 constitutes a “watershed” between the second and the third period of development of language teaching over the last century. That year saw the publication of The Threshold Level document of the Council for Cultural Cooperation of the Council of Europe (Van Ek 1975). The document is "a specification of an elementary level in a unit/credit system for individuals who, from time to time, have
- 32. 32 (personal or professional)contacts in the target countries" (Trim 1980, 5). It marks the appearance of a new approach, the so-called Communicative Language Teaching or the Communicative Approach (CA). John Trim (1980, 5), Director of the Modern Languages Project, writes, "the Threshold Level is remarkable for the systematic way in which the language behavior appropriate to the defined target audience is specified in its various interrelated parameters". Since then, the Threshold Level documents for many European languages have been published, e.g., in alphabetical order, the threshold levels for French, Un Niveau Seuil (1976), for German, Kontaktschwelle. Deutsch als Fremdsprache (1981), for Spanish, Un nivel umbral (1981), for Portuguese, Nivel Limiar (1988), etc. Information on those documents is available on the web-site: (http://book.coe.fr/lang). On the European level, the most recent work in this area is the document of the Council of Europe entitled A Common European Framework of Reference for Language Learning and Teaching (publicly accessible on the web-site: http://culture.coe.fr/lang). We shall return to it in Section 4.4. Many scholars have contributed to the development of the Communicative Approach (CA). For example, Dell Hymes introduced the construct of “communicative competence” in his famous paper, On Communicative Competence (1971). He explores the influence of the social context in which a language is learnt on the linguistic competence, which the individual attains. Hymes claims that “a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences, not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others” (1971, 269). In the cited paper, he asks his famous four questions of “communication culture”: “1. Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible; 2. Whether (and to what degree something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available; 3.Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated; 4. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what it’s doing entails.” (Hymes 1971, 281) The “four questions” prompt a new way of judging utterances in context. In that sense, Hymes’ paper was programmatic, suggesting a new line of research. In the 1960s, Roger Brown studied early development of the mother tongue of American children. The acquisition of English grammatical morphemes was tackled through the speech samples of three children, the now famous Adam, Eve and Sarah Brown. He found that they developed their language at different chronological ages and at different rates. However, he also found that they each went through roughly the same sequence of stages. Brown tried to find the principles underlying the order he discovered and concluded that a combination of linguistic and semantic complexity must cause it. Research extended to other language structures. Courtney Cazden and Roger Brown describe “three major progressions in first language acquisition: evolution of the basic operations of reference and semantic relations in two-word utterances of very young children; the acquisition of 14 grammatical morphemes and the modulations of meaning they express; and, still later, the acquisition of English tag questions like doesn’t it or can’t it” (Cazden & Brown 1975,
- 33. 33 299). The orderof acquisition of 14 English grammatical morphemes and the meanings they express is the following (Cazden & Brown 1975, 301): (1) Present Progressive: riding (temporary duration; process, state), (2-3) in, on (containment, support), (4) Plural: two dogs (number), (5) Past, irregular: saw; went (earlierness), (6) Possessive: Mommy’s hat (possession) (7) Uncontractible copula: Here I am in response to Where are you? (number; earlierness), (8) Articles: a, the (specific-non-specific), (9) Past, regular: walked, wanted (earlierness), (10) Third person, regular: goes (number, earlierness), (11) Third person irregular: has, does (number, earlierness), (12) Uncontractible auxiliary: I am in response to Who’s coming? (temporary duration, number, earlierness), (13) Contractible copula: He’s sick. (number, earlierness), (14) Contractible auxiliary: He’s running. (temporary duration, number, earlierness). In the seventies, several investigators of instructional accuracy orders replicated and extended Brown’s experiments for English as a second language. In their “morpheme studies”, Heidi Dulay and Marina Burt (1974) examined the natural sequences in second language acquisition applying the Bilingual Syntax Measure. They used 151 Spanish-speaking children learning English. The acquisition sequences obtained from their subjects were strikingly similar. Other language structures were also investigated. For example, Fred Eckman, Lawrence Bell and Diane Nelson (1986, 12) tested the generalization of relative clause instruction in the development of English as a second language. They found that “maximal generalization of learning will result from acquisition of relatively more marked structures. Such generalization will be unidirectional and will be in the direction of those structures, which are relatively less marked” (Eckman, Bell & Nelson 1986, 12). And they concluded that “if only a single structure of a set of implicationally related structures is to be taught, maximal generalization will result from teaching that which is most marked” (op. cit., 12). The first published adult study of acquisition order (Bailey, Madden & Krashen 1974) investigated 73 adult students of English at Queens College, New York. The Bilingual Syntax Measure was applied. The study showed that the contours for the acquisition sequences of children and adults are very similar. Several other investigators have looked at acquisition sequences for adults from different language backgrounds and have found remarkable and persistent similarities between adult and child language acquisition across cultures (Krashen et al. 1976, Perkins and Larsen-Freeman 1975, Makino 1979, Lee 1981, Pica 1983, etc.). The general result of the acquisition order research was that a “natural order” of acquisition of the structure of English as a second language characteristic of both children and adults and similar for both speaking and writing was discovered. Some scholars consider this conclusion one of the most significant outcomes of second language research (Dulay & Burt 1980, Cook 1989). Meanwhile, in sociology and education, the Futures Movement evolved. Futures research “concerns itself with conceptualizing and inventing the future by examining the consequences of various plans of action before they become tomorrow’s reality” (Pulliam 1987, 261). Educators and politicians agree on the fact that “the changes currently in progress have improved everyone’s access to information and
- 34. 34 knowledge, but haveat the same time made considerable adjustments necessary in the skills required and in working patterns” (White Paper on Education and Training, European Commission, 1996, 6). They use different terms to refer to the period of transformation through which we are passing, “post-industrial”, “post-modern” “information age”, “learning society” and the like. But they all believe in the challenges of the new reality. We shall look at the educational paradigm shift in Chapter 3. Futurologist John Naisbitt (1982) describes the most important trends that shape the world at the end of the century. His megatrends include shifting from: • an industrial society to an information based society, • a forced technology to a high tech/high touch mode, • a national economy to a truly global economy, • short range planning to long-term planning, • centralization to decentralization, • institutional help to self-help in various fields, • representative democracy to participatory democracy, • authority dominated hierarchies to networking, • single option choices to multiple option choices. All that facilitated the development of the theory and practice of language teaching giving it a strong impetus. Today, numerous ELT methodology textbooks expound on the nature of communicative language teaching. All the work that has been done on the CA has led to the evolution of two quite distinct orientations: a “weak” version and a “strong” version of the CA method. Anthony Howatt (1984, 279) holds that if the former could be described as ‘learning to use’ the target language, the latter entails ‘using [the target language] to learn it’. The weak version advances the claim that communicative syllabi and teaching materials should provide the learner with opportunities to acquire communicative competence necessary and sufficient to be used in actual communication. This idea is the basis for the unfolding of a whole new field of study in language teaching and ELT methodology, referred to as communicative syllabus design, which we shall discuss separately in Chapter 4. Howatt (1984, 280) writes that language teaching requires “a closer study of the language itself and a return to the traditional concept that utterances carried meaning in themselves and expressed the meanings and the intentions of the speakers and writers who created them”. The strong version of the CA, on the other hand, has given rise to the planning and implementation of realistic communicative tasks, which give the learner a chance to acquire the target language itself while using it. The proponents of the strong version did not go to the radical solution of “deschooling” language learning altogether but they advocated real communication within the language classroom. If the teacher shows genuine interest in the concerns and activities of the students, and if the students can talk to each other and share their thoughts and feelings, real communication is likely to occur. The CA stresses the need to teach communicative competence, i.e. the ability to use the target language effectively and appropriately, as opposed to linguistic competence. Thus, language functions are emphasized over language forms. Students usually work in small groups on communicative activities, during which
- 35. 35 they receive practicein negotiating meaning. Authentic teaching materials are used. Opportunities are provided for the students to deal with unrehearsed situations under the guidance, not control, of the teacher. The teacher’s role changes from being “the sage on the stage” to becoming “a guide on the side” (Mowrer 1996). Ken Goodman (Goodman et al. 1991) expands on this idea, suggesting four roles for teachers: (1) kid-watchers, who observe the students, watching for signs of growth, need and potential, (2) mediators, who offer guidance, support and resources for learning, (3) liberators, who help students take ownership of their own learning, and finally, (4) initiators, who rely on their professional knowledge and creativity to create exciting learning environments. The following list sums up eight salient features of communicative language teaching: • Communicative competence is the desired goal (“learning to use”). • Minimum general intelligibility is sought in the teaching of pronunciation. • Use of the native language and translation is accepted where feasible. • Fluency is emphasized over accuracy. • Students cooperate in the classroom, using the language in unrehearsed contexts (“using to learn”). • Systematic attention is paid to functional as well as structural aspects of language. • Drilling occurs peripherally. • Discourse is at the center of attention. In summary, the Communicative Approach and the other language teaching methods can be seen as specific teaching proposals in which learning content is critical for the achievement of the educational aims. We believe that the aims and content of language courses are determined by the overall educational philosophy prominent in the community. That constitutes the relatively abstract approach level of teaching methods, which refers to the theories about the nature of language education and other related theories. Chapter 3 presents a discussion on this theme. Concrete plans for a language curriculum, which constitutes the relatively concrete design level of teaching methods, are made in Chapter 4. In it, we shall examine the question of language curriculum design and development.
- 36. 36 Chapter 3: ParadigmShift in Education That language teaching should be democratic has long become a fact of life. That it is democratic has yet to become a reality. Our claim is that, at the end of the beginning of the 21st century, we are experiencing an educational paradigm shift, in which language teaching has its share of transitioning to do. First, we will look into the change in the overall concept of the complex process of education. 3.1. Changing the Focus of Education The mission of educational institutions is to educate people. As John Dewey (1933) noted, “A primary responsibility of educators is that they not only be aware of the general principles of the shaping of actual experience by environing conditions but that they also recognize in the concrete what surroundings are conductive to having experiences that lead to growth. Above all, they should know how to utilize the surroundings, physical and social, that exist so as to extract from them all that they have to contribute to building up experiences that are worthwhile”. But what constitutes an educated person? To the business world, a well-educated person is one who has the skills required to succeed on the job. The lay public’s view of an educated person is one who has accumulated a large body of information. None of these views seems really acceptable though. A saying is circulating in the universities these days: Georgie Porgie, Puddin’ and pie, Kissed the girls and made them cry, When the boys came out to play, Georgie Porgie ran away, Guess what, Georgie Porgie, We have a sexual harassment subpoena for you, Georgie Porgie. The times, they are a-changing. Contemporary Learning Environments: Process v. Product Indeed, the times are changing rapidly. In the age of the learning society, education is seen as a process, not a product. During the teaching and learning process, the student should learn how to think and to listen, how to participate in dialogue, how to analyze issues and how to read critically. Students should learn how to write so that others can follow their thinking. Fifteen years ago, A. McLeod pointed out that “Being literate in the 1980s means having the power to use language – writing and reading, speaking and listening – for our own purposes, as well as those that the institutions of society require of us. The classroom processes by which that power is achieved include the first exercise of that power” (1986, 37). In our opinion, that is true about both first and second language development circumstances. Students should learn to take responsibility for their own learning, to find joy in learning and to open their minds to new ideas. They should learn the skills and attitudes necessary to achieve lasting success during the remainder of their lives no matter what their goals are. The learning process should continue throughout their lifetime, not just while attending formal schooling. Educators emphasize that one of the most important things students should learn is how to think for themselves. Students must learn how to choose consciously what direction their lives should take professionally as well as personally. They need to be able to solve problems in a
- 37. 37 rational manner, toexperience compassion toward others and to be willing and able to acknowledge conflict and contradiction and resolve differences satisfactorily. John Pulliam (1987) suggests several specific characteristics of the educational paradigm shift. We shall present them below and return to the most important issues in the following section. Replacing linear with synergetic processes is the first one. Linear organizations can only make linear decisions. Thus, the school can only receive information that it is designed to receive. It tends to repress unfavorable information. The teachers cannot make decisions from the perspective of the students. Alternatively, a synergetic system is perceived as an “ad-hocracy” (Toffler 1985). It is based on the cooperation of individuals to complete temporary tasks. Education is more than training. This is the second feature of the new focus of education. Education is process-oriented; if students are asked questions for which the answers are known, the system is training. Thirdly, students need education for the unknown. In the past, students attended schools to learn what they did not know from teachers who were presumed to know. Now, focus should be on cooperative problem analysis and sharing of sources of information. The school should move away from the exclusive treatment of what is well understood towards helping students cope with the unknown. The fourth characteristic is the structural versus sapiential authority controversy. Structural authority, which is he dominant pattern in schools, is derived from one’s title or rank in the institution. Position rather than competence establishes the authority of the teacher. Sapiential authority, on the other hand, is based on the possession of wisdom and knowledge, which finds support among others. Both teachers and students have the opportunity for critical analysis of any given piece of information. Sapiential authority is considered a necessary part of education for future survival. Fifth, lifelong learning is an important characteristic of the new educational paradigm. Preparation for a life of learning should replace the idea of terminal schooling. Sixth, there should be an end to zero sum games in education. Competitive teaching modes promote the “I win – you lose” structure. The winners, the good learners, are also losers because they will perpetuate competition in their lives. This is a zero sum game in which everyone eventually loses. Therefore, an educational mode of cooperation should substitute competition among students. Seventh, students in the twenty-first century will need a well-developed skill in evaluation and critical thinking. Eighth, the future school must become a resource distribution center for creating and spreading unbiased information. Modern information and communication technology has changed the focus of education from the input of information to the application of data to problem situations in a cooperative and action-oriented environment. In a word, what schools should help students acquire is a wisdom that they will continue to develop for the rest of their lives (see Section 3.5). To reduce all the
- 38. 38 experiences that leadto it to mastering skills for satisfactorily answering long series of test questions to obtain a certificate stating that a required curriculum has been met is a shallow and inaccurate representation of education. 3.2. A Teaching Paradigm to Meet Psychosocial Needs The overused traditional frontal teaching paradigm places responsibility for student learning solely upon the shoulders of the teacher: the instructor writes the curriculum and the syllabus, selects the readings, delivers the information via lectures and prepares evaluative instruments. She or he presents the same information, lectures to and tests all students regardless of individual differences among them. Little or no concern is given to the individual psychosocial needs of the individual. We know, however, that students are social individuals each with vastly different needs, learning styles, goals and abilities. Some students have inadequate reading skills. Some have computer phobia or “keyboard fright”. Some have difficulty constructing simple sentences. Many have “library anxiety” or have not the slightest clue of how to find information. A few continue to experience difficulty with computational skills. Is it any wonder that the “sacred” bell-shaped curve of the normal distribution of achievement predominates in the teacher’s grade book if the students receive the same information via lectures and all read the same textbooks? Most students play a passive role in the classroom. Action flows from the teacher to the students and seldom vice versa. Some students, especially minority students, are isolated from positive social contacts with their classmates or their instructor. Others are shy and seldom if ever speak in class. For example, Karp and Yoels (1987) found that in classes of less than 40 members, four to five students accounted for 75 percent of all interactions and in classes of over 40, two to three students accounted for over 50 percent of all interactions. Rather than continue the traditional teaching strategy that selects the best students and weeds out the poorer ones, we can use a system that cultivates and develops the talents of every student. We cannot permit students to leave our classes with an inferior grasp of the subject matter. Every student, not just the elite few, must reach the competency levels set by the teacher. This is not to suggest that educators should produce student robots. The point is that we cannot be content with inferior teaching and inferior learning. We cannot be content with a teaching approach that is only partly effective. If we wish to help students learn how to think critically, to work constructively with members of their community, to enjoy scholarly activities and how to enrich their learning experiences when they leave the school, we must focus our attention on the individual needs of the student. This shift from simply providing decomposed language and inert course content to meeting psychosocial needs of the individual student is what the new teaching paradigm is about. Ourselves Among Others: Groups, Individuals & Learning David Johnson (Johnson et al. 1991) lists five principal activities that should be incorporated in a new teaching paradigm structured to increase student achievement and, at the same time, meet psychosocial needs of students.
- 39. 39 Firstly, teachers muststructure the learning environment to help students construct, transform and extend knowledge. Knowledge is not a static entity. It is an ever- changing variable. This is not to infer that “anything goes”, that there is no “right” or “wrong”. Relativism in this context refers to helping students to keep an open mind, to be willing to listen and to learn, to discuss and argue and to counteract the dogmatism of the moment. Students must construct their own knowledge and understanding through active social interaction with their peers and teachers. Learning occurs when the student activates her or his existing cognitive schemata by applying new knowledge to practical situations. Students gather information from their courses so they can utilize it in their professional careers as well a their life as citizens. Unfortunately, possession of knowledge and skills alone does not guarantee comprehension. Without understanding, rote knowledge and routine skills serves students poorly. David Perkins and his colleagues at the Harvard Graduate School of Education have adopted a “performance perspective” on understanding that involves generative performances, where learners “go beyond the information given”, which “demand somewhat different kinds of thinking” and which are organized in an incremental fashion. “Understanding is not a matter of ‘either you get it or you don’t’. It is open ended and a matter of degree. You can understand a little about something (you can display a few understanding performances) or a lot more about something (you can display many varied understanding performances), but you cannot understand everything about something because there are always more extrapolations that you might not have explored and might not be able to make” (Perkins 1992, 78). Understanding a concept involves being able to execute a number of “performances” that demonstrate the concept in new and novel ways. These performances must consist of applications that take the students far beyond what they already know. Traditional measures of comprehension such as multiple-choice questions, true/false quizzes and conventional short essay questions, while easy to mark and assess, do not even begin to tap into a student’s understanding of a topic or concept. One demonstrates one’s ability to swim not by answering questions about swimming but by performing the act. The teacher must closely monitor student learning to ensure that each competency level is met. Education is a social process that involves frequent student-to-student and teacher- to-student interaction. Learning is increased when individuals work with one another in a caring and supportive environment that helps each student gain understanding of the course material. Interactional peer support is needed to encourage achievement and proper orientation to learning tasks. Shopov and Fedotoff (2004) conclude, after examining students’ course evaluation reports, that group dynamic structuring interaction between learners can provide the conditions, which have been thought to facilitate learning. Thomas and Stock (1988) in their study of what makes people happy observe that young adults associate the word “friendship” with heir concept of happiness. Bonding friendships promote student achievement while isolation, competition, and individualistic classroom activities demote achievement and lower self-esteem. Lastly, the use of a variety of small-group cooperative activities is the most effective procedure to encourage students to think creatively in divergent ways that foster new and novel solutions to problems. Bligh (1972), in his review of about 100 studies of college teaching methods, found that students who participate actively in
- 40. 40 discussions with classmatesspend more time synthesizing and integrating concepts than do students who simply listen to lectures. In almost every study, the cooperative learning format was far superior to competitive and individualistic learning models (Johnson, Johnson and Smith 1991). Implementing cooperative learning is not an easy task nor is it without problems. The authors caution that simply assigning students to small groups with the instruction to begin discussing a topic or work on a project may result in little or no student learning. Left unsupervised within a loosely structured environment, some students may choose to be uncooperative forcing other group members to complete the work. More conscientious students may feel compelled to complete the work on their own and act independently of the group. Insecure students may assume a “back bench” attitude. Often, in-group struggles for power develop. Feichtner and Davis (1985) concluded, after interviewing students who reported negative experiences with cooperative learning, that an instructor’s misuse of and lack of knowledge about structuring effective cooperative learning activities is responsible for student dissatisfaction. 3.3. Factors of Cooperative Learning A number of factors or essential elements of cooperative learning, according to Donna Johnson and her colleagues at the University of Arizona, Tucson (1991), who have conducted extensive research concerning effective group management, are necessary to make cooperative learning successful. The first factor, positive interdependence, means that each group member depends upon every other group member to achieve a goal. If other members have little or nothing to contribute, then there is no reason for the group to exist. For example, to score points in a basketball game, each member depends upon the skills and abilities of the other players. One or two players alone cannot win games. The team sinks or swims together as a group. If one member can accomplish a task satisfactorily without the aid of others, then there is no reason to form a group. One way to structure an assignment to foster a positive interdependent relationship is to give the students more work to do than any single individual could complete within the time limits allotted. Another way to encourage interdependence is to provide specific information to two of the group members and different information to other two members. This way, two of the members will depend upon the information possessed by the other two members. A valuable technique to promote interdependence is to assign each member a role to perform within the group (see Section 3.4). A group leader is appointed to organize, manage and direct activities. A recorder takes accurate notes and records data for group activities. A checker assures that each member understands the tasks or concepts. An encourager is appointed to make sure that each member has ample opportunity to contribute to the group. Finally, part of the final grade is derived from the group’s performance on the task. Thus, if one member of the group does not understand the concepts to be learnt, the assessment scores of the other group members will suffer. The second factor needed to make cooperative learning successful is face-to-face promotive interaction. Promotive interaction occurs as students encourage each
- 41. 41 other, reward oneanother, provide assistance to help each other learn, exchange information and ideas and challenge ideas of other group members. This may be accomplished through trusting and caring relationships formed within each group as students interact. If one student attempts to impress other students with his or her knowledge to increase his or her self-esteem, positive interaction does not occur. There must be a caring attitude of concern for the learning of their peers and a genuine willingness to share information through a helping relationship before positive interactions can occur. Individual students must learn that they are responsible for understanding the course content. This third factor, referred to as individual accountability, must be assessed frequently. The teacher may call at random upon individual students to answer questions. Also, individual tests are given periodically to evaluate students’ achievement. Inevitably, some students exploit the group structure to avoid working and let the others do the bulk of the work. This behavior is called “social loafing". Group members can monitor individual accountability by constructing quizzes to each other. Records can be kept of the frequency and quality of each group member’s contribution during a cooperative learning assignment. The important point is that there must be a system to continually assess each student’s knowledge and contribution to insure that learning is occurring. Building social collaborative skills is the fourth important factor. We cannot assume that each student possesses well-developed interpersonal and group communication skills. A large proportion of students has not had the experience of working with other students in small group activities. Some students distrust others; some feel uncomfortable working with minority students. Others, to avoid verbal interaction with peers, prefer to listen rather than participate, especially when they are among aggressive peers. The cooperative learning environment, if well organized, provides an opportunity for students to grow socially and learn effective group communication skills. The importance of mastering these skills is undeniable. If one of the most important missions of the school is to help students develop wisdom, then certainly helping them to acquire effective interactive social skills is an important activity. Teachers should encourage students to develop these skills by identifying, explaining and rewarding students for engaging in effective social interaction activities. Skills such as active listening, turn-taking, offering constructive and encouraging criticism, showing concern for the feelings of others and actively participating in group discussions are but a few important skills students must learn by participating in a promotive interactive framework. David Johnson and Roger Johnson (1989) report research findings showing that the combination of positive interdependence and the use of effective social skills promotes highest achievement among students within a cooperative learning environment. The last factor, group processing, describes the group’s self-evaluation of each member’s contribution. Individual contributions either help or hinder achievement of the desired goals. Group processing also includes an analysis of improvements that could be made to help the group function more effectively in the future. A combination of teacher and student processing results in significant improvement and success within a cooperative learning format. Student interactive evaluations provide a way to maintain good working relationships among group members and ensure that individual members receive feedback about the quality of their participation. Group processing also occurs when the instructor provides feedback to
- 42. 42 the class basedon observations of individual student contributions. This processing serves as a model for students who are learning how to critique peers effectively. Positive feedback for work well done creates a feeling of enthusiasm, of being successful and of increased elf-esteem among students. It is not possible to incorporate all these factors within each group encounter but the greater the number of features used, the greater the learning. Cooperative learning fosters growth in many areas: learning to use interpersonal skills effectively, understanding and applying the course content to life situations, developing self- esteem and ability to explain concepts to others. These are only a few of the outcomes resulting from well-structured small group cooperative activities. However, they are sufficient to distinguish positively the cooperative learning paradigm from the traditional individualistic and competitive “lecture only” teaching. Johnson and Johnson (1989) report that in almost every study conducted during over the last century that compares the effectiveness of cooperative and competitive learning formats, the cooperative model results in higher achievement and greater productivity, more caring committed interpersonal relationships, greater psychological health and social competence. 3.4. Cooperative Language Learning In her book Second Language Learning through Cooperative Learning, Julie High (1993) reports her discovery that effective language learning depends on structuring social interaction to maximize the need to communicate in the target language. We have always accepted this principle; for example, it is behind the theory and practice of the immersion programs in North America, the “EFL medium schools” in Central Europe, and the “cognitive academic language learning approach” (Chamot & O’Malley 1994), etc. We have always believed that memorizing conjugations, grammar structures and vocabulary produces at best some knowledge about a language. Knowledge about a language, however, is very different from acquiring the language. Julie High describes a number of classroom activities, which structure social interaction in the classroom. They are based on a simple formula: Structure + Content = Activity In fact, Julie High adapts Spencer Kagan’s original ideas about cooperative learning structures which he calls “co-op structures” in his book, Cooperative Learning (1992) published by his California company, Kagan Cooperative Learning Co. Over the years, our own teaching practice has incorporated many such participation structures. Our students love them, confiding that achievement should not be divorced from enjoyment. 4-S Brainstorming. This structure is based on speed, synergy, silliness and support. The class is divided into teams of four students. Each team member has a special role to facilitate the creative potential of brainstorming and has a phrase to say in the target language that encourages her or his partners: • Speed: “Let’s hurry!” • Synergy: “Let’s build on that!” • Silly: “Let’s get crazy!”
- 43. 43 • Support: “Allideas help!” Students brainstorm an idea for a while and then all teams pair up and interview each other. Pairs Check. Teams break into two sets of pairs each of which works on a worksheet. One student is the problem solver and the other one is the coach. The coach helps and checks his or her partner’s work. After a while, the teams reunite and the pairs on the team compare answers. If the team disagrees, they ask the teacher to help them. If the team agrees on the answer, they do a team handshake. Pairs Check is a particularly good structure for practicing new skills. Numbered Heads Together. This is a four-step cooperative structure, which can be used with any language teaching content and at various places in a lesson: (1) Students number off, (2) Teacher asks a question, (3) Heads together, (4) Teacher calls a number. Each student on a team has a different number. He or she will answer to that number when it is called. The teacher formulates a question as a directive, e.g. “Make sure everyone on your team can…” The students put their heads together and discuss the question until everyone knows the answer. After a while, the teacher will call a number at random and the students with that number raise their hands to be called upon, as in the traditional classroom. Co-op Co-op. The emphasis in this structure is on bringing out and nourishing the natural intelligence, creativeness and expressiveness of students. In Co-op Co-op, the structure indicates that we value the interests and abilities of the students. This cooperative language learning structure has ten steps: (1) Student-centered class discussion. This discussion leads to an understanding between the teacher and the class about what the students want to learn and experience in relation to the topic or unit to be covered. (2) Selection of student learning teams. (3) Teambuilding and cooperative skill development. This is an important phase in which the members of each team feel they are a “we” and have developed trust and communication skills. (4) Team topic selection. The team members settle on the topic of most interest to themselves as a group. (5) Mini-topic selection. The team members divide the topic of the team into mini- topics for each member to work on. (6) Mini-topic preparation. Individual students work on their own topics. (7) Mini-topic presentations. Individual students present their own topics to their teammates. (8) Preparation of team presentations. The team discusses and integrates the material presented in the previous step in order to prepare their team presentations. (9) Team presentations. (10) Reflection and evaluation. Students reflect on their work and their achievements. The whole class evaluates team presentations. Individual presentations are evaluated by teammates.
- 44. 44 Research on teachinghas shown that whole-class discussion, individual seatwork and lecture prevail as the favorite organizational structures in the traditional classroom. In relation to participation structures that promote meaningful interaction, Spencer Kagan maintains that by participating in planned formats “students become responsible for learning and sharing what they have learnt. The structure prepares students for participation in a democratic society” (Kagan 1992). And he goes on, “How we structure a classroom is an important, perhaps the most important, form of communication we make to students. If we structure the classroom so that the goal of learning is a good team score, we communicate that the most important value is a competitive victory. If we structure so that the teacher is in full control of what and how students study, we communicate that students are empty or that their intelligence and curiosity are not valued. If we choose an autocratic authority structure, we communicate a lack of faith in the potential of students to choose positive directions for development. By taking full responsibility for students’ learning, we leave them none. We do not leave students room to come out and become fully engaged in the learning process”. Thus, planning participation structures at the micro-level of language teaching is seen as an aspect of “precision teaching”.
- 45. 45 Chapter 4: TheLanguage Curriculum The term curriculum has been in English usage for a long time (see Josef Dolch 1959, quoted in Kansanen 1995, 101). In German, it was substituted for the term Plan and later in the eighteenth century, for the term Lehrplan (see Kansanen 1995 for a detailed study of the development of this construct). “Curriculum” comes from Latin and means “a running, course, race”. The noun is related to the verb “currere” which means, “to run”. A Modern English dictionary defines “curriculum” in the following way: “all of the courses, collectively, offered in a school, college, etc. or in a particular subject” (Webster’s New World Dictionary 2005). As is seen from the definition, the term is commonly used in two related senses. It refers to (a) a program of study at an educational institution or system and (b) content in a particular subject or course of studies. In the latter sense, “curriculum” is synonymous with the British term “syllabus”. In fact, the use of the two terms in Europe and North America has caused a great deal of confusion in second language teaching. Within the framework of the Tempus Scheme of the Commission of the European Communities, DG XXII – Education, Training and Youth, the following definitions for the terms, curriculum, course and syllabus are used. Curriculum is the totality of an organized learning experience; it provides the conceptual structure and a set time frame to acquire a recognizable degree, and describes its overall content, e.g. the curriculum of a five-year degree program in “Mechanical Engineering” at a certain higher education institution. Course is the totality of an organized learning experience in a precisely defined area, e.g. the course on “Fluid Dynamics” within the curriculum “Mechanical Engineering”. Syllabus is the prescription of details on a specific course, such as what will be learnt (and when) the texts to be read, the areas in which expertise is expected to be demonstrated. We need to establish a clear distinction between the terms. Here is a definition by J. P. B. Allen, which is adequate to our purposes: “curriculum is a very general concept which involves considerations of the whole complex of philosophical, social and administrative factors which contribute to the planning of an educational program; syllabus, on the other hand, refers to that subpart of curriculum which is concerned with a specification of what units will be taught”. Here, we are interested in the educational aspects of curriculum design and development. But let us consider an example from recent history of education in the United States first. Here is an excerpt from the so-called Siman Act, Nebraska Legislature, U.S.A., April 1919, “No person shall … teach any subject to any person in any language other than the English language. Languages other than the English language may be taught as language only after a pupil shall have … passed the eighth grade”. The case of Meyer versus State of Nebraska was based on the Siman Act. Robert T. Meyer was arrested for teaching German to a ten-year-old boy in Nebraska on 25 May 1920. His case reached the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled on 4 June 1923 that anti-foreign- language laws were in violation of the 14th Amendment of the Constitution. The majority decision stated, “No emergency has arisen which renders knowledge by a child of some language other than English so clearly harmful as to justify its inhibition”. This and many other examples indicate that modern foreign languages, and all other disciplines for that matter, as a school subject should not be taken for granted. In relation to that, John Clark (1987) asks several important questions: “whether to
- 46. 46 include languages otherthan the mother tongue in the school curriculum; which languages to include; to whom to teach them and for how long; what objectives to seek to achieve”. The answers, according to him, should be sought in the particular educational value system of society at a particular moment in time. Bednar et al. (1992, 19) propose that “Instructional design and development must be based upon some theory of learning and/or cognition; effective design is possible only if the developer has developed reflexive awareness of the theoretical basis underlying the design”. 4.1. Constructivist: Dialogic & Symbolic Interaction Constructivism is a theory of leaning and instruction that “emphasizes the real-world complexity and ill-structuredness of many knowledge domains” (Spiro et al. 1992, 57). The Constructivist view of cognition contends that learning is a process of personal interpretation of the experience and the construction of knowledge. Constructivists adopt the notion of Wittgenstein that context is an integral part of meaning. “Learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience” (Bednar et al. 1992, 21). Constructivism is an alternative epistemological perspective to objectivism (see Lakoff 1987). Seppo Tella and his colleagues at the Media Education Center, University of Helsinki, have explored constructivism in language education extensively. They relate constructivism to the concept of dialogism: “dialogue is a crucial element in the creation of any language organization and especially in establishing an open multimedia-based collaborative and networked learning environment. It suggests that the learning environment in the framework of dialogism cannot be a physical space, a classroom, nor any particular media education tool. The learning environment is – dialogue” (Tella & Mononen-Aaltonen 1998, 103). Tella (1998, 117) cites seven ingredients needed to promote dialogic education: (a) presence, (b) unanticipated consequences, (c) otherness, (d) vulnerability, (e) mutual implication, (f) temporal flow, (g) authenticity. The theory of constructivism has been developing and new versions have been emerging. Neo-constructivists of the cognitive school believe that “(a) understandings are constructed by using prior knowledge to go beyond the information given; and (b) the prior knowledge that is brought to bear is itself constructed, rather than retrieved from memory, on a case-by-case basis” (Spiro et al. 1992, 64). Social constructivists focus on social interaction in the community as a source of knowledge. Social constructivism has been described by Burton, Moore and Magliaro (1996, 48). Jim Cummins (1994, 48) describes the pedagogical and social assumptions underlying educator role definitions in language teaching (Figure 1 and Figure 2). He distinguishes the objectivist from the constructivist positions in ELT methodology (the transmission versus critical orientation) and in sociology (the social control versus social transformation orientation). Cummins concludes, “Educators’ role definitions reflect their vision of society, and implicated in that societal vision are their own identities and those of the students with whom they interact. The outcome of this process for both educator and student can be described in terms of empowerment. Empowerment can thus be regarded as the collaborative creation of power insofar as it constitutes the process whereby
- 47. 47 students and educatorscollaboratively create knowledge and identity through action focused on personal and social transformation” (Cummins 1994, 55). Transmission Orientation: Language – Decomposed, Knowledge – Inert, Learning – Hierarchical internalization from simple to complex. Critical Orientation: Language – Meaningful, Knowledge – Catalytic, Learning – Joint interactive construction through critical inquiry within the zone of proximal development. Figure 1: Educator Pedagogical Assumptions (Cummins 1994, 48) Social Control Orientation: Curricular Topics – Neutralized with respect to societal power relations, Student Outcomes – Compliant and uncritical. Social Transformation Orientation: Curricular Topics – Focused on issues relevant to societal power relations, Student Outcomes – Empowered, critical. Figure 2: Educator Social Assumptions (Cummins 1994, 48) Nicholas Burbules (1997, 8) maintains that teaching “is not a process of conversion, but of translation: of making sufficient associations between the familiar and the foreign to allow the learner to make further associations, to find other paths, and eventually to become a translator, a path-maker, on their own. Learning how to ask a good question is in one sense the central task, yet one that is almost never taught explicitly, and rarely taught at all.” In conclusion, we claim that the implications for language curriculum design are quite straightforward. One is that content cannot be predetermined. Perhaps learning objectives cannot be pre-specified either. The curriculum developer cannot define the boundaries of what may be relevant. All he or she can do is plan authentic, real- world tasks, which will provide the necessary and sufficient contexts for the learners to realize their objectives and construct their knowledge. This can be achieved by providing a collaborative learning environment based on communicative interaction containing sufficient comprehensible language input and output.
- 48. 48 4.2. The Generalversus Specific Courses Conjecture In the early seventies, Anthony Howatt argued that, “Special courses have fairly specific objectives and are rather simpler to discuss. General courses tend to be diffuse in their aims and take their overall shape more from tradition, contemporary fashion and the vague but powerful influences exerted by the social attitudes and economic needs of the community” (1974). In fact, the distinction is embedded in the objectivist tradition of language teaching. It is best expressed by William Mackey (1965) in his famous claim that there is no language teaching without “selection, gradation, presentation and repetition” of the content. In that period, techniques like frequency, coverage and availability were applied in the process of choosing common everyday language for “communicative syllabi”. In addition, the notion of “appropriate language” was used as a criterion of usefulness. The organization of the course was based on a priori decisions on the order in which “new teaching points should come” and on “how much to teach”. The method of needs identification was developed by a Swiss scholar, Rene Richterich (Richterich & Chancerel 1977). A British linguist, John Munby (1978), elaborated the theory and methodology of language needs analysis and curriculum design. Language courses for specific purposes (e.g. English for Specific Purposes or “ESP”) were represented by their proponents as an alternative to general courses. The English in Focus series of “specialist English materials for students who use English as the medium of instruction for the subject they are studying” was published in England in the seventies (e.g. Allen & Widdowson 1994). The authors wrote, “The series assumes that students have already completed a basic course in English and that they have some knowledge of their specialist subject. This course is therefore intended for students […] who already know how to handle the common English sentence patterns and who need to learn how these sentences are used in scientific writing to convey information…” (op. cit.). The course had a great success because the approach adopted was new. Peter Strevens outlined the “new orientations in the teaching of English” and of any language for that matter in the mid-seventies. Some ten years before, he had published one of the most successful audio-lingual textbooks, English 901 (see Section 1.2.). The times had changed though. Strevens argued, “Broadly defined, ESP courses are those in which the aims and the content are determined, principally or wholly, not by criteria of general education (as when ‘English’ is a foreign language subject in school) but by functional and practical English language requirements of the learner” (Strevens 1977, 90). This was certainly new a quarter of a century ago but today we find the conjecture rather misleading. It seems to us, at this junction, that the methodological opposition of “general purposes” to “specific purposes” in language teaching is inadequate and inappropriate. We do not think that “the aims and the content are determined” a priori by any criteria. They cannot be precompiled or prepackaged. We can discern two arguments in the literature to support this strong claim. One refers to the fact that language teaching is a complex process characterized by network of relationships in a social and cultural context and the other to the idea that language teaching is an ill-structured knowledge domain. We claim that a holistic approach, which emphasizes the priority of the whole over its parts, can solve the problem of curriculum design.
- 49. 49 In that respect,an improvement on the theory of curriculum design has been offered by Rand Spiro and his colleagues at the University of Illinois in their theory of Random Access Instruction (Spiro et al. 1992). We shall discuss this theory in the next section. 4.3. Random Access Instruction in Complex & Ill-Structured Knowledge Domains Random Access Instruction is a theory, which accounts for the complexity of the process of language learning and the ill-structuredness of the domain of language knowledge and/or proficiency. Eve Sweetser and Gilles Fauconnier (1996) maintain that “The initially overwhelming complexity of socio-linguistic usages is, then, not an independent and autonomous complexity. It is a reflection of the complex – and economically interrelated – structure of cognition”. Eric Lenneberg sees language proficiency as a process of “(a) extracting relations from (or computing relations in) the physical environment, and (b) of relating these relationships” (Lenneberg 1975, 17). Continuous, not discrete, cognitive and physiological processes produce those relationships. Lenneberg argues persuasively that “These deeper continuities [the continuous cognitive and physiological processes] are reflected in the “fuzzy” nature of semantic, syntactic and phonological categories, making sharp, formal distinctions and decisions difficult” (op. cit., 17). He concludes that “everything in language is of relational nature and what has to be learnt in language acquisition is how to relate, or how to compute a relationship upon given physical data” (op. cit., 32). Constructivists hold that “Characteristics of ill-structuredness found in most knowledge domains (especially when knowledge application is considered) lead to serious obstacles to the attainment of advanced learning goals (such as the mastery of conceptual complexity and the ability to independently use instructed knowledge in new situations that differ from the conditions of initial instruction). These obstacles can be overcome by shifting from a constructive orientation that emphasizes the retrieval from memory of intact preexisting knowledge to an alternative constructivist stance which stresses the flexible reassembling of preexisting knowledge to adaptively fit the needs of a new situation. Instruction based on this new constructivist orientation can promote the development of cognitive flexibility using theory-based hypertext systems that themselves possess characteristics of flexibility that mirror those desired for the learner” (Spiro et al. 1992, 59). Complex and ill-structured domains have two properties: “(a) each case or example of knowledge application typically involves the simultaneous interactive involvement of multiple, wide-application conceptual structures (multiple schemas, perspectives, organizational principles and so on), each of which is individually complex (i.e. the domain involves concept- and case-complexity); and (b) the pattern of conceptual incidence and interaction varies substantially across cases nominally of the same type (i.e. the domain involves across-case irregularity)” (Spiro et al. 1992, 60). For example, basic grammar is well structured, while the process of applying grammar rules in real-world communication is ill structured.
- 50. 50 Random Access Instructioncan be represented by the metaphor of a rhizome, spreading in all directions. It was first used by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari in the book On the Line as a method of organizing information (quoted in Burbules 1997). Seppo Tella uses it to describe open learning environments based on a communal educational value system. He maintains that “it [rhizome] transmits the idea of something growing, something developing, yet it gives ample scope for individual action and decision-making” and suggests that “a rhizome is a rhizome is a rhizome…” (Tella et al. 1998, 132). Nicholas Burbules (1997, 3) holds that “Each particular step or link within a rhizomatic whole can be conceived as a line between two points, but the overall pattern is not linear, because there is no beginning and end, no center and periphery, to be traced”. Random Access Instruction is a rhizomatic system. It can be applied in the design of nonlinear learning environments, which we shall present in the next section. 4.4. Language Curriculum as a “Knowledge Strategic Hypertext”—The Ohana ELT Method What is “knowledge” and what does “knowledge strategy” mean? Tella (Tella et al. 1998, 26) maintains that knowledge is to be “understood as mental information structures modified by the individual on the basis of thinking and earlier knowledge”. Clearly, knowledge is not simply data and information. Tella defines knowledge strategy as the “long-term methodical reflection […], which finds concrete expression as operational procedures or tactical measures, slogans, goals, forms of operation, working methods arising from discussion about values, and evaluation measures connected with them”. He emphasizes the view that “instead of simply reforming their curriculum, we think schools and municipalities should progress towards developing their knowledge strategy thinking” (Tella et al. 1998, 25). We define the Knowledge Strategic Hypertext (KSH) as a nonlinear and non- sequential language curriculum model based on constructivist epistemology and the idea of knowledge strategy (Figure 3). The term model is employed here somewhat loosely. It is a way to make clear how our hypothesis hangs together to make a coherent explanation. As far as the components of the KSH are concerned, their number is unlimited. That reflects the complexity and ill-structuredness of the language proficiency domain. In such a nonlinear and non-sequential learning environment, each element is related to all other elements. The KSH is a network model, which allows the user to move from node to node following the links between them. Nodes store socio-linguistic, etc., information and links represent semantic associations between the nodes. Learning is seen as a process that modifies the information structures in specified ways under specified conditions. The semantic nature of the links in the KSH forms the basis of the model. This is supported by scientific research, which has shown that the mind holds memories semantically, according to meaning (Fauconnier & Sweetser). The model accommodates two conditions for learning, which are necessary and sufficient. The first is the automatic processing passively invoked by the incoming data. And the second is the active control of the incoming data. Thus, the KSH can predict what parts of the input would be accepted and what would be tuned out. The
- 51. 51 constructive process leadsthe user “beyond the information given” (Perkins 1992) by reconstructing information itself. In Figure 3, we present our KSH language curriculum model including communicative language competence, language activities, domains, etc. The model contains components derived from the definition of language behavior in Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, and Assessment: A Common European Framework of Reference (CEF). It is publicly accessible on the web site http://culture.coe.fr/lang. The CEF provides: “(a) A descriptive scheme, presenting and exemplifying the parameters and categories needed to describe, first, what a language user has to do in order to communicate in its situational context, then the role of the texts, which carry the message from producer to receiver, then the underlying competences, which enable a language user to perform acts of communication, and finally the strategies, which enable the language user to bring those competences to bear in action; (b) A survey of the approaches to language learning and teaching, providing options for users to consider in relation to their existing practice; (c) A set of scales for describing proficiency in language use, both globally and in relation to the categories of the descriptive scheme at a series of levels; (d) A discussion of the issues raised for curricular design in different educational contexts, with particular reference to the development of plurilingualism in the learner” (Trim 1999, 9). In the CEF, the general competences of the individual are defined by “the knowledge, skills and existential competence (savoir-etre) he or she possesses, and the ability to learn”. Three components constitute communicative language competence. They are the linguistic component, the socio-linguistic component and the pragmatic component. Language activities are the actual behaviors in which language is used. They are reception, production, interaction or mediation (in particular interpreting or translating) in oral or written form, or both. The domains, in which activities are contextualized, are the public domain, the personal domain, the educational domain and the occupational domain. Tasks, strategies and texts complete this model of language use and learning. All these constructs are defined in Chapter 3 of the CEF.
- 52. 52 ~~~~~~ Starting levelof L2 proficiency~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ Starting level of L2 proficiency~~~~~~~~~~~ Figure 3: The KSH curriculum model, including the nodes and links of communicative language competence, language activities, domains, etc. This is obviously a comprehensive and exhaustive model. However, with its 18 elements in 7 categories, it is a complex one. Stochastic theory estimates the possible combinations of the elements at 163 (18 times 17, divided by 1 times 2). These 163 combinations produce an infinite number of concrete instances of language use. Therefore, in our opinion, only a KSH approach to curriculum design can guarantee quality in second language development. The model proposed is based on the idea of whole language development. The KSH includes language styles and registers incorporating them into “a form of meta- linguistic, inter-linguistic or so to speak ‘hyper-linguistic’ awareness” (CEF, 97). This
- 53. 53 leads to abetter perception of what is general and what is specific concerning the linguistic organization of the target language. So each component of the model may become the starting point for the use of the KSH. 4.5. Instead of a Conclusion “Whatever the style, there are ample opportunities to orient instruction toward higher levels of understanding, introduce and exercise languages of thinking, cultivate intellectual passions, seek out integrative mental images, foster learning to learn and teach for transfer. The smart school makes the most of these opportunities. It informs and energizes teaching by giving teachers time and support to learn about the opportunities and by arranging curriculum, assessment and scheduling to encourage tapping them.” (Perkins 1992, 130)
- 54. 54 Chapter 5: MULTIMEDIALITERACY IN EFL TEACHER TRAINING The convergence of telematics, mass media and computer technology is increasing the amount of information distributed and the speed and reach of distribution and information processing; it is also increasing the capacity for discriminating distribution, interactive and individualized reception, and accelerating ideological exchange, resulting in advantages for the biggest information providers. Among their primary objectives educational systems list the development of the individual’s ability for self-expression and communication through writing, music, sculpture, etc., but evidently comprehension skills carry more weight in formal education. For students, success in school is based on understanding teachers’ messages, and teachers’ professional success, as well as the success of the educational system itself, is based on their interpretation of policy. 5.1. What do we mean by Multimedia Literacy The concept of literacy, initially centred exclusively on alphabetic language and on the mechanical procedures of encoding and decoding texts, has evolved substantially in recent decades. Surpassing the merely utilitarian nature of reading and writing, more attention is being paid to literacy’s implications both for the individual and for society, such as the ultimate finality of literacy and its influence on the transformation of social models. According to UNESCO’s definition, the functionally illiterate person is one who cannot undertake those activities in which literacy (knowing how to read and write) is necessary to function effectively within the group or community. With the appearance of new and sophisticated techniques for the creation of multimedia texts, combined with diverse symbolic systems, we run the risk of once again focussing our attention on the study of ‘form’ to the detriment of ‘content’. We run the risk of dwelling on the study of the ‘means’ without reaching the ‘ends’. Our proposal for multimedia literacy hopes to overcome the purely mechanical skill of encoding and decoding texts in different languages in favor of concentrating on the personal and social implications of its creation, distribution, interpretation, use, etc. Functional literacy at the least entails having at one’s disposal the faculty of communication, and, to the extent that predominant forms of communication continue to change (from oral to print, from print to audiovisual, and from audiovisual to multimedia), the concept of literacy must change with them. In the multimedia society in which we coexist with an infinite number of audiovisual documents, interactive or not, it is logical to think that literacy in this environment involves the ability to confront various texts in relation to their encoding and their medium. During this millennium multimedia literacy will be that which prepares people to utilize appropriate procedures when critically viewing different kinds of texts (different in function or system of symbolic representation), and to assess what happens in the world and improve it to the extent that they can. 5.2. In search of a comprehensive definition Within the overall concept of multimedia literacy we incorporate various literacies,
- 55. 55 the diverse (conceptual,procedural and attitudinal) contents of which have been deemed basic and essential for the communication and representation of messages using different languages and media. Tyner (1998: 92-97) accounts for six different multiliteracies that cover what for us constitute the ingredients of a basic multimedia education. She lists three tool literacies and three other literacies of representation. The first three are related to basic knowledge about computers (computer literacy), networks (network literacy) and technology (technology literacy). The remaining three deal more with the analysis of messages and how meaning is produced, and focuses on information (information literacy), visual images (visual literacy) and the media (media literacy). There are clear interrelationships between these literacies, and the characteristics they share prevent us from discussing any one in isolation. We consider it necessary to bring together the objectives and fundamentals of all the above-mentioned literacies under the umbrella of what we call multimedia literacy. If for strictly formal reasons we were to distinguish between previous literacies (like alphabetic, audiovisual, computer, telematic, musical, artistic, etc.) and multimedia literacy, perhaps the latter would not be defined first and foremost by the fact that it is ‘multimedia’ in the strictest sense of the word: the integration of text, sound and image. Actually, as Lemke (1997) points out, all literacy is multimedia literacy: you can never make meaning with language alone, there must always be a visual or vocal realization of linguistic signs that also carries non-linguistic meaning (e.g. tone of voice, or style of orthography). According to him, therefore, for signs to function as such they have to have some kind of material reality or medium, a ‘way of being real’ that opens the way to meanings encoded with more than a code. All semiotics- he says-is multimedia semiotics, and all literacy is multimedia literacy. Paradoxically, then, the most defining characteristic of new multimedia documents is not the fact that they are multimedia, but rather their hypermedia structure and their interactivity, which determine a modality of presenting information that differs from the traditional. Where alphabetic and audiovisual discourses are linear, new products present information in a networked structure; while alphabetically and audiovisually encoded documents offer only one trajectory to negotiate, multimedia documents present different alternatives for the navigation of information, all of them equally valid. Although brought into such relief in multimedia environments, the combination of media and languages in order to produce and transmit messages is not new. Throughout history different modes of representation (text, sound, image, gesture) have been used together. Good orators convey more, and in a different way, than their written discourses would convey when read. The speaker’s intonation, gesture, expression, posture, attitude, etc. combine with verbal language to produce meaning. As previously mentioned, various historical periods have witnessed technological developments that allowed us to record texts, sounds and images (writing, print, phonograph, photography, film, etc.) for later reproduction. In recent decades different media (slides, books, transparencies, audio and video cassettes) have frequently been combined in the preparation of materials destined for educational environments called multimedia packages, and available usually in DVD formats. Each medium possessed its own particular mode of producing, storing, transporting, structuring and reproducing contents-and they all combined after the fact to form a whole, a multimedia package, in which the parts are interdependent and work together with a common goal, to represent and communicate. Digitalization could be considered as another fundamental characteristic of multimedia documents and environments. Digitalization overcomes the difficulties of
- 56. 56 mixed media andto a large degree facilitates the integration of languages. Text, graphics, sounds and images (still and moving), once digitized, can be modified, edited and easily intermixed. There are infinite possible combinations of languages that can arrange themselves in different ways, make exact copies of the original, create indices that help locate information, etc. Digitizing information also immensely facilitates its transmission via communication networks, such as the practically immediate access to a document from any part of the world (the connected world, of course), and the navigation through cyberspace from one information source to another. The ability to navigate and the hyperlinked structure of information allow us to move beyond the idea of a document as a finite object that exists in one time and place. Paraphrasing the Spanish poet Antonio Machado, we could say that, in the same way a path is created by walking, a document in a network is constructed by moving through information-jumping from one space to another linked to it, and leaving behind the many other options that another user might have chosen, thereby ‘constructing’ a different document. In an immense information network, where each fragment is linked to others, which in turn connect with many others, we could also speak of a single document, impossible to experience in its entirety, of which each user only processes the parts of interest or those within reach of their navigation skills. This single, fragmented document has multiple locations, distributed throughout computers all over the world. It can be found in cyberspace and is accessed from any point of connection. Each one of the fragments could follow the linear logic of traditional alphabetic and audiovisual texts; while at the same time serves as a point of entry or exit for various hyper-documents. The first level of multimedia literacy gives the individual the ability to construct meaning from new modes of presenting and representing the world that emerge with the development of new technologies, new communication networks and diverse symbolic systems. It naturally follows that, even considering multimedia literacy in its most limited sense of knowing how to read and write these new hyper- documents, it encompasses other literacies (alphabetic, audiovisual and computer) needed to both process and meaningfully utilize the components of multimedia: text, sound and image. Multimedia literacy is not an addition to alphabetic or audiovisual literacy; rather it integrates them while contributing characteristics of its own derived from interactivity, namely those of interpretation and association. On one hand it produces the convergence of languages and media, and on the other it substantially changes the context and conditions of reception/absorption. This multimedia literacy should not be taken as the de-contextualized acquisition of the aforementioned skills and knowledge that, once acquired, can be used to interpret reality. Instead we might understand multimedia literacy as a process that is an integral part of the social interaction by which individuals develop their personality. When we interpret a code or message, our interpretation is partly individual, but also partly a reflection of the place we hold in a particular society: our age group, gender, purchasing power, interests, traditions, family, etc. Multimedia literacy, like any other, will always be a social process with repercussions for the transformation of society itself. It is a literacy that Gimeno Sacristán (1999: 38) labels enlightened: Effective literacy-he tells us-will place the subject at the gates of power, symbol of the possession of knowledge attained through a command of the language. Enlightened literacy (which thanks to Paulo Freire we would now call critical literacy)
- 57. 57 is above allthe ability to participate in the reconstruction of society and culture. Its degree of development in different parts of the world will increase or diminish the differences between the info-rich and info-poor. The inability to critically face different types of texts in different situations will determine who is illiterate in the third millennium-those incapable of participating in the reconstruction of culture and society in their environment. 5.3. Objectives of multimedia literacy as a means of teacher training Both the integration of alphabetic language in multimedia contexts and the appearance of new technologies for processing information oblige us to modify the minimum competency requirements for functional literacy. The complexity of current communications systems could reduce those minimum requirements to those of information management and its corresponding technology skills without fostering knowledge or interpersonal communication. To this effect, Gutiérrez Martín (1997: 12) refers to multimedia education as that which, making use of prevailing technologies of the day, allows students to achieve those skills, knowledge and attitudes needed to: • communicate (interpret and produce messages) utilizing different languages and media; • develop personal autonomy and a critical spirit, which gives them the ability to • form a just and multicultural society in which to live side by side with the technological innovations of the day. This goal prescribed to multimedia education (which could just as easily be the goal of any kind of education) of forming a just and multicultural society of critical people can only be achieved if we consider as literacy the ability to transform information into knowledge and use that knowledge as a tool to contribute to and transform society. More immediate objectives of multimedia literacy include: • To provide knowledge of the languages that shape interactive multimedia documents and the way they are constructed. • To provide knowledge and use of the most prevalent devices and techniques for processing information. • To provide knowledge and facilitate the assessment of the social and cultural implications of new multimedia technologies. • To foster an attitude of critical media reception and responsible behavior in the public sphere. Although they may be too general and broad, with these objectives we hope to avoid the risk of falling into an approach to multimedia literacy that reduces its purpose to the acquisition of a purely utilitarian skill set for wielding multimedia devices and documents. We find it interesting to note that when multimedia literacy is mentioned, the creation of applications and documents tends to be considered a priority objective-unlike the case in audiovisual and media literacy, which usually center on critical media reception. If this creation paved the way for something more than learning to operate computer-based tools, we would be in a position to say that there is a large qualitative jump from reception to emission, from alleged passivity, typical of large-scale mass media, to the active creation made possible by interpersonal media.
- 58. 58 The huge gapbetween the number of messages we receive and the number we send via communication networks will probably increase in the future. Even if focussed on the creation of messages and documents, multimedia literacy should not leave out teaching critical reception, while at the same time enabling creation and expression, active participation in the processes of communication, and the appropriation of media by the user. Nevertheless, anyone capable of handling text, sounds and graphics in order to create a presentation-enough to be considered multimedia literate according to some publications-exhibits nothing more than the equivalent of mechanical reading and writing in traditional literacy. 5.4. Multimedia as a basic principle of literacy for teachers & students Multimedia literacy can better meet its objectives if both teacher training and student learning are formulated around the creation of documents, authoring and distributing messages. Multimedia literacy will contribute to cultivating free citizens if students overcome the bounds of simple reception and move on to creation, if we teach them critical reception by way of authoring their own multimedia documents. Our proposal for a multimedia literacy that gives the ability to participate freely in the society of the third millennium, and ultimately to transform it, stems from students and teachers authoring multimedia. The predominance of alphabetic literacy will supposedly last for some time, and its predominance in formal education is unquestionable. It occupies an irrefutable and privileged place in formal education. Nevertheless, the systematic learning of reading and writing does not take into account the relation between alphabetic language (oral and written) with other types of representations and/or symbologies, an omission by which alphabetic language is still studied in the contexts and according to the presentation modes predominant in the time of Gutenberg, which are changing day by day. In school environments the medium of the printed page and book continues to be the most customary, and its linearity and structuring into successive paragraphs and pages is still clearly predominant. When text is accompanied by images, they usually function to provide secondary and merely illustrative meaning. What we would consider computer literacy, for its part, usually consists of a collection of knowledge and skills for using the most common general-purpose programs. It is necessary to point out how curricula for this purely tool-based computer literacy are dictated by commercial interests. It is evident, for example, that Microsoft has imposed the Windows environment as an essential requirement of computer training and is following the same policy with programs like Word, Access, Power Point, Excel and all the components of the Office suite, just as with its web browser Internet Explorer, all of which it intends to establish as standards while at the same time suppressing competition. Regarding the objectives of computer literacy, we can safely confirm that they are in line with the curriculum we outlined for this literacy, and center on training teachers and students to critically use new technologies. Training is viewed as purely practical and essential for competing professionally in the job market. We propose a multimedia technology education approach based on students and teachers as multimedia authors and consumers as an alternative to the norm, which is to think of learners as users of general-purpose programs. Our approach relates computers to
- 59. 59 alphabetic and audiovisuallanguages and is more congruent with the world of multimedia communication in which the modern day individual will have to perform. The basic teacher training we propose logically includes learning the operation of equipment and general-purpose software, such as word processors, graphics editors, databases, etc., however these subjects must be approached with predetermined objectives, with the intent of using them as tools, and with an idea of what we want to do with those tools. In this way will we prevent the means becoming the ends. It is unnecessary to warn that teacher training in ICTs goes beyond what we consider basic knowledge in multimedia literacy. This basic knowledge is part of teachers’ scientific training, in which they learn about technological developments, their characteristics and influence (especially in education). In addition to this scientific training common to other professionals, the educator needs educational training about ICTs, to analyse their potential as educational resources, and the advantages and disadvantages of new media in teaching. In Gutiérrez Martín (1998), we saw how teachers in the third millennium will need training not only in the educational potential of ICTs, but also in their educative influence (the ability of new media to influence how citizens learn), and in school and social contexts as spheres of influence of ICTs. A critical approach to the educative influence and social context of new multimedia technologies and communication networks becomes that much more necessary as the technological discourse offered by new media as a panacea becomes increasingly more oppressive. This dominant technological discourse, which influences us all as individuals and education professionals, implicitly assumes an educational model centred on the operation and use of equipment as the main concern, a model we reject in our proposal for multimedia literacy and teacher training. Although literacy is usually considered as part of the first years of life and within formal educational contexts, when social groups began to recognize the basic knowledge to which we all have a right and achieved its inclusion in curricula throughout organized education, its usefulness was already under question as obsolete. This is more evident in an information society, whose rapid evolution precludes the notion that education occupies the first stage of life and prepares you for all the rest. Instead, the only realistic option is to think of education in a pluralistic society as an ongoing process that helps the individual develop fully throughout every stage of life. Out of necessity, we need to be life-long learners. When reading and writing began to spread and as it was understood as both necessary and useful, plans were developed to deal with adult literacy. The same thing is happening now with multimedia literacy, which leads us to the current discussion of teacher literacy. Multimedia education, therefore, cannot be limited to formal education, of which it is a primary objective throughout. We must equip informal educational environments to give meaning and structure, analyse, assign value and broaden the knowledge acquired by living in constant contact with continually evolving multimedia messages and systems. Despite the currently dominant neo-liberal trend against government intervention, we would like to conclude by emphasizing that those responsible for the social order have an obligation to guarantee critical literacy for all, literacy that will allow us to live with dignity in the Information Age as free and responsible citizens. ___________________________
- 60. 60 5.5. Chapter References: GIMENO,J. (1999) La educación que tenemos, la educación que queremos, in Imbernón, F. (coord.) (1999) La educación en el siglo XXI. Los retos del futuro inmediato. Barcelona. Graó. Biblioteca de Aula. GUTIÉRREZ, A. (1997) Educación multimedia y nuevas tecnologías. Madrid. Ediciones de la Torre. GUTIÉRREZ, A. (coord.) (1998) Formación del profesorado en la sociedad de la Información. Segovia. E.U. Magisterio de Segovia (UVA). LEMKE, J.L. (1997) Metamedia literacy: transforming meanings and media, in D. Reinking et al. (Eds.) Literacy for the 21st Century: Technological Transformation in a Post-typographic World. New York. Erlbaum. TYNER, Kathleen (1998): Literacy in a digital world. Teaching and learning in the age of information. New Jersey / London. LEA. Mahwah. ___________________________
- 61. 61 Chapter 6: OHANALEARNING SOLUTIONS--DEVELOPING BEGINNER EFL LANGUAGE SKILLS THROUGH MULTIMEDIA 6.1. Role of visual and verbal information in language learning The integrated dual-code hypothesis (Mayer and Anderson 1991: 486) suggested “learners can build both visual and verbal modes of mental representation as we well as connections between them”. Mayer (1997) drew on Figure 1 adapted from Mayer, R.E. and Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 486. Figure 2 adapted from Mayer, R.E. (1997). Multimedia Learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32(1), 5. this in developing a generative theory of multimedia learning, that has influenced Ohana product design since their inception. And, given this natural and learned capacity to decipher multimodal communications, Ohana Foundation EFL and ESL products incorporate interactive multimedia to help foster the accelerated acquisition of the English language. Plass et. Al. (1998) reported that results of their study on the role of visual and verbal information in learning were “consistent with a generative theory of multimedia learning that assumes that learners actively select relevant verbal and visual information, organize the information into coherent mental representations, and integrate these newly constructed visual and verbal representations with one another.” Therefore, for beginners who lack verbal language skills, the availability of visual and auditory (or multimedia) input may have a contributory influence on their second language development. Burt (1999) concurred that multimedia, and, in particular video, “is accessible to those who have not yet learned to read and write well, and provides context for learning.” Harben (1999) pointed out that visual context provided by elements such as setting, body language and facial expressions can aid comprehension as well as activate learners’ prior knowledge of the social and cultural aspects of language. Further to this, the simultaneous availability of different modes of information is believed to contribute to improved comprehension of the language input. Based on the results of his study, Brett (1997) suggested that the greater efficiency and focus of using one interface makes it more likely for learners to have greater success rates with comprehension tasks while using multimedia.
- 62. 62 Multimedia video isthe most appropriate medium for beginners because they can draw on both the auditory and visual support in their learning. It is particularly helpful for them to observe the situations of authentic everyday language use as complete communication events in context. As Canning-Wilson (2000) pointed out, video segments should be short enough for the visual stimuli not to detract from the auditory component. Teachers can fully exploit the audio component to develop both macro and micro listening skills by using video segments of not more than one minute long. In the same vein, Balatova (1994) reported that distraction sets in after the first minute of watching. As the target learners are beginners, teachers may find it more helpful to further break down each scenario into shorter segments. The use of Ohana multimedia solutions can make language learning more accessible to EFL beginners by: • making it easier to integrate and contextualize listening, speaking and pronunciation, reading and writing activities • motivating learners and helping them in their efforts to use the language naturally in their own lives by seeing how the characters succeed in communicating with native speakers and getting things done in their everyday activities • bringing native speakers into the classroom (using multimedia assets), providing additional models for pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm besides that of the teacher • raising learners’ awareness of non-verbal aspects of communication • increasing listening comprehension: paralinguistic features (facial expression, body language, context, setting…) help learners comprehend more than from listening to audio tape only • stimulating learner interaction and communication with co-learners as they discuss the video itself or ways in which it relates to their lives and experiences • raising cross-cultural awareness: learners enjoy observing similarities and differences between the behavior of the characters in a video clip and that of their own families and friends 6.2. Helping EFL beginners learn with video Watching television and video can motivate learning because most learners find it entertaining. However, it is important to ensure that learners are actively engaged in their learning rather than just sitting back and passively relaxing. Viewing activities should give learners a purpose in watching a sequence and help them focus on aspects of the video that can benefit their language-learning capabilities. This is the strategy of active viewing described by Lonergan (1984). As a lot of information on videos is non-linguistic, it is also important to assure learners that they need not understand ALL the information. The activities aim to encourage viewing and participation to increase understanding, not to test it. Learners can also be encouraged to predict/discuss in their first language group and collaboratively generate answers in English. On the other hand, transfer activities such as using scenarios as models for role-plays can prepare learners for real-life English use. As well, teachers can create excellent practice opportunities in authentic language use by organizing class excursions and visits where learners can draw on peer support. 6.3. Some considerations for selecting videos for EFL beginners
- 63. 63 • length –maximum of around 3-5 minute per segment • contexts – authentic everyday language use • actions/visual cues – not just talking heads • option of subtitles – English subtitle for pronunciation practice and reading skill development • number of characters – not so many in one segment that learners are confused about who’s who 6.4. Some techniques for teaching with Ohana multimedia As Allan (1985:66) pointed out that there is no single ‘right way’ to use video or multimedia, only “as many right ways as there are effective uses”, the following are just suggestions for teachers in their exploration of using video and multimedia DVDs in language teaching. 6.4.1. Silent viewing For silent viewing, teachers can set the volume control to its lowest so that the soundtrack is inaudible. Watching a video sequence without the soundtrack does more than activating learners’ schema and prior experience in interpreting what they see. Without the ‘distraction’ of the spoken word, learners can focus on the essence of communication among people: body language, gestures, facial expressions and the setting. Learners are more motivated to use English by visualizing this common need to communicate irrespective of the language spoken. By only taking in the content and context visually, learners are not as anxious as when they have to deal with the language at the same time. In their second viewing with the sound on, they are better able to fit the language they hear into the context they have built in their silent viewing. 6.4.2. Sound only For sound only activities, teachers can either adjust the brightness control to yield a completely darkened screen or use the audio of the video. Learners can listen to background noises and the accompanying dialogues to predict what is happening: where the characters are and what they are doing. This is most effective when sound effects directly indicate particular locations or activities, e.g. the sound of an approaching train and the ringing of a telephone. Learners can confirm their guesses by viewing the video straight after listening. 6.4.3. Jigsaw viewing/listening Jigsaw viewing/listening aims to create a situation in which learners have to collaborate in working out what is actually happening on the video. Besides generating a lot interaction among learners, this can also help learners appreciate the value of peer support in the learning process. Jigsaw viewing/listening can be set up by making half of the class do silent viewing while the other half only listen to the soundtrack of the same segment in another room. Teachers can provide viewing and listening task sheets to help learners record information. When the class reunites, viewers and listeners then work in pairs to arrive at the original ‘story’ by sharing the information they have each got. A variation to the above technique is sitting half of the class with their backs to the television screen. These learners can only listen while those facing the television can watch the video with the sound on. When the sequence is finished, the viewers have to describe what is happening in response to the listeners’ questions.
- 64. 64 6.4.4. Freeze frame Teacherscan press the Pause or Still button that “freezes” the picture on the screen. This is useful for introducing new vocabulary, e.g. naming unfamiliar items in English. Teachers can also set up prediction exercises by freezing the frame at the point when a character is about to respond to an utterance and inviting learners to guess the response. Learners can compare their answers immediately by releasing the Pause button. This can also be used for pronunciation practice where repeated speaking and listening of an utterance is necessary. 6.5. Summary As noted above, video is a particularly effective learning medium for beginners, especially in developing listening, speaking and pronunciation skills. Rather than being too difficult for beginners, as often claimed by some teachers, multimedia can make language more accessible to beginners when segments are selected appropriately, the strategy of active viewing is adopted and mutual support among learners is generated. ___________________________ 6.6. Chapter References ALLAN, M. (1985). Teaching English with video. Harlow: Longman. BALTOVA, I. (1994). Impact of video on the comprehension skills of core French students. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50(3), 506-531. BRETT, P. (1997). A comparative study of the effects of the use of multimedia on listening comprehension. System, 25(1), 39-53. BURT, M. (1999). Using Video with adult English Language Learners. ERIC Digest. National Center for ESL Literacy Education. August 1999. Available: http://www.cal.org/ncle/DIGESTS/Video.htm Accessed: 26 August 2005 CANNING-WILSON, C. (2000). Practical aspects of using video in the foreign language classroom. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. VI, No. 11, November 2000. HARBEN, P. (1999). An exercise in applying pedagogical principles to multimedia CALL materials design. ReCALL, 11(3), 25-33. LONERGAN, J. (1984). Video language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. MAYER, R.E. and Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 484-490. MAYER, R.E. (1997). Multimedia Learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32(1), 1-19. PLASS, J.L., Chun, D.M., Mayer, R.E. and Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 25-36.
- 65. 65 Chapter 7: ANINTRODUCTION TO OHANA PHONICS FOR K-3 7.1. Why Phonics Matter Far back in prehistoric times primitive man probably used his voice to communicate with those about him much as other creatures did, but with his evolutionary potential and his developing cerebral functions, he gradually learned to combine vocal sounds into patterns of meaningful speech through which he conveyed ideas to others of his kind. Different groups of people developed many different oral language patterns, of which some five thousand are in use today. Very much later, in comparatively recent times, written systems of language were invented which broadened communication distance in time as well as in space, and provided a medium for conserving and transmitting social cultures. Some of these graphic languages made use of drawings to represent objects and ideas. Later, various types of alphabet codes were developed with letters to represent the sounds of the spoken words. The Greek-Roman alphabet is one, which is still in use today in many modern languages, including English. Phonics is the guide to an alphabet system of transcription. Knowing the alphabet symbols for the sounds in a language makes it fairly easy to translate the spoken word into its written form, and vice versa, as long as there is a one-to-one correspondence between the sounds and the letter symbols. No alphabet is perfect in this respect, however, and the English language has far outgrown its original alphabetic representation. Its pronunciation and spelling have gradually changed over the centuries and a great many new words have been added from other languages with different phonics structures. A language is never static and changes are constantly taking place. Such words as laboratory, secretary, and schedule are pronounced quite differently in America than in England, and changes in the spelling of certain British words can be seen in such examples as favour and theatre that are becoming favor and theater in the United States. Different pronunciations and dialects have developed in different regions in America, and one has only to examine the telephone directory to see many different ways the same name may be spelled. It is generally recognized that the English alphabet of twenty-six letters is an imperfect sound-symbol code for our present-day written language. We use sounds in speaking which have no letter symbols of their own, such as /ch/ in chin and /th/ in that. We use various letters to represent the same sound: x or cks (box or socks), for example, and we assign a number of sounds to the same letter symbols (the letter a represents eight different sounds according to Webster's dictionary). A change in the position of a letter in a word may indicate a change in its sound, and so we have various patterns of letter sequences as an elaboration of our alphabet code. In some instances the spelling of a word has so little relation to the way it is pronounced that it is best to teach it as a "sight" word, but in general there is a close enough conformity between our spoken words and our graphic language symbols so that we can, and should, make good use of our heritage of an alphabet system in teaching our children to read and write. 7.1.1. Language Development in Children Children are born without any memories of specific language symbols, spoken or written, but they normally have the capacity to acquire any language to which they are exposed, according to their own innate developmental timetables. During their first five or six years, usually spent in the home, children learn to understand to
- 66. 66 reproduce many hundredsof words in the language, which they hear. The introduction of the written form of language-reading, writing, and spelling-generally begins with the child's entrance into school at the age of about six years; at that age, children of all races in all countries have been found ready, by and large, for instruction in the art of written communication, although there are many individual variations. From an early age, almost all children enjoy listening to stories and looking at picture books, and some are interested in the shapes and names of letters, and even in printed words, long before they enter school. Kindergartens find that some of their pupils are eager and able to learn the names and sounds of letters, while almost every child can print his first name before entering school. It is in the first grade, however, that most children will be introduced to reading and writing, and it is there that they need to become thoroughly acquainted with one of our most useful educational tools-our alphabet code and the phonics approach to reading and spelling. Since all teachers can read and spell with considerable proficiency, it might seem a simple matter for them to impart these skills to their pupils. Few adults, however, can remember their own first steps in learning to read or can put themselves in the beginner's place. They are apt to expect the child to read a they read, deriving meaning directly from printed word forms which adults recognize automatically as a result of many years of practice. It is sometimes helpful for adults to review the various steps traversed in their more recent learning of some new language skill, like mastering the keyboard chart of the typewriter or beginning a foreign language with a different alphabet. They undoubtedly found it necessary to learn the individual letters before attempting to combine them into patterns. Similarly, it seems expedient for most children to learn to read, write and spell by starting with the letters of the alphabet and their sounds and then to proceed step-by-step to the recognition and reproduction of letter combinations in words, and of words in sentences. In the following pages we will outline the order and method of presenting the phonics units, which we have found most useful in many years of practical teaching experience. First, however, we would like to discuss the background of phonics a little further. 7.1.2. Definition of Terms PHONICS is the system of associating letter symbols with speech sounds. But what letters with what speech sounds? After we have learned to read, we become accustomed to thinking of all words as groups of printed letters rather than primarily as sequences of sounds. When we hear a familiar word, we see it clearly in its printed form, but we might have difficulty in analyzing it in terms of units of speech sounds. It is here that an acquaintance with PHONETICS, the science of speech, may be of some assistance. Some forty significant speech sounds, called phonemes, have been identified. They can be differentiated by their acoustical properties, the way they are produced by the vocal organs, and their function in making speech sounds into intelligible words. (Speech sounds are indicated in this text by letter symbols enclosed in diagonal lines.) Adults cannot remember the early stages of their own speech development and they do not hear their own speech as others do. They are unconscious of the many mechanical adjustments of the speech organs that are taking place constantly as they talk, and they do not realize the difficulties children may have in learning to
- 67. 67 reproduce the speechsounds, which they hear. In some children, speech development comes rapidly-in others, more slowly. Some are talking at the age of one year, others not until after two. Many first-graders still cannot produce a good /r/ or /th/; some still confuse pronouns, the forms of irregular verbs, and even the order of words in sentences. Others, who can make all of the speech sounds separately or in short words, omit or distort them in longer sequences and cannot be easily understood when trying to tell a story. Even college students (and unfortunately some teachers) sometimes retain a slight lisp or defective /r/, of which they usually are unaware. Some of these students may need the help of a speech therapist with a through training in phonetics and its application to the correction of speech defects. The study of phonetics is of great value to the teacher of phonics, although the approach and the objectives in teaching oral language and written language are quite different. 7.1.3. Speech Sounds: Vowels Speech sounds may be classified as vowel sounds and consonant sounds. VOWEL SOUNDS are voice sounds unobstructed by lips, teeth, tongue, or other organs. When a doctor wants a clear view of your throat, he asks you to say "ah", a vowel sound. The vowel sounds are "open" sounds; they carry the voice; they are the sounds on which we speak. Every syllable we utter is formed around a vowel sound; we could not pronounce a word without the sounds we call vowel sounds. The mouth cavity serves as a resonance chamber for these sounds, and their quality is determined by slight changes in the position of the tongue, the tenseness of the lips, etc. The vowel sounds differ in different languages and in different dialects and they vary among different speakers. Two closely blended vowel sounds are called a diphthong. The terms "long" and "short" are used to designate the two principal sounds represented by the vowel letters a, e, i, o, u. The long sounds, indicated in the dictionary by a bar over the letter (called a ma’cron), are the same as the names of the letters except in the case of u. Long u is pronounced like a long double o in many words, and in some of the newer dictionaries, its name-sound is indicated by a symbol for long oo, preceded by the consonant y. As a vowel symbol, y usually represents the same sounds as i; the letter w sometimes replaces u in combinations of vowels (au - aw, ou - ow).
- 68. 68 The vowel soundsin at, ed, it, ox, and up are designated as the short sounds of the vowels and are usually indicated by a curved mark called a breve, but are left unmarked in certain dictionaries. The terms "long" and "short", however, are complete misnomers. There is no consistent difference in the duration or "length" of these pairs of vowel sounds. Moreover, the long and short sounds of the same vowel are not related to one another by any family resemblance in present-day English. The short sound of the letter i is actually related to the long e sound (i as in police), and short e to the long a sound (e as in cafe) as these long vowels are pronounced in European languages today. In general, the lips and tongue are more relaxed and less tense in producing the so-called short-vowel sounds. Then there are many in-between vowel sounds that are indicated by special diacritical marks in the dictionary as "half-long", "half-short", etc. Again, any of the vowels may be given the neutral sound, "uh", in certain unaccented syllables, and in some dictionaries this sound is represented by the symbol for it found in the International Phonetic Alphabet, an inverted reversed e, called a SCHWA ( ). It is very important for teachers and students to study the pronunciation keys in whatever dictionaries they may be using, for many changes in marking have been introduced in recent years. The pages explaining the guides to pronunciation also contain much useful material about spelling and language usage. 7.1.4. Consonant Sounds The sounds produced by interruptions of the voice stream producing the vowel sounds are called the CONSONANT SOUNDS. Sometimes the vowel sound is blocked completely and then released suddenly with a little explosion, as in saying "be", or "go", or the air stream may be only partially blocked and released gradually with a little friction, as in the /sh/ sound. Again, the soft palate may be lowered to divert the passage of air out through the nose as in the /ng/ in "sing". Plosives, fricatives, nasals--so these sounds may be designated. Other descriptions are anatomical, referring to the place of the obstruction: labial (lips), dental (teeth), alveolar (ridge
- 69. 69 behind the upperteeth), palatal (hard palate, bony roof of the mouth), velar (soft palate), lingual (tongue), glottal (space between the vocal cords). In some cases, the visual aid of watching the teacher's face closely and the tactile aid of feeling the vocal cords as they move and the breath as it is expelled, will aid a pupil in differentiating the sounds that are to be associated with particular letter symbols. Consonant sounds differ slightly according to their accompanying vowels and some have a vowel component in their sound. In fact, consonant sounds are so closely blended with the vowel sounds in any syllable or word that it is doubtful whether they can actually be pronounced in isolation as separate speech units. However, consonant sounds are essential in differentiating one spoken word from another and, therefore, they must be represented by identifying symbols in our linguistic code for written words. In practice, a consonant sound is demonstrated by starting to say a word beginning with a single consonant followed by a vowel and then cutting it off just before the vowel sound. Even the neutral vowel sound "uh" should be eliminated as far as possible so that the pupil will be able to blend the consonant sound with any vowel sound occurring after it. (Phoneticians teach w not as a sound but as indicating "a position of the vocal tract, which influences the sound of the vowel following it.") It helps most pupils to learn a key word for each letter sound, especially the short-vowel sounds, but it is essential that the individual sound be correctly associated with its individual letter or letters so that it will be readily available for use in reading and spelling other words. Pupils who have learned only key words for letter sounds often cannot make this transfer; the letter stimulus brings the whole word response and its sound cannot be applied in a new situation. Fortunately, our alphabet code provides fairly consistent letter symbols for most of the consonant and
- 70. 70 the short-vowel sounds,and they together form the basic language pattern of many hundreds of our most common words. The letter symbols that stand for the different speech sounds are called PHONOGRAMS. A phonogram of two letters that represent a single speech sound is called a DIGRAPH. In this text, we will use the term "digraph" only for the two-letter combinations that stand for the six consonant sounds which are not represented by any one single letter in our alphabet: IshI, /th/ voiced, /th/ unvoiced, IchI, IwhI, and IngI. A CONSONANT BLEND is a true blending of two, sometimes three, consonant sounds in a syllable or word, with no vowel sound between them. A blend may occur in initial, medial, or final position in a word. A CLOSED SYLLABLE ends with a consonant sound. The typical consonant-short vowel-consonant syllable is a closed syllable. An OPEN SYLLABLE ends with a vowel sound, which is usually long or half-long, not closed by a consonant block of the voice stream. 7.1.5. Voiced and Unvoiced Speech Sounds Speech sounds are also classified as VOICED and UNVOICED, according to whether or not the vocal cords are vibrated as the sounds are produced. When the sound is voiced, the movement in the larynx can be felt by placing a finger on the throat. The vowel sounds and certain of the consonant sounds are voiced. The unvoiced consonant sounds, sometimes called the "breath" sounds are formed with the lips and tongue in the same positions as for their voiced counterparts, but they are produced without vibration of the vocal bands. The breath used in producing them can be felt against the hand when it is held before the mouth. The paired sounds are so similar that they are often confused, both in speech and in spelling. The following chart shows the voiced and unvoiced pairs of consonant sounds as represented by their most common letter symbols. Voiced Unvoiced b p g (go) k (cat)
- 71. 71 d t v f jch z s w wh (hw) th (the) th (thin) “zh” (azure) sh -- h The sound of the consonant h is pure breath; it is aspirated and has no voiced counterpart in English. It is often silent. 7.2. The Phonics System The study of phonics involves learning not only the letter symbols representing the vowel sounds, the consonants, the consonant blends, the digraphs, and the diphthongs used in our language, but also their variations in sound according to their position in relation to one another in a word--or even, if they are at the end of a word, in relation to the initial sound of the word which follows. The system includes the specific conventions that we employ in placing letters in a certain order in written words to indicate particular sounds which we use in speech but for which we have no differentiating symbols. Consider the differences in the sounds of each of the same first three letters in race and care, or the sounds of the same vowel letters in mate and meat. The sounds in these words are determined by the position of the letters, the pattern of letter sequences. Certain children seem to have special difficulty in remembering the order of letters prescribed by our alphabet system. These pupils can be recognized in their earliest attempts at reading and spelling by their propensity for turning letters and syllables around. (STREPHOSYMBOLIA is the technical term, meaning "twisted symbols.") They flounder hopelessly under purely "sight" methods of teaching, but most of them can be taught to read with the aid of a well-rounded, systematic phonics approach. The experience of schools which start all of their pupils with alphabet phonics strongly suggests that most word recognition problems will be prevented by this approach and that the level of achievement in reading and spelling will be higher, as a whole, in the primary grades. The value of phonics for all children is now recognized in almost all systems of teaching reading, as well as in remedial and preventive programs. What is taught as "phonics" and how it is taught will make a difference, however, and even the best methods will not prevent or "cure" all individual problems that may arise.
- 72. 72 7.2.1. Reading andWriting Communication is always a two-way process: sending and receiving. The speaker must have a listener, the TV screen must have a watcher, a written message must be read. Reading and writing are the two ways of using a graphic language code. In reading, combinations of letter symbols are translated into spoken words, either orally or in inner speech (thought). In writing, the sounds of the spoken word are translated into conventional patterns of letter symbols. In both processes, the meaning of the words has been learned originally from hearing them, and comparatively few words are added to children's vocabularies directly from the written forms of language in their first few years in school. In reading, the printed word is a visual stimulus which arouses the auditory memory of the sound pattern of the spoken word with recognition of its meaning. It is primarily a language-receptive process. In writing, the physical circuit may start with the spoken or remembered sound of the word--an auditory stimulus--which arouses the associated visual memory of a particular group of letter symbols and the kinesthetic memory of their writing patterns, and leads to the motor act of writing. It is a language-expressive process. A direct association between the printed letter patterns and their sounds in a spoken word (letters-to-sounds) is the basis for reading. A direct association of the pattern of language sounds in a spoken word with their letter symbols (sounds-to-letters) is the basis for writing and spelling. Most people read much more than they write today and learning to read is probably more important for the student than learning to write--and easier in most cases--but the latter skill is also a necessity in education and in adult life and certainly should not be neglected, as it sometimes seems to be. Writing patterns should be developed as early as possible in conjunction with learning the alphabet code. Some believe that writing is the natural way for children to learn to read but usually the linkages must be taught in both ways: letters-to-sounds for word recognition (reading, decoding); sounds-to-letters for writing and spelling (encoding). Many bright first-grade pupils become frustrated because they do not yet have the control of small muscles necessary for handling a pencil easily. Others may show a special difficulty in learning to write because of a developmental lag in the motor language areas, sometimes also involving speech. Kinesthetic (motor) training often proves a most effective pathway for implanting the memory of the shapes of the different letters and their order in words, together with their associated sounds. The use of the master hand has a neurological relationship to learning in the language areas and the movements in writing are an important element in building the phonics structure. A spoken word is a sequence of sounds blended together in an established order. To reproduce this order, the printed letter symbols must also be arranged in sequences, and the English language, unlike many others, has adopted the horizontal left-to-right direction for placing letters in written words and written words in sentences. Since English is a "word order" language, in contrast to inflected languages like Latin, the order of words in sentences is most important in conveying meaning, in both its oral and written form. Movement of the hand in writing, or following with the finger in reading, will often facilitate the blending of sounds into meaningful words and the reading of words in groups as they occur in our speaking patterns. This emphasis upon sequence-building and order in the phonics approach
- 73. 73 leads into afunctional understanding of grammar and to the study of the sequences of ideas in various paragraph and chapter patterns as a basis for comprehension and expression of meaning.
- 74. 74 7.2.2. A Guidefor Teaching Phonics to Children You can use this Phonics Primer developed by the Ohana Foundation to begin teaching your child to read today. This primer lists the 44 sounds in the English language and then gives steps for teaching those 44 sounds and their most common spelling patterns. In addition to learning sounds and spellings, each day the child must read lists of phonetically related words and spell these words from dictation. Phonics instruction must be reinforced by having the child read decodable text. The 44 Sounds in the English Language 7.2.3. Steps for Teaching Phonics Step 1. Gather the materials listed below and store them together in a box. 5 Short-Vowel Sounds 18 Consonant Sounds 7 Digraphs short /_/ in apple short /_/ in elephant short /_/ in igloo short /_/ in octopus short /_/ in umbrella /b/ in bat /k/ in cat and kite /d/ in dog /f/ in fan /g/ in goat /h/ in hat /j/ in jam /l/ in lip /m/ in map /n/ in nest /p/ in pig /r/ in rat /s/ in sun /t/ in top /v/ in van /w/ in wig /y/ in yell /z/ in zip /ch/ in chin /sh/ in ship unvoiced /th/ in thin voiced /th/ in this /hw/ in whip * /ng/ in sing /nk/ in sink * (wh is pronounced /w/ in some areas) 6 Long-Vowel Sounds 3 r-Controlled Vowel Sounds Diphthongs and Other Special Sounds long /_/ in cake long /_/ in feet long /_/ in pie long /_/ in boat long /_/ (yoo) in mule long /__/ in flew /ur/ in fern, bird, and hurt /ar/ in park /or/ in fork /oi/ in oil and boy /ow/ in owl and ouch short /__/ in cook and pull /aw/ in jaw and haul /zh/ in television
- 75. 75 Materials for TeachingPhonics What You Need Product Recommendations systematic phonics program Ohana Phonics Series: 12 workbooks, covering phonemic awareness. phonics dictionary Ohana Phonics Picture Dictionary: 1,000-word visual dictionary. decodable stories (preferably 100% decodable) If your phonics program does not contain 100% decodable stories, consider Ohana Storytelling Series. 24 storybooks based on the characters from Yoko, Toto & Jakamoko! Animation series seen on EBS. writing supplies: index cards, index card file, black wide-tip permanent marker, beginner’s wide-ruled writing tablet, 2 pencils with erasers Purchase writing supplies at any office supply store. Step 2. Teach the 5 short-vowel sounds and consonant sounds. Drill until memorized. During the first week, use the Ohana Phonics Workbooks to drill the short-vowel sounds. Add several consonant sounds each day until you are drilling all short-vowel sounds and consonant sounds with your child daily. Do not rush this step. Keep drilling until all sounds are memorized, which usually takes 2-4 weeks. Tip: Work on phonics for at least 15 minutes a day, 5 days a week with your child. Frequency and consistency are more important than the length of time spent on each lesson. Short-Vowel Sounds short /_/ in apple short /_/ in elephant short /_/ in igloo short /_/ in octopus short /_/ in umbrella
- 76. 76 Consonant Sounds /b/ inbat /k/ in kite /s/ in sun /k/ in cat /l/ in lip /t/ in top /d/ in dog /m/ in map /v/ in van /f/ in fan /n/ in nest /w/ in wig /g/ in goat /p/ in pig /ks/ in fox /h/ in hat /kw/ in queen /y/ in yell /j/ in jam /r/ in rat /z/ in zip Step 3. Practice two-letter blends. Drill until blending is automatic. After your child knows the short-vowel sounds and consonant sounds, next teach him how to orally blend two letters (b-a, ba) and read two-letter blends such as: ba, be, bi, bo, bu. Two-Letter Blends b + a = ba s + a = sa j + a = ja b + e = be s + e = se j + e = je b + i = bi s + i = si j + i = ji b + o = bo s + o = so j + o = jo b + u = bu s + u = su j + u = ju
- 77. 77 Step 4. Practicethree-letter blends. Drill until blending is automatic. After your child can read two-letter blends, progress to three-letter blends, that is, words. Each day, have your child read a set of short-vowel words, then dictate these same words to him. (Show him how to form each letter and correct him gently, if necessary). This not only helps him remember the phonics lesson just learned, but it greatly improves spelling. Golden Rule of Phonics: Never allow your child to skip, guess, or substitute words. Accuracy is more important than speed. Three-Letter Blends fa + t = fat ki + t = kit ro + d = rod de + n = den ma + d = mad se + t = set bo + x = box ye + s = yes tu + g = tug hi + d = hid no + t = not wi + n = win ju + g = jug pu + n = pun la + p = lap
- 78. 78 Step 5. Teachthe twin-consonant endings, plurals, and two-consonant blends. Drill until blending is automatic. Step 6. Teach the digraphs (ch, sh, th, wh, ng, nk). A digraph consists of two consonants that form a new sound when combined. Also teach three-consonant blends. Digraphs Three-Consonant Blends chin, such, patch (silent t) scruff ship, wish split thin, with (unvoiced /th/) strap this (voiced /th/) thrill whip sing, sang, song, sung Twin-Consonant Endings Two-Consonant Blends Two-Consonant Blends puff blab stun, fist sell brag swam kiss club trot fuzz crop twin lock drag fact fled raft Plurals: frog bulb cats (sounds like /s/) glum held beds (sounds like /z/) grip elf plug sulk prim film scat help skip, mask silt sled jump smug hand snip mint spot, gasp kept
- 79. 79 Digraphs Three-Consonant Blends sink, sank,sunk Step 7. Introduce a few irregular words necessary to read most sentences. After your child can read three-letter and four-letter words easily, it’s time to add a few irregular words (“wacky words”) that are necessary to read most sentences. The Basic Wacky Words table lists the most important irregular words – teach these first. Write each word on an index card. Introduce two or three new words a week. Drill your child on these “wacky words” everyday, encouraging him to sound out as much of the word as possible (usually the vowel sound is the only irregular part). As your child masters each word, file the card in the card file under “Words I Know.” File new words under “Words To Learn.” Basic Wacky Words Introduce after child can read short-vowel words Introduce after child has learned /th/ and /sh/ Introduce after child has learned long-vowel sounds a, I to, into or, for of, put the, she, he, me, be, we no, go, so do, doing, does was, were, are said, says, have, her you, your, yours they, their, there where, what, why, who once, one, come, some done, none two, too Tip: What distinguishes these “wacky words” from so-called sight words? Most of these wacky words cannot be sounded out, usually because they contain a vowel sound that doesn’t “follow the rules.” In contrast, the typical “sight word” list consists of mostly phonetically regular words (such as “and” and “when”) that the child is forced to memorize simply because he has never been taught to sound them out. Step 8. Teach the long-vowel sounds and their spellings. Note that there are five common spellings for each long-vowel sound. Also teach the “Silent-e Rule”: When a one-syllable word ends in “e” and has the pattern vce (vowel-consonant-e), the first vowel says its name and the “e” is silent. Long-Vowel Sounds Common Spellings Less Common Spellings long /_/ cake, rain, pay, eight, baby steak, they, vein
- 80. 80 long /_/ Pete,me, feet, sea, bunny key, field, cookie, receive, pizza long /_/ bike, hi, fly, pie, night rye, type long /_/ hope, go, boat, toe, snow soul, though long /_/ & /__/ mule, blue, boot, tuna, flew fruit, soup, through, feud Step 9. Teach the r-controlled vowel sounds and their spellings. r-Controlled Vowel Sounds Common Spellings Less Common Spellings /ur/ fern, bird, hurt pure, dollar, worm, earth /ar/ farm orange, forest /or/ fork door, pour, roar, more, war Step 10. Teach the diphthongs /oi/ and /ow/ and their spellings. A diphthong consists of two vowels that form a new sound when combined. Also teach other special sounds. Sound Common Spellings /oi/ oil, boy /ow/ owl, ouch short /__/ cook, pull /sh/ vacation, session, facial /zh/ vision Step 11. Teach /aw/, /awl/, /awk/ and their spellings. Sound Common Spellings /aw/ jaw, haul, wash, squash /awl/ bald, wall /awk/ talk
- 81. 81 Step 12. Teachthese sounds and spelling patterns. Sound Common Spellings /s/ spelled c Rule: c followed by e, i, or y sounds like /s/. cent, face, cinder, cycle /j/ spelled g, ge, dge Rule: g followed by e, i, or y usually sounds like /j/. frigid, age, fudge, gym /f/ spelled ph Rule: ph sounds like /f/ in words of Greek origin. phone, phonics /k/ spelled ch Rule: ch sounds like /k/ in words of Greek origin. chorus, Christmas /sh/ spelled ch Rule: ch sounds like /sh/ in words of French origin. chef, champagne Step 13. After 3 to 4 months of daily phonics instruction, begin introducing decodable stories. Important: All sounds and spellings in Steps 2 - 12 should be introduced within the first 4 months of phonics instruction. After 3 to 4 months of reading lists of words and sentences, your child should be ready to read decodable stories such as those from the Yoko Storytelling Series.. The child should read all stories aloud, carefully and accurately. Help him sound out difficult words, as needed. Explain the meaning of all new words. Encourage him to read each story several times to gain fluency, but don’t let him memorize the story (reciting a story from memory is not reading). Model fluent reading by listening to the audiocassette and/or reading a sentence aloud with expression, then asking him to repeat what you read with the same tone of voice. Explain and demonstrate the meaning of basic punctuation (period = stop, comma = pause, exclamation point = speak with excitement, question mark = raise the pitch of your voice on the last word to ask a question.) Step 14. Begin introducing “easy-to-read” books. After the child masters decodable stories, let him move on to easy books such as those by Dr. Seuss (Hop on Pop; One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish; Ten Apples Up on Top; Green Eggs and Ham; and so on) and P. D. Eastman (Are You My Mother?; Go Dog, Go!; A Fish Out of Water). As your child reads each book, add new irregular words to the Wacky Word file and review daily.
- 82. 82 Continue teaching thelessons in the Ohana Phonics Program – don’t stop just because your child can read. Most children need 1 to 2 years of reinforcement before their phonics knowledge becomes permanent. Step 15. Continue to give phonetically based spelling lists. Even after your child has finished the Ohana Phonics Program, make sure to reinforce his phonics knowledge by giving phonetically based spelling lists each week throughout elementary school.
- 83. 83 Chapter 8: Classroommanagement overview This module provides participants with techniques and tips for managing classroom dynamics. Topics addressed include dealing with problem students and situations and creating lesson plans and activities to minimize classroom control problems between young adult and adult English Language Learners. This session provides instructors with the tools to both reduce and prevent instructor stress in the classroom. Course outcomes: • Create lesson plans for the entire class session • Apply tips for staying on schedule and using instructional time efficiently • Handle problem students and dealing with class disruptions • Prevent problems from arising and staying in control in difficult situations • Hold students accountable for preparing for class • Develop strategies for dealing with students who leave at break, do not attend class, or turn in assignments
- 84. 84 What is classroommanagement? Ask any ten instructors across the country about classroom management and you will get ten different responses. Classroom management can be many different things to different people, with all of them correct in one form or another. MacDonald and Healy (1999) note that classroom management is “your ability to keep students constructively involved in learning” (p. 205). Kindsvatter, Wilen, and Ishler (1996) go on to state that “management behaviors of the teacher are generally those things a teacher does in addition to instructional behaviors and are intended to keep students on task” (p. 91), an important distinction to note. Classroom management does not take the place of good instructional behavior; it supports it when necessary. However, if you have sound instructional practices, it is less likely that you will need to revert to disciplinary management practices. This document seeks to help you understand different ways of managing a young adult & adult classroom environment to the benefit of everyone involved. MacDonald and Healy (1999) sum it up nicely in saying that “class management is the essential complement to your capacity to teach interesting material in ways that engage the interest and effort of your students” (p. 206). A study conducted by Evertson and Emmer in 1982 (as cited in Kindsvatter et al., 1996, p. 78) described the following methods of effective classroom managers: 1. Provided explicit instructions about desirable behavior. 2. Monitored student compliance with classroom standards and reacted accordingly to deviations. 3. Developed a strong and more detailed system for student accountability. 4. Communicated information effectively, in presenting information, giving directions, and stating objectives. 5. Had more on-task time with learning activities, wasting less classroom time. Classroom management models Classroom management has often been linked with disciplinary measures. In the 1970s, research began on how to better manage a classroom using behavior management techniques rather than strict discipline. These techniques and research were mostly devoted to the K-12 environment and advocated the use of “assertive discipline” which is a term first coined by Lee and Marlene Canter. Tom McIntyre (2004) sums up the Canter’s approach by saying that the instructor makes all of the decisions about what is to be expected in the classroom. The instructor is responsible for enforcing the rules to keep other students from disrupting the learning environment. This method of discipline works for many teachers because it is easy to implement and enforce. The Cantors had detractors to their method. Many said that the Assertive Discipline method was too teacher-centered and did not take the students and their individual needs into account. Another major issue with Assertive Discipline is the fact that it is a reactive technique, rather than a proactive one. It does not allow the instructor to work in collaboration with the student to prevent student misbehavior.
- 85. 85 Instead, pre-determined consequencesare given, with little flexibility in determining the severity. Another common classroom management method is the Discipline with Dignity method created by Richard Curwin and Allen Mendler. This method is much more proactive in nature and deals with prevention of misbehavior rather than attempting to determine the causes behind it. This model is more student-centered and focuses on larger issues, not the smaller ones. At its core, this method allows instructors the flexibility to make choices when it comes to consequences for the students or even to let students make those choices. It supports the use of humor and student accountability for problems. Opponents of the Discipline with Dignity model argue that it might be too permissive and that it leans too far towards a student-controlled management. It requires more planning and consideration on the part of the instructor than the Assertive Discipline model. The Discipline with Dignity model can sometimes be seen as shifting the blame for student behavior to the institution rather than on the students themselves. What’s important to remember is that every instructor has their own method of classroom management and you need to define what your method is before you go into the classroom. Your policies and their consequences should also be clearly stated in the syllabus. Gerald Amada (1999) suggests that each instructor identify “which classroom behaviors could reasonably be deemed unacceptable and penalizable” (p. 23) before the class begins. It is acceptable not to have a clearly defined policy on every potential item that could occur, but you should have policies for basic items like missing classes and tests, student behavior, and late work. You will find that writing these policies down will help you define exactly what kind of behavior you require from your students. It is also common for your basic ideas of classroom management to change over time. You will find that some issues naturally come to the forefront while other issues drop in importance to you as you gain more experience in the classroom.
- 86. 86 Goals of classroommanagement Managing a young adult & adult classroom effectively is a highly individualized activity. What works for one instructor does not necessarily work for others. However, the basic goals of classroom management for almost all instructors, articulated by Eggen and Kauchak (as cited in Campbell, 1999, p. 34) are to: • Create the best learning environment possible • Develop student responsibility and self-regulation It is not possible to have a positive learning environment if student behavior goes unchecked and if students have not developed the sense of responsibility that goes along with being a young adult & adult student. By the same token, it is difficult to help the students become self-regulating and responsible if the learning environment in the classroom does not support this goal. Students need to understand their responsibilities as a learner and to develop the ability to regulate their own behavior in order to participate and fulfill their role in creating and maintaining a positive learning environment. Student responsibility is often an area where instructors feel that they have no control. We are all looking for those self-motivated students who come to class prepared and awake, who are respectful and willing to think. “Most of us expect our students to have learned how to be students by the time they reach the young-adult & adult stages of their lifelong learning. Yet many of my charges need help in learning how to study or write papers, as well as how a young adult & adult classroom is supposed to operate” (Perlmutter, 2004, p. B15). That is most likely true of many of your students as well. For many young adult & adult students, the return to the classroom is a frightening prospect, considering that many of them may not have attended class recently or previously or have been out of school for a number of years. Some of the most important features of classroom management are the things that students do not necessarily see and instructors find difficult to describe. Good classroom management involves equal parts planning and spontaneity. It is possible to plan well, but not be able to react to the classroom dynamics or student needs. It’s also possible to spend all of your time reacting to these things and not have done the proper planning that needs to go into a course as a whole or a particular session. Gail Godwin once said “good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three- fourths theater” and to a certain extent, that is true. You must not only be prepared for what you want to teach in a semester, you also somehow have to prepare yourself for the unexpected as well. ”Without a carefully constructed classroom management plan, teachers may develop defensive reactions to disruptive students and this will most certainly seriously compromise their effectiveness as teachers” (Campbell, 1999, p. 46). It is also true that you need to review your classroom management strategies periodically to ensure that they are still effective. Some instructors tend to use what worked for them at one time over and over and do not make adjustments for different courses or different students. As Campbell (1999) states, “it is not enough to simply create a complete set of rules or to have contingencies specified for these
- 87. 87 rules. Continual reviewof the rules and the consequences of violating them must occur” (p. 48). You should also pay attention to how you state your rules. A list of “Do nots” tends to set a negative tone from the beginning; something you want to avoid. “Students should be helped to understand that the rules are expectations of positive behavior and not prohibitions or negative behavior” (Campbell, 1999, p. 48). Instructor responsibilities All young adult & adult instructors have two essential professional prerogatives. First, they have the prerogative to set academic standards for their students and to grade or evaluate the quality of students’ performance according to those standards. Second, they have the prerogative to set behavioral standards for their classes (Amada, 1999, p. 21). In an effort to assist you with this process, we have composed the list below, which can be viewed as a fairly broad interpretation of your duties. As an instructor of Ohana EFL, you are expected to: • Ensure an appropriate pace and effective use of classroom time through course/session planning • Keep the discussion and activities focused on the learning objectives (course outcomes) • Create and maintain a positive learning environment • Prevent, detect, and address disruptive or dysfunctional student behavior One recurring theme through this session is the importance of proper planning in avoiding classroom management issues. A good plan, with plenty of diversity in activities and opportunities for students to experience learning for themselves, goes much of the way toward preventing some of the problems that arise from students becoming bored, leaving early or talking in class at inappropriate times. However, a plan is just that, a plan of what you think you want to accomplish during a class session. Do not get so tied to your lesson plan that you lose the “teachable moments” that you might not have scripted in advance. Be flexible enough to let go of the plan if necessary to seize the moments as they come. Keeping your course focused on the learning or course outcomes will also help reduce some of the tension and resistance students may have about why a particular item or concept is important. If you can point to its relevance on the course outcomes and stay focused on what the students need to know to complete the course and program successfully, your classes should run more smoothly. Some ways to ensure that you maintain your focus are: • Keep the discussion on topic • Balance the time on activities to the learning outcomes • Separate individual student issues from class issues • Address problems or disruptions immediately to keep them from snowballing
- 88. 88 Keeping discussions ontrack Maintaining discussion focus is a common problem for many instructors, both new and experienced. There are some students who just like to monopolize a discussion or who go off on tangents, either during a class discussion or when asking a question. Many instructors struggle with how to deal with this issue without being rude or making the rest of the students in the class feel like they won’t be able to talk without being cut off. As difficult as it is, you must stop those students who refuse to keep their comments on the topic at hand. “Instructors can do this by simply and politely telling the students that they have used up their allotted time and now it is someone else’s turn to speak.” (Amada, 1999, p. 81). You can also see Appendix A at the end of this manual for more strategies to deal with this issue. Time spent on learning (course) outcomes Balancing instructional time is always a delicate act. There always seems to be more material to cover than time to cover it. One of the ways that you can help both yourself and your students is to do the long-range course planning discussed in detail on page 14. If you find that you are spending a lot of time on items that do not relate directly to the course outcomes, you can often eliminate some of that time and gain more time for covering items that are tied to the course outcomes. Student versus class issues Sometimes it is difficult to determine what is an individual student issue and what is a class issue, but it is an important distinction. For instance, if you have a few students who are consistently late returning from break, lecturing the class about tardiness is ineffective, particularly if the offending students are not in the room. It can actually create barriers between you and the other students who were in the room on time. Additionally, the students whose behavior you object to aren’t even present for the “punishment”, so it does not affect them at all. Some issues can be dealt with at a class level, but many issues are actually individual student issues that are best dealt with in a private manner. Do not be afraid to take students into the hall for private discussions during activity time. Some instructors tell students that if approached with an issue, the conversation will immediately be moved to the hall, regardless of its nature. This allows you to have confidential talks with students about both behavioral and non- behavioral issues without raising the curiosity of other students. Never underestimate the power of a personal, one-on-one conversation with a student. Regardless of what you may think, it is possible to “teach” from the hall. You are just doing it a different way than when you teach in the classroom and it often produces a more immediate change in behavior from the student. Addressing problems Dysfunctional student behavior can occur in many forms. Some forms are more disruptive than others, but even the most minor infraction can affect not only that student, but others as well. It is your responsibility, and not an easy one, to do as much as you can to prevent these behaviors and then deal with them if they do occur. “Although it can’t absolutely guard against disruptions, prevention does make them less likely to occur” (“Minimizing Disruptive Behavior,” 2004, p. 6).
- 89. 89 Not addressing disruptivebehavior immediately can have repercussions for the entire class. If you come down on the offending student at a later date, he/she may wonder why you let the behavior continue for so long. Silence on the part of the instructor is often interpreted by the students as acquiescence, so by not saying anything immediately, you are giving an implicit nod to the behavior. Failure to resolve student misbehavior in a timely manner can also cause the other members of the class to question your policies, possibly leading to further disruption and behavior issues. Professional standards There are many ways that you, as an instructor, can maintain a positive learning environment. One of those ways is to follow the code of professional conduct. Ohana expects that all EFL instructors will adhere to certain professional behavioral standards, which are listed below: • Dress – the dress code is business casual-neat and professional. Ohana feels that instructors should model the highest standard of professional behavior at all times, including dress. Proper attire is a seen as a sign of respect in many cultures. • Speech – in class, as well as via phone and email. Students are often hesitant to ask questions or to question an instructor when they should be encouraged to do so. A good portion of teaching is helping students find their voice and instructors must be particularly careful to speak in a professional manner to students. Humor is generally appropriate, but be cautious because not all students will take your comments in the same manner. Sarcasm is a dangerous area. Try to avoid even the appearance of belittling or being condescending to students. • Student confidentiality – students have the right to expect that their private issues remain private; so all grade or performance issues should be handled on an individual basis. This includes course grades and attendance. In the United States, many of these issues fall under the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), but each country has its own set of rules and regulations with respect to the administration of student records and information. So if you have any questions about what is considered confidential or to whom you can show information, please check with a local education official before releasing that information. • Behavior toward students – students have a right to expect that their instructors behave in a professional and courteous manner. Students have the right to have their opinions heard and should be treated with respect at all times. “Teachers should model respect for students by virtue of the way they interact with them” (Campbell, 1999, p. 58). Instructors have those same rights and it is often easier to enforce the instructor’s point of view rather than respect the student’s. Remember that a large portion of our students are working and have valuable contributions to make in the classroom. “We need to approach teaching with humility. Only when we do so will our students treat us with respect. Only then will we deserve it” (Benton, 2004, p. C1). However, respect is not always something that is automatically granted to you by your students. As Campbell (1999) states, “every teacher must earn the respect of the students. Earning respect requires a conscious effort; it does not just happen” (p. 58).
- 90. 90 • Attitude –something attracted you to teaching at some point, try and remember what that was and use it in your class. Each instructor has different strengths. Find yours and use them as a basis to conduct your class. Students will be able to tell the difference between a genuine love of teaching and enthusiasm for the craft and someone who is in it for other reasons. It’s not reasonable to expect that you will love teaching every single day, but try to ensure that your good days outnumber your bad ones. “Without realizing it, some instructors induce inattentiveness and disruptiveness in their students by teaching without the verve and joy for learning that is so essential to inspiring students in their quest for greater knowledge” (Amada, 1999, p. 50-51). Positive learning environment Once you have decided how you will present yourself to the class, it’s time to begin considering how you can make your class a positive learning environment. “Classroom conditions that provide students with academic and social success experiences tend to reduce discipline-related problems” (Kindsvatter et al, 1996, p. 78). Much of the recent research in education has been on the importance of learning communities and the numerous benefits they provide to both students and instructors. “Students disrupt classes less when they know and care about other students in the class. Teachers regularly underestimate the power of peer pressure. It can be used to create classroom environments where students act appropriately because of commitments they feel to others in the class.” (“Minimizing Disruptive Behavior,” 2004, p. 6). Use the learning communities ideas presented to enhance the learning experience, not only for your students, but for yourself. Some of the things that you can do to foster a positive learning environment include: • Respect for diverse student backgrounds, not only culturally but also socio- economically and professionally as well. • Teach using a variety of methods, in an effort to reach the maximum number of students possible. Amada (1999) notes that, “it is ironic and unfair for some instructors to discipline students for such inattentive forms of behavior as sleeping, chattering, and woolgathering in class when those same instructors are teaching in a boring, tedious, and soporific manner” (p. 50) and “perhaps the best antidote to all forms of disruptive behavior is for instructors to teach interestingly” (p. 51). • Provide consistent and fair treatment of all students when applying class policies (such as attendance and late assignments). “Whenever an instructor imposes two very different penalties upon two or more students who have committed very similar infractions, there is an increased likelihood that the instructor can legitimately be accused of engaging in discriminatory conduct” (Amada, 1999. p. 24). • Maintain confidentiality and privacy in student records and issues. • Ensure that the classroom is a safe, welcoming environment for students, where they feel comfortable asking questions and seeking assistance. “Learning new concepts, ideas, and modes of thinking can be a very slow and
- 91. 91 painfully difficult intellectualand emotional process” (Amada, 1999, p. 82). By encouraging questions and discussions among your students, you can help make this process more palatable for them and you. • Model appropriate classroom behavior for your students. Be enthusiastic about your subject, about your class, and about the institution where you teach. “If instructors teach with a certain passion and zeal for their subject and can impart their intellectual excitement and idealism to students, it is likely to make an important difference in fostering a positive, non-disruptive classroom environment” (Amada, 1999, p. 51). You probably already do many of the items listed above implicitly. Making them explicit in your planning will help the students see them more clearly. One of the most important of these is to work to establish a positive relationship with your students, but do not take it too far. “Far too many new teachers are overly and unnecessarily concerned about being liked by the students” (Campbell, 1999, p. 58). Planning Proper planning is perhaps the most essential of all course management functions. Good course and lesson plans allow you to see where you will go over the course of the semester and detail how you plan to get there. There are two types of planning you should engage in every semester: • Course planning • Individual session planning Course planning Course planning occurs before you begin planning for your individual session meetings and is performed with an eye towards the “big picture” you have for the course. During course planning, you should have the syllabus, the course outcomes and the syllabus guide at hand. While planning, you will probably want to: • Identify major and minor topic areas you plan to cover. Use your course outcomes as a guide for this process. • Target “milestone” time-intervals throughout the course to measure your progress against a timeline. This step can be especially important when you are preparing to teach the same class again, so you can make adjustments to the overall course or session plan, if necessary. • Determine any necessary supporting resources and make arrangements to obtain them. You could put a resource on hold at your campus library for students to review or identify websites that could be helpful. • Identify summative assessment and/or evaluation methods you will use to determine if students met the course outcomes. Assessment is a crucial piece of the learning puzzle that tells us, as instructors, whether or not we are successful in facilitating learning. Evaluation involves making a judgment about how well the student performed on a given task or in the class (think of it as a grade on a paper or a final grade in the course
- 92. 92 • Develop generalizedlearning activities to support course outcomes. These do not have to be in final form, but sometimes as you are preparing, activities begin to take shape in your mind, so take a few moments to write them down for your later session planning. • Review the syllabus guide to determine if there are any strategies, methods, or other information you would like to use. Remember that this guide is just that, a guide for how one person thinks the course could be taught. You are free to use what you want from the guide or not to use anything at all, if that i s y o u r p r e f e r e n c e . When you have completed the list of activities above, you should have a fairly good idea how you plan to achieve the course outcomes. These outcomes are not to be changed or modified in any way and you must ensure that each outcome is adequately covered in the time available. How you choose to achieve that outcome is entirely up to you and will most likely be determined when you are completing your session planning. Session planning Session planning is the detail step in planning. This is when you stop thinking in general terms and begin to identify specific activities and teaching strategies that you will employ to help students learn the required course outcomes. Session planning allows you to create a detailed plan about how you plan to accomplish the overall plan you developed in the course planning stage. One note of importance is that the first session is often the “make or break” session. Kindsvatter et al (1996) refer to the first day as “the most important day of class in terms of its potential impact” (p. 92) and go on to note that “students acquire their first impressions at this meeting, the tenor of the class is established and momentum is initiated” (p. 92), so you do not want to underestimate the importance of this particular session in your planning. During the session planning phase, you will want to: • Identify appropriate areas for lecture versus other learning activities. Lecture, though it is the most passive form of learning, does have a place in your repertoire. Research now shows that most students can attend to a lecture for about 15-20 minutes. Anything after that tends to be ineffective, so try to incorporate the concept of the “mini-lecture” into your sessions: “the average capacity to give focused attention is about 15 minutes. Depending on other environmental factors (temperature of the room, time of day, etc, after 15 minutes students’ ability to attend reduces and they take fewer and less accurate notes.” • Select appropriate, targeted instructional activities to accompany your lectures. “Effective classroom managers plan to vary instruction to achieve learning objectives in different ways and for the purpose of stimulating students’ interest and involvement” (Kindsvatter et al., 1999, p. 92). Not all content must be covered by the instructor. There are many different learning activities where students can teach themselves and each other the content, with the instructor acting more as a facilitator. These activities also
- 93. 93 tend to bemore student-centered and active, which means that students will become more engaged than they would if you were to cover the material. • Develop formative classroom assessments, which are different than the summative assessments you identified in the course planning stage. This type of assessment gauges how well your students have grasped a particular concept and should be completed several times a session. “Assessments become formative when the information is used to adapt teaching and learning to meet student needs” (Boston, 2002). • Gather any required instructional or supporting materials. Remember to review the supporting materials on the Ohana EFL Learning Portal located at http://www.ohanalearning.org/lp.html to see if there is anything you can use for your class. • Create your media files, if appropriate. And, plan on using what ICT tools you have available in the classroom. In fact, many classrooms today are being converted into multimedia classrooms, meaning that they have a fully functioning computer connected to the Internet. You can create presentations in PowerPoint or documents in Word, or gather a list of websites you might want to display for the class either in advance or during the class session. Lesson outlines After you have determined what you think you will need, you can then begin the process of planning the actual lesson. Most lessons are devoted to a single topic and typically involve the following as outlined by Deborah Mynster (1997): 1. Activation task – this allows students to explore their pre-existing knowledge on a particular topic before you begin. This process is also known as activation. (5-10 minutes) 2. Correction, evaluation, and re-teaching of entry task – you might need to correct student misperceptions before continuing. (5-10 minutes) 3. Teach new material – which can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Lecture is certainly one, but there are also student activities that can facilitate this process. (15 minutes) 4. Assess student understanding – through the use of the formative assessment discussed earlier. If your assessment shows that students are not grasping the concept, you will probably need to cover that topic using a different method or terminology. (10 minutes) 5. Provide closure – allow students to process the learning or activity by directing them to write in a journal, compose a reflection paper, or to simply jot down a few notes about important parts or concepts for later review. One particularly successful technique is to have the student identify how this concept has changed their thinking about something else. (5-10 minutes) This outline is just a suggestion for a “typical” 55 minute lesson. Of course, all of our class sessions last more than 55 minutes, so you can do 2-4 of these units in the time allotted to you. What is important to note from this outline is the constant movement of activity for students. They are active in every stage of this plan, which can help increase student motivation to learn, which, in turn, can increase student success. “When successful, students will perform better academically and will tend
- 94. 94 not to causeor contribute to discipline problems in the classroom” (Campbell, 1999, p. 24). Obviously you have more to teach than 4 items in an evening or 2 topics per day, so you need to refer back to your course plan for help in grouping these items in a logical manner. Some topics fit naturally well together while others, even though they may be covered in the same chapter in the textbook, just do not flow naturally. It is your job to identify when these mismatches are present and work around them to the benefit of your student. It is always important to over plan for a class session rather than under plan. Just as some lessons will take you longer to cover than you originally estimated, some lessons will move more quickly than you planned, so rather than letting the students out early or giving them busy work, you can always move to the next activity or lesson you have planned. You can also use reinforcement activities if you don’t want to move to the next topic or group the students for deeper reflection on the material. Another benefit of using the lesson plan identified above is that it can, in and of itself, help motivate students to come to class. Obviously you are not to blame for any attendance issues in your class, but students are more likely to want to come to class where they are actively involved in constructing their own learning, rather than sitting back and passively taking it all in. Many of adult students are kinesthetic learners, meaning that they have to physically become involved with the subject to master it and allowing them the opportunity to engage in active learning will help them be more successful and encourage better attendance. Another useful suggestion is to keep a “teaching journal” where you document your successes and your weaknesses for the course, identifying any areas where you can improve and what worked well for you. As you teach a particular course more often, this journal can become a valuable resource for you to see how far you have come in your personal teaching journey. Brophy and Rohrkemper conducted an interesting study about classrooms in 1981; and, they found that “of the many factors that affect students’ behavior, teachers’ reluctance to recognize their own culpability diminishes the likelihood that they will make useful adjustments in their classroom practices.” (qtd in (Kindsvatter et al., 1996. p. 78). By keeping this journal for yourself, you can identify where you can make these adjustments for the betterment of your students. Student accountability Instructors report that one of the most frustrating experiences they can have in a classroom is when students come to class completely unprepared for the class session. The student(s) may not have completed the required homework assignments or read the materials in the book. At this point, many instructors say that in order to proceed with the course, they (the instructor) will cover the material that the students were supposed to have covered before coming to class. In essence, students are learning that they do not necessarily have to come to class prepared because the instructor will cover the important material for them. One common excuse for lack of preparation is that the instructor gives too much homework. Students do not understand that “homework completion is a worthy goal- -achievement goes up when students spend more time on homework” (Cummings, 2000, p. 61). However, you want to ensure that the assignments you give students
- 95. 95 are both challengingand developmentally appropriate for that level of the course. It is important to remember that “providing both the appropriate quantity and quality of work is the teacher’s responsibility” (Cummings, 2000, p. 61). She further goes on to state that “quality can be measured by relevancy and meaning” (61). So if you’ve taken the time to ensure that your assignments are both meaningful to the course and relevant to the material, you should be able to expect that students will complete the work assigned to them. Alternatively, students report that when they do come to class prepared, the instructor goes over all of the material anyway, to ensure that students have the proper understanding of the material. In this case, students are shown that their preparation is unnecessary and that the instructor has to go over the material to make sure the students have the “correct interpretation” of the material. A formative assessment technique would be appropriate in this case because the instructor can use this activity to check student understanding in a subtler way and then move on if students demonstrate an adequate grasp of the material. Neither of the above scenarios fosters student responsibility or accountability. Why should the student spend their free time preparing for class when the instructor covers all of the material they were supposed to prepare, regardless of whether they report they completed it or not? Students learn very quickly which instructors enforce student responsibility and which instructors do not and, as is human nature, will take advantage of those who do not. Instructors need to tell their students that they must come to class prepared and then involve the students in various activities that allow them to prove their understanding of the materials or work through any problems they have. Students will often perform up to an instructor’s expectations but can also perform down to them. You should always set and maintain high expectations for accountability in class and then not lower those expectations if students fail to perform. If you are finding that students are regularly failing to come to class prepared, you have several strategies to deal with this problem including: • Required reading journals, detailing their thoughts about the readings or other materials that are due when they walk in the door. You can give the students an activity to work on while you skim the journals to determine where the students are with their understanding of the materials before you begin the session. • Graded/ungraded or credit/no credit homework assignments. Not every assignment needs to receive a letter grade, but students should feel as if their assignments count for something. Most adult learners resent busy work, so collecting and reviewing assignments can actually help enforce accountability if they know someone will be reviewing them. This review person does not always have to be the instructor. Peer reviews can also be used very effectively in this situation. • Quizzes at any time during the class. These quizzes shouldn’t be punitive actions; rather they are another method for obtaining formative assessment about the students and their grasp of the materials. Strive to make tests and quizzes “learning aids instead of simply the basis for grades” (Kindsvatter et al., 1996, p. 89).
- 96. 96 • 1-Minute papersto summarize the readings or lessons learned from the assignments. You can do a minute paper any time during the class. Some instructors also require a minute paper as an “entrance ticket” to the class, meaning that the student has to have a paper to enter class that day. You can use the three question method, with one question asking for information from the previous class and the other two ask questions about the reading or homework. All of the methods serve the dual purpose of giving the students a tangible reason to come to class prepared and can serve as formative assessments for you to help you determine if the class truly understands the material or not. If students are in need of assistance on a particular topic, you will be able to determine that by reviewing their journals or quiz results. You can then take steps to address the problem immediately so that you can confidently move to the next area. What often occurs instead is that instructors do not realize that students are having problems until the test, which can sometimes be a couple of weeks after the topic was introduced. The above method has the benefit of an almost immediate action (at the next class session) while the information is still fresh in the minds of the students. The key is to not do anything for students that they can do for themselves. Do not do the reading for the students or work through all of their homework assignments with them because this sends the exact opposite message than the one you want to send. If you want students to come to class ready to learn, then you should prepare your lessons assuming that is the case. Students will quickly learn that you will not spend your valuable class time doing things they were assigned outside of class and that there are consequences for that lack of preparation. The consequences are that they are less prepared to work on the activities and will not be able to contribute much to the group or discussion. For many instructors, this translates directly into participation points for the day, a concept that most students easily understand. You aren’t punishing them so much as you are dangling a carrot for them to work toward. One of the most important things you can do for your students is to help them make connections between what they are learning and their life experience, career or even other classes. Sometimes you need to make that connection for them in the beginning, while training them to do it for themselves as the semester progresses. It’s not unreasonable for students to ask the “why” questions or for you to "provide students with a credible rationale for learning activities and convince students of the relevance of a topic” (Kindsvatter et al., 1996, p. 88). Many students have a difficult time understanding why they might need to know something so if you are able to help them understand how information in your course relates to something they will do professionally, you can reduce the friction that comes from the student perception that they are learning unnecessary information. “Students may not become involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to what they are learning” (Kelly, 2004). Classroom challenges Instructors face many challenges in the classroom; some that are within the realm of their control as well as some that are not. One of the most important things you can remember is that you can’t solve every problem for every student. Some students have academic or affect issues that are well beyond the scope of things you can or
- 97. 97 want to dealwith in a classroom. Below is a breakdown of some of the types of things you can expect to see in a typical EFL classroom: • Academic challenges o Can be controlled or addressed by you • Non-academic challenges o Commonly referred to as affect issues o Often beyond your control as an instructor • Physical o Can sometimes be addressed by the student and/or instructor Academic challenges Adult learners face the same academic challenges that you faced as an undergraduate during your college days. Some of these issues include: • Fear of speaking in front of others • Distaste for working in groups • Failure to understand how to complete an assignment accurately • Anxiety when taking quizzes or test or writing papers • Missing assignment deadlines • Feeling like they “have to get an A” to be successful • Failing in a course or program The responsibility for each of the above items belongs to the student. You cannot make the student understand something they do not or make them turn assignments in on time. However, you can act as a coach or facilitator to offer assistance. One method of doing this is to require students who come to you with a problem also come prepared with a couple of potential solutions for the problem. This is a skill that will serve them well in the workplace and this presents a good opportunity for students to begin practicing that skill for the future. Problems related to the course content are almost always the easiest to identify and correct. If a student does not understand something about a particular concept and comes to talk with you about it; it isn’t a problem to go over that material again or in a different way until the student understands. The main issue with this method is that it places the responsibility on the student to know what he/she does not know and to be confident enough to seek out the instructor for extra assistance. This may not always be the case, which is why the formative classroom assessment techniques (CATs) discussed earlier will help you diagnose and address this issue. Other ways that you can address some of these academic challenges are to have students paraphrase, in writing, their understanding of assignments, particularly large assignments, so that you can do a quick check of their understanding before
- 98. 98 they get toofar along in the process. This helps you as well, since you can intervene at an earlier stage rather than later. Often students will insist that they know what the assignment is and what it entails only to be proven wrong when you correct the assignment, so this step can often save both you and the students some potential problems later in the course. Other students will come to you with problems that are not necessarily related to your course content but related to a type of assignment you selected. Many students have great fears of speaking in public or of taking tests. Other students do not like group work because they do not want to depend on others for their grade. Of course, you can’t eliminate those requirements for the students who are fearful, so you need to work with the student to come to a satisfactory resolution for everyone involved. Often just the act of listening to the student’s concerns and asking for their input can help the situation. If you’ve taken the time to build the positive classroom environment referred to earlier, students will generally be more comfortable in trying something new. When all else fails, you can remind them that you are preparing them for a workplace environment where they will need to be able to speak in front of others and work as a member of a team and that it is a course requirement. Perhaps one of the most common and frustrating of student complaints is when the student comes to you to complain about their grade and reminds you that they (the student) “pay your salary” or that they have paid for the class and they deserve a better grade than the one you have given them. While it is true that all institutions of higher learning depend on student tuition, it is ludicrous for a student to believe that just because they have paid tuition, they are automatically entitled to a grade different than the one they earned. Gerald Amada (1999) has a wonderful analogy about this phenomenon that you can modify for your students. “Most of us pay taxes, some of which are used to underwrite the salaries of the police officers who patrol our states’ highways. If we speed, drive recklessly or under the influence of alcohol, we are subject to citations, fines, or possibly even arrest. If we are pulled over by a police officer for speeding, it might be credible to debate the point of whether we were indeed exceeding the speed limit. However, if we instead argue that the police officer has no right to cite us because we pay his or her salary, we are asking for trouble. The policy officer is authorized to carry out the law and the act that we help to pay his or her salary does not abrogate that authority” (p. 67). You can remind students that their tuition money does not go directly towards paying your salary and that “students who pay tuition fees are ipso facto subsidizing a wide range of educational services. Among those services are the salaries of instructors. One of the official and essential duties of these instructors is to maintain a reasonable degree of order in the classroom, conducive to a good teaching and learning environment” (Amada, 1999, p. 68). From there, you can expand upon the logic to say that if you do not grade consistently and fairly, you are not performing the duties for which the students have paid. Non-academic challenges In addition to the academic challenges our students face, many of them are challenged with non-academic issues as well. Non-academic issues are more difficult for an instructor to deal with because they are generally removed from the
- 99. 99 classroom environment whereyou have direct influence. Issues such as fear of returning to school after being out for an extended period of time or of not feeling up to the standards of other students are issues where you, as the instructor, have little control. You can be encouraging and helpful, but ultimately it is up to the students to make that leap on their own. Certainly the way you structure your classroom can help build esteem in students, allowing them to start with smaller successes and build up to larger ones. “Academic challenges and achievements in school are legitimate ways to enhance self-worth, self-confidence, and acceptance by one’s peers (i.e., self-esteem)” (Campbell, 1999, p. 13). Childcare and conflicts with a full or part-time job can often interfere with school. Many young adult & adult students are employed while attending school and many have families as well. While you do not need to make exceptions for these situations, you do need to be aware that they could occur during the semester and have a plan in mind for how you intend to deal with them when they do occur. There are many methods for dealing with these issues and the method you select will depend on your personality and comfort with discussing these issues in class. Many instructors spend some time the first day of class asking students what problems they anticipate occurring during the semester and have students spend a short amount of time brainstorming some ways to deal with them so that they have some ideas in place if the problem were to occur. Other instructors are not comfortable with this method and prefer to let the student resolve issues by themselves. Either method is fine as long as you remember that if a student comes to you with an issue you are uncomfortable dealing with; you can refer that student to a school administrator or a counselor if your campus has one. You are not expected to resolve every problem a student faces and there are many times where a referral to an outside source is the appropriate method for handling the problem. What is important is that you take the time to listen to the problem and then help the student understand where they can go for assistance. Physical challenges Physical challenges can occasionally be both the easiest and most difficult type of challenge to overcome. Many of our classrooms have typical tables and chairs, which may be uncomfortable for students sitting for long period of time. Occasionally we aren’t able to regulate the temperature as well as we would like and school policy may prohibit eating and drinking in the classroom. Many adult EFL students come to evening classes directly from work and have not had a chance to eat dinner or even mentally prepare for the upcoming class session. You have no control over these items, but you can do several things that will help your students deal with them in a constructive manner. Consider Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Gwynne, 1997), pictured below, when attempting to deal with physical issues presented to you by the student. Students cannot get to the social level where you need them for group activities until they have resolved issues on the first two levels. You can deal with these issues in a variety of ways, all designed to minimize the disruption on your classroom activities.
- 100. 100 The first levelis sometimes tricky as it is disruptive to have students wandering in and out of class, getting a drink or something to eat when you are attempting to conduct your lesson. Some instructors have solved this by beginning each class with an activity designed to stimulate thought on the previous session or activate thinking on the current session and tell their students that they need to complete the activity within a particular time frame, which will allow the student a few moments to get a drink or something to eat. Other instructors have resolved the problem of students sitting for long periods of time by making them move around when they do activities, either to a different table for group work or to the front or back of the room. This can help energize your students as well, as the simple act of moving often helps reinvigorate them. The safety issue can be considered in several ways, but is most often seen as the act of creating the positive classroom environment, where students feel safe and are encouraged to ask questions and to share their thoughts. Creating this type of welcoming environment is sometimes difficult but worth the effort when the classroom discussions prove fruitful and engaging because students know that they are free to share their thoughts without judgment from others. The social aspect of any classroom is where both the instructor and the other students can have a positive or negative impact. Making the classroom safe for discussion is one aspect, but also making sure that people are comfortable working in groups, that they know what it means to be a productive group member or discussion participant can sometimes make a big difference in the quality of the activity or project your students produce. Building esteem is always a tricky subject in any classroom, and can be much more difficult in the diverse environment that adult EFL classrooms often become. Instructors need to work to match the assignment with the class, ensuring that it has the proper amount of challenge to make it stimulating, but not too much challenge to make it overwhelming. Students “will develop appropriate self-esteem as they experience success in the school-related activities teachers provide for them” (Campbell, 1999, p. 13). Small successes can help jump-start larger successes, in school and elsewhere, so by appropriately increasing the difficulty of assignments
- 101. 101 after students havemastered a previous level, you can help students of all ages build their self-esteem, which can in turn help motivate them to take on future challenges The last level, self-actualization, is really left up to the student. You can assist another in becoming self actualized by providing the proper environment, coaching, feedback, and enabling success, but this is the step students have to break through on their own. However, as instructors, “we want students to recognize that if they try, it will pay off. When effort leads to success, students begin to expect success on future projects” (Cummings, 2000, p. 73). This is the goal we as instructors strive toward. If students start to have the confidence that they can be successful, you will spend less time arguing with your students and more time working with them to be successful. Most students simply require that an instructor “help them feel confident that they will be able to cope sufficiently with the task and challenges of schooling” (Kindsvatter et al., 1996, p. 89). Sometimes a verbal or written compliment will do while other students may require a little more help in this area. As long as you maintain a positive attitude toward the student and demonstrate confidence in their abilities, you are meeting their needs in this regard. Finally, a quick word about student breaks because this can have an impact on all levels of student functionality in a class. Students need breaks, particularly in longer classes. The typical adult can be expected to attend to an activity for 90 to 120 minutes without a break, but can not go too much longer than that without stepping away for a few moments. It is ironic that instructors complain frequently about students coming to class late or returning from break late when that same instructor will often teach right through the students’ scheduled break. If you expect the students to honor your time by being prompt in returning from breaks, then you need to honor their time by stopping class at the scheduled time, regardless of what you are doing at the time; you can always pick up after break where you stopped. Common factors affecting learning There are many factors that can affect a student’s learning in a course. It is important to realize which type of issue you are dealing with to be able to respond appropriately in the situation. Several examples of factors that affect learning are below: • Instructional style and methods • Personality conflicts • Student understanding • Attendance Instructional style Students are greatly affected by the manner in which their instructor chooses to teach. “Instructors who teach with a jubilant willingness to share in the exciting journey of learning are likely to have respectful allies rather than obdurate foes for students” (Amada, 1999, p. 52). Research has identified several learning styles and studies have shown that a mismatch can affect the student’s learning. The resolution for this is to present your materials and conduct your class to appeal to a variety of learning styles (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic). “A relationship between learning
- 102. 102 styles and teachingstyles is a factor in the success of post-secondary students” (Sarasin, 1999, p. 2). “Students regularly identify some aspects of instruction that get in the way of learning” (“Annoying Classroom Behaviors”, 2004, p. 5). Think about how you teach on a regular basis. Reflect, after each class session or semester, about what went well and how you might change it for next time. We like to think that students do not learn because of student issues, but in reality, our behavior could have something to do with it as well. Consider your teaching as a skill that needs refinement to stay sharp, not as something that, once mastered, can never be improved upon again. Personality conflicts Occasionally you will have a student that you just do not get along with for some reason. “Students, especially those 18-22 years old, respond to their teachers as people” (“Annoying Behavior”, 2004, p. 5). You, as an instructor, have to work even harder to reach that student as often they can sense the conflict that you do. Personality conflicts between students and instructors can make things uncomfortable for not only you and the student, but for the rest of the class as well. Sometimes students are even blatantly rude or disrespectful toward you. “More often than not, when a student is disrespectful, it is because the student feels disrespected by the teacher” (Benton, 2004, p. C1). Sometimes it is a case of miscommunication in terms of expectations or feedback, but “even the most progressive teachers are disrespectful in a thousand subtle and not-so-subtle ways” (Benton, 2004, p. C1), so in this case, it is generally a matter of reviewing your behavior and ensuring that it is appropriate. Sometimes a discussion with the student can help, but as long as you are behaving in a professional and respectful manner, there is little else you can do. Student understanding Many things work together to increase or decrease student understanding. Again, you, as an instructor, do have some influence over the level of student understanding in your course. If you talk above your students’ heads or constantly use terminology with which they are unfamiliar, their understanding decreases. As student understanding goes down, disruptive behavior, in the form of talking with others, doing work for other courses, or lack of participation goes up. At that point you have to work twice as hard to bring the students back to where you want to focus. Often instructors do not give students enough credit for the understanding about a subject that they do have. “What counts as intelligence depends almost entirely upon context” (Benton, 2004, p. C1). It is possible that what worked for you in terms of an analogy several years ago is no longer relevant or helpful to explain the topic or concept you want them to understand. Again, this is another time where a periodic review of your materials and methods will help ensure that you are using the most up-to-date references and sources available. Attendance Attendance is a never-ending issue that you will face in all of your courses, regardless of where you teach. As mentioned previously, many adult EFL students are working and have families in addition to attending classes, so attendance is invariably an issue at some point. How you choose to structure your class is up to
- 103. 103 you: you doset the attendance policy for your class and are responsible for publicizing it in your syllabus each semester. Many instructors include participation points in their grading scheme and distribute those points each class session. Often these points are for in-class activities and cannot be made up, so if a student is unable to attend, they will not be able to earn those points. Many students feel that this is a punishment and many have legitimate reasons for missing class. One of the most important things that you can do is to have a discussion with your students in the beginning of class to explain how you use participation and why it can or cannot be made up if they miss class. When you help them to understand that this is not a randomly applied rule and that you are consistent with all of your students in this manner, you can reduce the number of arguments or challenges to your policy. Classroom control tips Classroom control is a highly sensitive topic among instructors. What works for one person may or may not work for another person; what one instructor finds acceptable may be unacceptable to others. One of the main points of this document and this training is to let you know that you, as the instructor, have the ultimate determination about what is acceptable or unacceptable in your class: ultimately the responsibility for the class is yours. That being said, there are many ways for you to manage your classroom in an effective manner. Generally a proactive attitude is best, where you determine what you will and will not accept before you begin the class begins for the semester. It seems to be less confusing, both for yourself and your students, if you have clear ideas about how you will handle common classroom situations. Setting expectations One of the easiest things to do as instructors is set our expectations for student behavior and work. We expect a certain level of behavior from our young adult & adult students and tend to react when students do not perform the way we think they should. However a crucial step is missing from that process and that is the part where you tell students what your expectations are. Do not be afraid to set high expectations for both yourself and your students, but do not keep them a secret either. Tell your students not only what you expect, but also why you expect it and how they can meet and exceed those expectations. Reinforce your expectations when you give feedback to the students, either in assignments or in conversation. Communication is the key. A somewhat scarier prospect is to ask the students what to expect from you as an instructor. Sometimes students have unrealistic expectations or beliefs about how an instructor could or should act and by asking these questions and talking about expectations at the beginning of the course, you can correct any misperceptions about you or your role. Some instructors go so far as to have students make a list of expectations for both students and instructors and proceed with a discussion from there. You can take this process a step farther and draw up a learning or behavior contract that both you and your students agree to abide to during the course. Once expectations are out in the open, students will often begin to police themselves and each other, removing you from that role entirely. This helps foster that sense of student self-regulation, one of the goals of a positive learning environment.
- 104. 104 Accountability Accountability is oneof the most important traits you can teach your students and by holding them accountable as discussed earlier, you help prepare them for the professional world in a somewhat intangible way. This works both ways though and if you tell your students that you plan to hold them accountable for their work, then you need to remember that they can hold you accountable as well. This can be another good place to discuss student and instructor expectations and behaviors. You can tell students that you will plan to return work the following week, but that would mean that they will be accountable for turning it in on time so you can meet your deadline. The more you can reinforce the concept that you are all accountable to each other, the more your students will want to perform to your expectations. Consistency Perhaps the most important trait you need to have as an instructor is consistency. You must make your policy and then be consistent about applying it throughout the entire course. “It would be a disaster if a teacher were seen by students as being unfair or showing partiality to some students over others” (Campbell, 1999, p. 48). After the course is over, if the policy did not work out the way you intended, you can change it, but during the course, you must be consistent above all else. If you begin the course with a no late homework policy, then you cannot accept late homework from anyone, under any circumstances. “A violation of the rule in one case must be a violation of the rule in another case” (Campbell, 1999, p. 48). This can be a tough policy to enforce, particularly if a student experiences some kind of legitimate trauma during the semester and you want to be flexible, but your policy prohibits it. If you find yourself wanting to change for just one student, you may want to reconsider the policy completely, as there will always be that one student who just does not fit the circumstances for which you designed the policy. Some things to be aware of in this arena include your policies on extra credit, making up participation points or class activities, and tests. You need to remember that if you “cut a deal” for one student, you’ve effectively just done the same for all of the other students in your class because they will talk to one another. Consistency is one of the most important habits you can acquire as an instructor because it will protect you from some of the highly subjective areas where it can be difficult to separate the person from the issue. “All students, both the academically strong and the academically weak must be treated in exactly the same manner” (Campbell, 1999, p. 48). If all late homework, regardless of reason, gets a 10% deduction per day that it is late, then you do not have to worry about being the one to judge if one student’s reason for turning their homework in late is better or more acceptable than another student’s. It removes you from the middle of that process and allows you to concentrate more fully on other aspects of the course. Student involvement As noted earlier, student involvement in the course is imperative. If you want students to be involved in the classroom discussion and the work, it can often be helpful to also let them be involved in some of the decisions regarding that work. Students need to feel that the classroom is a “participatory democracy, but with the necessary limitations imposed by the school organization” (Kindsvatter et al., 1996, p. 89), or in this case, you.
- 105. 105 This can beaccomplished in several ways, all with somewhat minimal effort on your part. Is it important that you choose the lesson topic, or can the student make the selection? Does it matter to you if the paper is due in Week 8 or Week 9? Can students form their own groups for projects or will you do that? How should students behave in a group discussion? You can present your class with several alternatives and allow them to choose between them or you can allow the class to brainstorm for solutions before selecting one. Central to this process is the idea that you have the final say to veto a bad decision by the class (no tests for example) but giving the students some voice in how the class will be run can have multiple benefits for everyone. First, your students will feel that their opinion is valued and respected from the beginning of class, an idea that is sometimes difficult for students to grasp. Second, the group decision-making process often leads to a shared experience that is difficult to replicate in other assignments or activities. The students, by virtue of their involvement in the decisions, will have some sort of automatic “buy-in” to the assignment or course that they may not have otherwise experienced. Lastly, the students can then begin holding one another accountable. For example, in a group discussion, if the group agreed that one person should speak at a time and a couple of students forget this rule, it is often another student who reminds them of the rule. Developing strong relationships One of the keys to any healthy, positive classroom environment is the strong relationships that exist between the instructor and the students and between the students themselves. Develop an easy rapport between you and your students and your job becomes much easier. “Rapport can be thought of as the ability to interact effectively both in formal instruction and in informal interaction with the students” (Campbell, 1999, p. 58). You can do much of the groundwork by fostering a positive learning climate referred to earlier, but there are other ways to develop these good relationships between class members as well including: • Praise students whenever possible • Establish trust within the classroom • Handle discipline issues individually • Use discipline sparingly to support classroom needs • Manage and attend to the needs of all of the students in the class • Reinforce positive behaviors • Learn and use student names Praise Praise works just as well for adults as it does for children, however the type of praise must be appropriate and targeted. Generally effusive praise tends to be ineffective and will often have a negative effect on students if they perceive that you are just saying something because you have to, not because you really mean it. “Generic self-esteem boosting is not valuable, nor is it the way to effectively develop self- esteem in students” (Campbell, 1999, p. 13). Praise should be given when
- 106. 106 appropriate and itshould always be clearly focused on something that the student did that you want to bring out for the student or the class. It does not always have to be something the student did right, because often we learn more from our mistakes than if we did it correctly the first time. In some cases, making an effort or voicing an opinion, even an unpopular one, is cause for a positive comment from the instructor. “Teachers must build student self-esteem on the real success experiences [students] have in school” (Campbell, 1999, p. 13). You can use several formats when grading and giving feedback to students, all designed to give positive comments whenever possible. Some instructors use the S- W-I (strength, weakness, area for improvement) model while others strive to temper their negative comments with something positive. Other instructors who use a peer review process will direct their students to find two positive things to say for every negative comment. It does not matter how you choose to provide the information to the students, but it is important that you balance the positive and the negative whenever possible. Occasionally silence can also have a negative effect on students, when just the opposite is true. If you give grades on an assignment and no feedback, you are not helping the student to improve. Almost every assignment has good points and points that can be improved. It is not as though you have to make lengthy comments on every single assignment, but consider doing so on significant assignments such as papers or tests where a positive comment or even a note for the student to consider helps that student to grow and improve. Another benefit of effective praise is to reinforce the behavior for the student, encouraging them to repeat that behavior. Positive attention is better than negative attention at all times. Even if students do not have the correct answer, praise the act of speaking up during a discussion while correcting the student in a positive way. You want to reinforce the discussion and student participation, even when the student does not know all of the answers. “If a student has a history of being reinforced properly for effort and performance on a wide range of school tasks, it is likely that he/she will develop general motivation” (Campbell, 1999, p. 24). You want to let the students know that it is acceptable not to know the answers because that is what the rest of the class can help do, determine the right answer, but that the key is to ask the question in the first place. Reinforcing the behaviors you want to see, either individually or for the class as a whole, can have a positive effect on everyone. Trust in the classroom Another method for developing strong relationships with students lies in your ability to establish trust within the classroom. Several factors can contribute to this feeling of trust between you and the students and between the students themselves. If you establish a classroom culture that is respectful and courteous from the beginning, where all student ideas and opinions can be freely expressed, you can help students learn to direct their own learning. However learning is sometimes a scary undertaking for students. This is when the trust that you have built up can help you. Students need to know that you will be there for them when they have problems or issues, that you will not be judgmental of their confusion or lack of understanding, and that you will work with them to arrive at a solution instead of abandoning them to their own devices.
- 107. 107 Disruptions One of themost important management tools in your toolbox is the ability to handle a classroom disruption or issue smoothly and without disruption to the entire class. You need to be able to separate the individual from the rest of the class and resolve the issue quickly, without letting it interfere with the learning of the other students. Occasionally you might need to use disciplinary methods such as removing the student from the room or contacting your departmental dean, school administrator or security, but those methods should be used only when you’ve exhausted your other resources for resolving the problem with the student individually. You cannot let the other students suffer through a disruption that has the potential for a poor outcome or can even put other students in danger. Student names One of the most obvious ways to develop strong relationships with your students is to learn their names as early in the semester as you can and use them continually to help students recognize each other. One of the first concepts involved in forming a learning community is for people to know the other members of that learning community. By making an effort to learn the names of your students and using them regularly in class, your students begin to make those connections to you and to the other members of the class. When you call on students by name, “students often feel appreciated and encouraged by the individualized recognition” (Amada, 1999, p. 51) and you should have “at least moderate success in gaining their attention and cooperation” (Amada, 1999, p. 51). Several methods exist for learning student names. Make a habit of frequently going over your class enrollment list to learn the names of your students, and don’t be afraid to ask for help in pronouncing difficult names. You can also use icebreaker methods where the students introduce themselves or one another while you focus on learning their name. Whatever your method, it is important that you at least try to learn the names of most of your students. You expect them to remember yours and it is only fair that you make an effort to learn theirs. Motivating students It is impossible to tell at the beginning of a class session or semester what will motivate your students to learn. Students will be motivated by different things at different times and it will be impossible to target each person’s personal motivation every time. However, some general factors that can have an affect on student motivation include: • Giving students choices when you can • Personalizing the curriculum when possible • Creating opportunities for student success • Focusing on improvement, not just the end result • Using varied methods to teach • Expressing confidence in the abilities of the students
- 108. 108 Often you havemore control of these areas than you may have previously thought, although “developing student motivation is a difficult task for most teachers” (Campbell, 1999, p. 24). Students are motivated by a variety of things, some intrinsic and others are extrinsic. You generally cannot have an effect on the internal motivation of anyone other than yourself. Some students are motivated by a desire to succeed, to be the first in their family to go or graduate from college or high school, to achieve a better career. You can help this student by providing interesting, relevant assignments that help link their coursework with their future career. You can eliminate busy work from the course and ensure that students are spending time on things that count for their grade or enhance learning. Choice Other students are differently motivated, and here you can exert a great deal of control. Some students are motivated by being able to make their own decisions in a course, so if it is possible, give students a choice of assignments or let them choose between one of two due dates for an assignment. By allowing the students some voice in the decision making process, you achieve a group decision that is shared and supported by most, if not all. The opposite is also true, that when students are denied choice, their motivation goes down and they are likely to engage in disruptive behavior. “Students who perceived the most constraints on their autonomy were the ones who showed the greatest decline in intrinsic motivation toward school and consequently the greatest amount of misbehavior” (Campbell, 1999, p. 36). So how do you go about giving students choices in their learning without turning control of the classroom over to them? Start small and work up to a level that you are comfortable with. Jack Campbell (1999) suggests that you should “attempt to be flexible enough to find a level of control that fosters positive growth without undermining intrinsic motivation to learn” (p. 36). Your goal is to encourage the student to learn and nourish their motivation while accomplishing your goals of ensuring that the students are learning the course outcomes at the same time. You can ask the students their opinions regarding assignments or topics and factor them into your course as appropriate. Do not ask, however, if you do not intend to include any of their suggestions. You do not have to include all of them, but if you do not use any, then you risk losing their trust that you value them as people as well as students. Remember that “change forced upon students is debilitating; change chosen by students is exhilarating. The exhilaration or inspiration produced by making a choice can sustain students through their tasks” (Cummings, 2000, p. 43). Use this power wisely to obtain student agreement and cooperation. When students make the smaller choices, you can focus your energy on more difficult items. Improvements One of the most important things you can do as an instructor is to focus on how far the student has come since the beginning of the semester, course, program, rather than focusing on the end result, or their grade. Formative praise is essential in language teaching and learning. Students of all ages have an all-consuming focus on grades and many will tell you that they “have to get an A in this class” at the very beginning of the semester. Some will feel that they are entitled to an A because they paid for the course. You will probably even get some that threaten to go over your head.
- 109. 109 All of thisfocus on grades has led to the current epidemic at almost every institution of grade inflation. Instructors complain about it and say that they do not know what to do about it. One way to combat this problem is to remove the focus on the grade and focus instead on the learning. Have the students complete a minute paper or a pre-test when they enter class for the first time and do the same thing before they leave for the last time. Try to focus on how far the student has come during the course, not on the final grade they will receive. Another method for combating this focus on grades is to clearly define what work is expected for each grade. Remember, an A should be given only for truly excellent work, for something that goes above and beyond the average assignment. Many of our students believe that they should receive an A for meeting the minimum requirements of the class. If a student meets the minimum requirements laid out in the syllabus, their grade should be an average one. Students do not earn As by completing the minimum required of them. Students have a very difficult time accepting this, particularly if they do not hear about your grading policies or philosophy until late in the semester. You may want to take some time early in the class to discuss what kind of work you require for an A, B, C, etc. Define these clearly for your students and let them know that your focus will not be on the grade, but on their learning in the course. When things go wrong Much of this training module and document has been geared towards preventing classroom disruptions through planning and good facilitation. There are, however, instances when all of the planning and facilitation skills in the world cannot prevent a problem, so managing that problem to the best of your ability becomes your next focus. “The objective is to manage the consequences of a student’s behavior to bring about a more appropriate behavioral repertoire” (Campbell, 1999, p. 100). There is a process you may want to take your students through when they are disruptive or having problems. This should be done in private, with plenty of time for you and the student to discuss each item listed below. 1. Give the student the opportunity to identify the issue or problem. Sometimes, students truly may not know that their behavior was inappropriate or disruptive, and this then becomes a teachable moment for you to help them understand why you have a problem with their behavior. 2. Work through some of the other choices he/she could have made in that instance. It is important that the student has a voice in this process and identifies some of the other potential options. Discuss pros and cons of each choice so the student has a good idea of the many different ways they have of dealing with a problem. 3. Help the student understand the consequence for inappropriate or disruptive behavior. For the first instance, unless it is truly heinous, a warning or discussion like the one you are having may work. However, the student needs to know that there will be escalating consequences for subsequent problems. 4. Link the consequence to the behavior and the desired change in the behavior. For instance, if the student is not completing homework because he/she does
- 110. 110 not understand thematerial, perhaps a discussion about obtaining a tutor or a trip to a local learning center may help. Perhaps the consequence could be that the student will not be able to take the test until the homework is completed and failure to take the test could result in failing the class. The important point is that you link the behavior to a logical consequence, so that the student has a clear understanding of the decision they are about to make. The most important part of this process is that it is collaborative rather than dictatorial. As you and the student work through the problem together, you obtain the student’s implicit agreement to attempt to correct the problem. You also model appropriate problem-solving skills and classroom behavior. By working through this in private, you demonstrate your respect for the student as an adult and fellow human being. Suggestions for dealing with problem students It is possible that despite your best efforts, some students will continue to have behavior issues in your class. Again, you are solely responsible for handling behavior issues in your class and your decision about how to handle it is entirely up to you. However, it is normally suggested that you begin dealing with behavior issues with smaller interventions and work up to more drastic resolutions such as removing the student from class entirely. Your dean or school administrator is always available to help you work through your options, so please do not hesitate to contact the support system you already have in place. Below is a list of smaller interventions you may want to implement. This list is by no means exhaustive or exclusive of techniques for addressing disruptive behavior, but it will give you a place to begin. Some instructors keep a record of how the student reacted to these interventions, which might be helpful when speaking with administrators about the situation. • Use proximity control if possible. “Teach on your feet, not on your seat” (Ito, 2002). Often if you place yourself next to the student, minor issues such as talking while others are talking or doing work unrelated to the class will disappear. • Consider the use of a learning contract to hold students accountable for coursework or their behavior. A learning contract spells out exactly what is expected from the student, with deadlines if possible. You can give contracts to the entire class, along with one for yourself as part of the expectations exercise referred to above. (See example of learning contract in Appendices) • Move the class to another activity to refocus attention on the material and not the disruption. If students are not paying attention during the class discussion, then move to another learning activity such as a minute paper or another type of written assignment to help them focus on the material at hand. • Pair or group students in threes for small group activities. Ensure that there is some tangible outcome from the activity that they will need to present at the end of the session.
- 111. 111 • Use lightheartedhumor, if appropriate, to get the class back on track. ”Instructors who intersperse their lectures with clever witticisms and humorous allusions tend to raise the interest of students, reduce the potential for an adversarial classroom environment, and promote a good working alliance between themselves and their students” (Amada, 1999, p. 50). Sometimes the use of humor can prevent problems before they begin. Students sometimes need to hear that learning does not have to be such a serious undertaking all of the time. “Encourage your students to develop a group identity by letting them have fun together. Their attention will be diverted from the heavy task of “learning” and they will focus on enjoying themselves while supporting each other. They will associate the curriculum with the fun and quickly become committed to paying attention” (Abbott and Lewis, 2004). A little laughter in the classroom promotes positive energy that students need throughout the day. “Humor has many attributes that facilitate both learning and receptiveness to authority” (Amada, 1999, p. 50). Things to avoid when dealing with problem students Just as there are things you definitely want to do when you have a student with a behavior issue, there are also things that you definitely do not want to do as well. Below is a partial list of these behaviors you will want to avoid. • Ignore the problem and hope it will go away. Behavior issues, particularly in a young adult & adult setting, rarely go away. Not addressing the problem rarely has the effect of eliminating it; rather, it has almost the opposite effect of empowering the student to be disruptive. Not taking action could also encourage other students to be disruptive as well. Addressing the issue immediately, in a private conversation with the offending student will be much more effective for both that student and for the class as a whole. • Punish the entire class for the infraction of a single student or small group. A pop quiz is not an appropriate disciplinary method for one or two students who did not prepare for the class session. This punishes the students who did take the time to prepare as well as reduce their trust in you to be fair in your dealings with all students. Follow through with the logical consequences for the students who are unprepared, that is, they are unable to participate effectively in the session’s activities and lose participation points. • Act inconsistently. Despite what we think, students do talk to one another. If you’ve ever found yourself saying “I’ll do this for you but do not tell anyone,” it is a sure sign that you are about to act in a manner that is inconsistent with what you’ve previously stated. Remember what you do for one student you must make available to all students; so be wary of deviating from your standards. • Over-explain or debate your decision. It is perfectly acceptable to listen to a student’s point of view, consider it, and reach a different decision. As long as you share with that student your rationale for the decision, that should be the end of the discussion. Continuing to discuss the issue when you have already made a decision could make the student feel as if the decision is open for debate if they just talk long enough. Stating the decision, listening to any final comments the student may have and then ending the conversation will reduce the likelihood that you will change your mind. If changing your mind is warranted, by all means do so, but do not give the
- 112. 112 student the impressionthat he/she talked you into it or you are setting yourself up for a semester’s worth of arguments. • Have vague rules or consequences. Be open and honest about your policies. If there is a 10% penalty for late homework, apply it consistently and without apology. Do not, however, state that there is a penalty without being able to tell your students exactly what that penalty is. Do not say that they will lose points if things aren’t done or they will be sorry if they do not complete their homework. Instead, tie it to a logical consequence and reinforce the positive behavior that results. One of the most important concepts in dealing with student misbehavior is the idea of a proportional response. You want to discipline students in a way that is “fair, humane, and proportionate” (Amada, 1999, p. 24). Do not go overboard with your discipline, but do not under-discipline either. It can sometimes be a difficult task to determine how much of a penalty to impose, but you always have the option to speak with your dean or program administrators if you have questions. Conclusion As stated in the beginning of this document, classroom management is a difficult topic to nail down. Your fellow teachers and educational institution have placed an enormous amount of faith and trust in your ability to resolve difficult situations and to deal effectively with adult EFL students. We support your decisions and your ability to make those decisions and stand ready to support you whenever and wherever we can. We ask that you use your best judgment and that you be fair and reasonable in your dealings with students. Remember too that the best defense against student complaints and disruptions is to keep students actively involved and engaged.
- 113. 113 Chapter 8: References Abbott,K. and Lewis, M. (2004). Humor in the Classroom. Retrieved 24 March 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://www.abbottcom.com/Humor_in_the_classroom.htm. Amada, G. (1999). Coping with Misconduct in the Young adult & adult Classroom: A Practical Model. Asheville: Young adult & adult Administration Publications, Inc. Annoying Behavior Can Impede Learning. (2004, April). The Teaching Professor, 18.4, 5. Belvel, P., and Jordan, M. (2003). Rethinking Classroom Management: Strategies for Prevention, Intervention, and Problem Solving. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Benton, T. (2004).No Respect. The Chronicle of Higher Education 50.18 C1. Boston, C. (2002). The concept of formative assessment. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 8(9). 21 June 2004. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=8&n=9. Campbell, J. (1999). Student Discipline and Classroom Management: Preventing and Managing Discipline Problems in the Classroom. Emmitsburg: Charles Thomas Publisher. Cotton, K. (2001). Schoolwide and Classroom Discipline. Retrieved 9 Dec 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/5/cu9.html. Cummings, C. (2000). Winning Strategies for Classroom Management. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Dillon, J. and Maguire, M. (1997). Becoming a Teacher: Issues in Secondary Teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press. Fields, M. and Boesser, C. (1998). Constructive Guidance and Discipline: Preschool and Primary Education. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Fitzer, Kim. Curwin & Mendler. Retrieved on 3 May 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://students.ed.uiuc.edu/fitzer/EdPsy399OL/curwinandmendler.htm. Gore, M.C. and Dowd, J. (1999). Tricks of the Trade for Organized Teachers. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Gwynne, R. (1997) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved 8 July 2004 from the World Wild Web: http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM. Ito, C. (2002). Behavior Influence Techniques. Retrieved 9 Dec 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.wm.edu/ttac/articles/challenging/influence.html. Jacobsen, D., Eggen, P., and Kauchak, D. (1999). Methods for Teaching: Promoting Student Learning. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, Inc. Jones, V. and Jones, L. (1998). Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Communities of Support and Solving Problems. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. Kelly, D. Adult Learners: Characteristics, Theories, Motivations, Learning Environment. Retrieved 3 March 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://www.dit.ie/DIT/lifelong/adult/adlearn_chars.doc. Kindsvatter, R., Wilen, W., and Ishler, M. (1996). Dynamics of Effective Teaching. White Plains: Longman Publishers. MacDonald, R. and Healy, S. (1999), A Handbook for Beginning Teachers. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
- 114. 114 Mamchak, S. andMamchak, S. (1993). Teacher’s Time Management Survival Kit. West Nyack: Parker Publishing Company. McIntyre, Tom. (2001). Assertive Discipline. Retrieved 3 May 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/pub/eres/EDSPC715_MCINTYRE/AssertiveDiscipline.html. Minimizing Disruptive Behavior in the Classroom. (2004, March). The Teaching Professor, 18.3, 6. Mynster, D. (1997). Lesson Planning Retrieved 9 Dec 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/4127/less.html. Nelsen, J., Lott, L., and Glenn, H. (1997). Positive Discipline in the Classroom. Rocklin: Prima Publishing. Partnow, E. (Ed.). (1992). The New Quotable Woman. New York: Fact on File. Perlmutter, D. (2004). Thwarting Misbehavior in the Classroom. The Chronicle of Higher Education 50.30, B14-15. Planning Effective Lectures (2001). Retrieved 5 Sept 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.flinders.edu/au/teach/teach/lecturing/planstrat.htm. Sarasin, L. (1999). Learning Style Perspectives, Impact in the Classroom. Madison: Atwood Publishing. Stronge, J. (2002). Qualities of Effective Teachers. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Van Tassell, G. (2003). Classroom Management. Retrieved 9 Dec 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.brains.org/classroom_management.htm. Weinstein, C. (1996). Secondary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice. Boston: McGraw Hill.
- 115. 115 Appendix A: Dealingwith difficult students Carlos F. Camargo, a master teacher and EFL Research Fellow with the Ohana Foundation, has observed, “that out of every 100 people, there’s at least one nut.” Dr. Camargo has the following tips for dealing with troublemakers in class: Type of Troublemaker Distinguishing Characteristic Solution Hostile Troublemaker (Devil’s Advocate) Interrupts with “I do not agree.” “It will never work.” • Answer question with question: ‘What should be done instead?’ • Deferral: ‘Let’s talk about this later one-on-one.’ Know-it-all Troublemaker Say things like “I have a PhD and 5 years experience…” • Meet with them individually to recognize their expertise and seek their buy-in • State both sides and explain why your position is better Loudmouth Troublemaker Talks too much, dominates, and won’t shut up • Move physically closer and closer • Say: ‘I appreciate your comments, but we would like to hear from others.’ • Say: ‘That’s a good question, but in the short time we have I would like to stick to the subject of…” Interrupter and Interpreter Interrupts others and/or explains what others have said or asked • Jump in to make sure first person is done and/or ask first person to confirm second person’s interpretation Gossip Troublemakers Introduces gossip and rumors into discussion • If it cannot be verified, ‘Let’s not take the time of the audience until we can verify the accuracy of that information.’ Whisperer Whispering between two people • Stop talking; establish silence. Silent Troubleshooter Reading newspaper, not participating • Use a directed question Latecomer Troublemaker Arrives late • Stop talking and establish silence when they come in Early Leaver Troublemaker Leaves early • Schedule quiz for end of class • Handout graded assignments or other materials at the end.
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