TCP8934 Cities Security and Resilience Assignment Plan

TCP8934 Cities Security and Resilience January 5, 2015
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TCP8934 Cities Security and
Resilience
Critically analysing the ways in which the increasing
dominance of cities is affecting the water and food
security
Dong Lin (Lucas)
1/5/2015
Module Leader: Dr Konrad Miciukiewicz and Professor Steve Graham
Word Count: 3290

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Introduction
The purpose of this essay is aiming to critical analyse the significant influences
and implications towards securing of water resources and food supply due to
the increasing dominance of the cities nowadays through exploring the their
relationships and illustrating with several relevant case studies and examples.
The structure of the essay has basically divided to six different sections. The
first section is briefly introducing the definition of water and food security, and
following the background of urbanisation. The second part is discussing the
relationship and connection between water / food security and the increasing
dominance of cities (urbanisation). The third section is critically analysing
various related case studies to further illustrate the discussions. The forth part
is summarising some importance and significance of water / food security
through previous analysis of case studies. The fifth section is concisely
considering some suggestions and recommendations to effectively secure
water and food supply. The last part is drawing all of the previous key points
and debates to generate a summative conclusion. (Brauch, et al., 2009)
Definition of Water and Food Security
Food and water are both considered as the essential element for humans to
survive and grow by providing basic energy, nourishment, biological and
physical activities (Oswald Spring, 2009).

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Definition of Food Security
According to Maxwell and Smith (1992) that there are over 200 different
concepts of ‘food security’, which generally defined as the assurance and
accessibility to have sufficient food (including quantitatively and qualitatively)
for individuals and countries from both physical and economic perspective.
Quantity is basically refering to amount and distribution of food, and quality is
reflecting to safe, good and nutritious balanced food (Food and Agricultural
Organisation, 2003).
However, this particular concept has not contained any considerations of food
and nutrition from social and cultural perspective such as land rights, seeds,
social relations of productive and consumption methods. As Oswald Spring
(2009) suggests that the term of ‘food sovereignty’, which has stepped beyond
the physical condition of food and included variety considerations of social,
cultural, political and identity aspects (Kaplan, 2003; Arizpe, 2004), should be
widely considered instead of ‘food security’. The current situation indicates that
less than third of grain production is consuming by human and the rest is
transferring to animal food and industrial uses (Oswald Spring, 2009).
Definition of Water Security
Water security is basically referring to provide clean and establishing easy /

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stable access to potable and useable water continuously for people (Kapur, et
al., 2009). It can be addressed from both local and global perspective. The
local level of water security is focusing on concerns of local community and
economy (e.g. importing water resources to fill the demand). The global level is
emphasising the concerns of the present demand (e.g. 6.5 billion people
require 6.5 m3 per year), distribution and future prediction (Allen, 2009). Water
has slowly transformed from a public resource to a private commodity, which
can be sold or traded for profit, and already been widely recognised as the
blue oil (Shiva, 2009). However, Castro (2010) argues that water needs to be
considered its multidimensional and complex purpose rather than treats it just
as ‘natural resources’ or ‘commodity’.
Background of Urbanisation
The world is experiencing the rapidly process of urbanisation and
industrialisation due to over 50% of the world’s population (around 3.3 billion)
is currently living in urban areas since 2008 (Lye & Chen, 2010; Wong & Yuen,
2011). This number has increased 14 times from 220 million to 2.8 billion
during 20th century (Imura, 2010) and will be expecting to continuously grow
(to approximately 6.7 billion in 2050) (UN, 2007) especially for developing
countries such as India and China (Head & Lam, 2011; Wong & Yuen, 2011).
There are 17 out of 25 large cities are locating in Asia and the urbanisation rate
has speedily accelerated from 16.8% in 1950 to 38.9% in 2005, and will be

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anticipated to reach 50% in 2025 (Imura, 2010). According to Kallidaikurichi
and Yuen (2010) that approximately 1.1 billion people are predicting to move to
11 Asian megacities, which is already occupied with 10 million of existing
population (Wong & Yuen, 2011), such as Beijing, Shanghai, Delhi, Jakarta
and Tokyo in the next 20 years. Most of the megacities, within this group, are
belonged to developing countries except Tokyo (Wong & Yuen, 2011).
Figure 1 - Trends in Urbanisation Rates in Asia, the World, China and India (United Nations, 2007)
Besides the urbanisation in Asian cities, around 80% of the population are
choosing to live in urban areas across the European Union and majority of
them are living in small to medium-size towns or cities instead of megacities
(Lye & Chen, 2010). The increasing urban population has caused
over-dependency and consumption of natural resources such as earth (land),
water and air, which is using to maintain the planet’s life-support system (Head
& Lam, 2011). Although the increasing populations in cities has improved local
economic growth but also created variety of negative impacts, for instance,

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environmental degradation, urban poverty and insecurity of resources (Imura,
2010). The next section will explore the relationship between security of
relevant resources and urbanisation from a more specific perspective.
Relationship between Water / Food Security and
Urbanisation
The motivation for people to move to urban areas are very strong with the
potential to pursue better quality of lives, improved health system, higher
education institution and greater gender equality (Head & Lam, 2011). The
requirements to provide a completed and comprehensive range of
infrastructure facilities, services, housing units, employment opportunities and
most importantly land availability has become the key priority for local or
municipal government to cope with the rapid growth of urban population
(Wong & Yuen, 2011). The expansion of urban land, as known as urban sprawl,
and population has caused various social and environmental problems (Imura,
2010) such as loss of agricultural land, which is directly affected food supply
and security, acceleration of traffic volumes and congestion, growth pressure
of water resources, which is certainly threatened water distribution and security,
and increasing burden to handle slums and squatters, which are referred to
‘urban poor’ (Kumar Karn & Harada, 2002; Head & Lam, 2011; Wong & Yuen,
2011). According to Sharma and Narender (1996) that the rate of urban poor

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has incresed from 12% in 1961 to 51% in 1991 and majority of them are living
in slums or squatters, which located near to railway tracks, water pipelines,
under bridge, bank of city drains and so on in Mumbai (Kumar Karn & Harada,
2002). As Imura (2010) suggests that it is necessary to require both ‘sofeware’
tools such as social system or programmes, which is using to address and
analyse the urbanisation problems, and ‘hardware’ tools such as
establishment of new and adequate housing units, buildings, i nfrastructure
facilities and services as well as maintaince of existing ones. Therefore,
construction of necessary infrastructure facilities and services with good
quality and adequately quantity to provide essential supply (e.g. water and
food) has already been recognised as one of the fundamental component to
tackle down urbanisation issues.
Connection between Water and Food Security
According to Oswald Spring (2009) that both food and water are considered as
the essential element for human and this statement has directly reflected
certain connection between water and food. Adly and Ahmed (2009) suggest
that water is considered as one of the most significant element in food security
programmes, for example, producing one tonne of wheat needs to secure
1000 tonnes of waters. Irrigation has been recognised as the main alternative
way to produce additional food supply for the preparation of expected
increasing population in advance. Therefore, food production is heavily relied

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on water consuming and a sustainable management and usage of water
resources in agriculture should be regarded as the key challenge to overcome
by both government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) (Adly &
Ahmed, 2009). The below section will discuss the importance to secure water
and food resources due to the increasing dominance of cities through critically
analysing various case studies.
Case Studies and Examples
Water Wars in Mumbai
Mumbai, the largest city in India, has increased four-fold of its population
during past 40 years and became the fifth largest urban union with 15 million
population on 1995 (UN, 1996). The urban poor can be recognised as the
major group to suffer all types of environmental pollution and limited access to
basic infrastructure services such as safe and adequate water supply, sanitary
toilets, and sewerage and drainage facilities (Hardoy, et al., 1997). Although
Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC) has provided 3,000 million litres of
water per day but it has only covered approximately 65% of total demand for
the city (BMC, 2000) and uneven distribution has become the obvious problem
(Kumar Karn & Harada, 2002), for instance, the group urban poor access 45
l/c.d (litre per capita per day) compared with the people lived in private house
with accessibility of 135 l/c.d (Youth for Unity and Voluntary Action, 1999).

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According to Kumar Karn and Harada (2002) that the poor quality of water and
insufficiency of water supply and sanitation facilities are also considered as
main issues against water security in Mumbai. For example, almost all the
people in slum or squatter pavements are relying on the municipal water
supply system but number of houses need to share one common tape, which
is provided poor quality water without going through any bacteria filtrations,
within limited access period of 4 hours a day. These problems have led to
series of dangerous diseases such as diarrhoeal, malaria, typhoid, intestinal
worms and most importantly morbidity especially for children (Kumar Karn &
Harada, 2002). Therefore, the existing infrastructure services and planning
strategies are difficult to handle the rapid growth of urban population and
increasing dominance of cities in Mumbai, and a comprehensive solution with
multi-sectoral approach needs to be taken as the immediate concerns for the
municipal government (Kumar Karn & Harada, 2002; Shiva, 2009).
Secure Water and Food Resources in Turkey
Turkey has been considered as one of the countries, which suffers
self-insufficiency of food production and uneven water distribution due to wide
range of fluctuation among different regions in different seasons. The quality of
soil and inadequate provision of water resources can be seen as the main
factor to cause the low food production in Turkey. Although several projects

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including construction of dams, hydroelectric power plants and irrigation
projects have been carried out but most of them have been implemented
before fully completed and test, which has caused the ineffective and
inefficient usage of water in some areas (Tekinel, 1993), due to the political
pressures (Kapur, et al., 2009). Therefore, those incomplete irrigation systems
have certainly threatened local water security as well as food security.
Water and Food Security in Mexico and Mexico City
The unsuccessfulness of development has created serious negative
influences for the vulnerable groups such as elder people, children and women
in Latin America (Oswald Spring, 2009). Mexico is recognised as one of the
most unequal countries in the world (Miller, 2007) that suffers great decreasing
of production in agricultural category due to the establishment of North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 (Klein, et al., 2003), which
has directly caused the abandon of agricultural fields by over one million
peasants (Ackerman, 2005; Calo & Wise, 2005). According to Oswald Spring
(2009) that the immediate consequence of loss agricultural production is the
increasing price and dependency of importing foods and undernourishment for
local vulnerable groups, for example, payments of 72 billion USD for importing
food in Mexico (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, 2005) and half of
the Mexican children have suffered severely anaemia and undernourishment
(The National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition Salvador Zubirán,

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2005). The food security for the future is uncertain and probably will be worsen
due to usage of food production for biofuel, impacts of climate change and
disasters, and Mexico needs to consider its food security issues seriously
(Oswald Spring, 2009).
Besides the considerations of food security, there is a huge demand of 300
l/c.d of water resources particularly for Mexico City, which is more than many
European cities (Ezcurra, et al., 1999). The city’s population has grown rapidly
from 1.64 million in 1940 to 18.1 million in 2000 (Ward, 1998). Accord to Turner
(2008) that the water supply of Mexico City are basically coming from the
aquifer under the basin (approximately 70%) and 30% from the Lerma and
Cutzamala, which is located outside the basin of Mexico (Gonzalez-Moran, et
al., 1999). However, the pressure of aquifer has definitely increased and
apparently overexploited due to the high dependency on it and increasing
demand of water resources (Ezcurra, et al., 1999; Gonzalez-Moran, et al.,
1999).
Similar to the other case studies, the water contamination and unequal
distribution of water resources are considered as two main problems, which
have suffered the city and its citizens (Turner, 2008). For instance, the
provision of water with poor quality has caused various diseases from stomach
ailment especially to those newcomers to diarrhoea and even death in Mexico

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(Ezcurra, et al., 1999) due to the careless management and inspection of
drainage tunnels (Mazari-Hiriart, et al., 2005), and improvement is priory
essentially needed (Cisneros-Iturbe & Dominguez-Mora, 2005). The poor
group of the city usually suffers more disadvantages including unavailability,
inadequately and inequality access of water resources and more diseases
(Turner, 2008). Castro (2004) suggests that the wealthier group may consume
over 600 l/c.d instead of the average of 300 l/c.d, and the water consumption
may drop to 20 litres for the poorer group and even lower to 4 litres in the most
deprived locations (Tortajada, 2006). Therefore, the security of water
resources, food production and infrastructure services should be urgently
focused in order to face the rapid growth of urban population in Mexico.
Water and Food Security in the River Nile Basin, Egypt
Due to the rapid growing of population (approximately 518 million from 2005 to
2050) and increasing demand of infrastructural development in the Nile basin
countries, the water availability has declined fast during recent years (Adly &
Ahmed, 2009). The population in Egypt has increased around 1.5 million
annually from 62.3 million in 1995 and expected to reach 95.6 million in 2025
and even to 114.8 million by 2065. However, the water availability has slightly
decreased since 1995 from 936 m3/year to 607 m3/year (in 2025) and 503
m3/year (in 2050) respectively. The security of food production is also become
one of the key challenges in Egypt due to the connections between water

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resources and food production. The urbanisation has certainly reduced the
effectiveness of water treatment and increased the unemployment rate, which
has led to several challenges, such as reduction water usage on agricultural
land, raising negative climate impacts and food importation rate, to further
reduced the water availability. For example, over 50% of the food requirement
needs to import from overseas and local water storage is far not enough to fill
the ‘food gap’ (Adly & Ahmed, 2009). Therefore, the local government needs to
put in efforts to change the situation, improve the efficiency of water usage and
food production.
The above case studies have reflected the importance of securing water
resources and food supply in order to manage the urbanisation trend, and
further proven the relationship between water / food security and urbanisation.
The urban and irrigated agriculture can be seen as the most popular models to
achieve effective water management and food security, and present their
values. The following section will briefly discuss the values and implications of
water and food security by exploring that two representative models.
Implications of Water and Food Security
The urban agriculture has been recognised as one of the most effective way to
release the pressures of food security problem particularly in urban areas. It

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can definitely generate some benefits such as the improvement of
environmental conditions by reducing air pollution, overall temperature and
greenhouse gas emission, the conservation of soil quality by using fertile
materials to balance the soil system, minimisation of wastes within food
category in cities and enhancement of self-sufficient living style (Deelstra &
Girardet, 2000). Although importation of food production also considered as
one to solve food security problem but it has brought certain issues like
increasing burden of local economy and pollution rate by applying variety of
methods to transport food from outside the cities (Deelstra & Girardet, 2000).
For example, Singapore is 100% self-sustain of meat production and 25% of
its vegetable demand, and Dar-es-Salaam, which is already become one of
the largest cities in the world with experiencing of rapid urbanisation, has 65%
of total households are participating in food production businesses since
1970s (Smit, et al., 2001).
The development of irrigated agriculture has played as a key role in improving
agricultural production in order to manage the problem of fast growing
population, maintain the stable production and price levels. It can contribute to
achieve food security by increasing local salary level and improving health and
nutrition for local people especially in developing countries (Rosegrant, et al.,
1998; Barker, et al., 2004). Apart from the contribution towards food security,
irrigation has provided various benefits to water security by reducing the water

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scarcity, preserving large areas of forest, increasing rural welfare, minimising
water pollution and environmental degradation (Rosegrant, et al., 2002) but
the entire system needs to be fully and appropriately managed by related
departments to guarantee its benefits (Ringler, et al., 2010). Therefore, the
implication of securing water resources and food supply will brought various
benefits to the cities as well as their citizens from both economic, social and
environmental perspectives, and obvious outweighed the limitations, which
can be avoided through applying appropriate methods and careful
management.
The promotion of urban agriculture and irrigation can be seen as the ‘hardware’
tools to achieve water and food security, and the below section will discuss the
suggestions and recommendations from ‘software’ perspective, which refers to
policies, strategies and governmental responsibility (Head & Lam, 201; Imura,
2010).
Suggestions and Recommendations
According to CLOC (2004) and Oswald Spring (2009) there are few globally
decision-making process, which has contribute in achieving food security,
shown below:
1) Support for women in agriculture: women are considering as one

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alternative way in achieving self-sufficiency of food supply especially in
poor countries (FAO, 2002; 2005).
2) Food policy to alleviate hunger: provision of a model which support by
local sectors and connect local production system to offer health and cheap
food production to people including poor group.
3) Monitoring system: establishment of periodic measuring system towards
basic indicators of undernourishment specifically for children under
five-year-old.
4) Education and training: provision of relevant educational knowledge and
training to all levels of people including vulnerable groups and urban poor
to improve their awareness and create cooperation.
According to Adly & Ahmed (2009) that NGOs need to fulfil their role,
participate into the process and cooperate with local governments in achieving
water and food security. Some positive consequences such as increasing
public awareness towards the water issues and new innovated techniques for
irrigation and drinking purposes, keeping the water supply, reducing pollution
will be generated due to the successful partnership between the local
government and NGOs. Castro (2007) has further suggests that the
significance of comprehensive policy framework and necessity of public
involvement in accomplishing effective and good governance for water and
sanitation services.

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Conclusion
In conclusion, securing water resource and food production has already
become the most urgently and essentially target in order to reduce the
pressures of rapid growing urban population and domination across the world
especially in large / megacities. During the process of achieving water and
food security will generate various benefits as well as limitations. Therefore,
the local government need to provide both ‘hardware’, such as construction
and maintenance of infrastructure services, and ‘software’ tool (Imura, 2010),
such as comprehensive and robustness policy framework and relevant
strategies, and encourage the participation of public-private sectors (Castro,
2007) to amplify possible benefits and minimise the influences of the
limitations.

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