The document provides a high-level summary of twelve leadership theories and approaches. It discusses theories such as the trait approach, skills approach, and situational approach. The trait approach focuses on the innate characteristics of leaders, identifying traits like intelligence, self-confidence, and determination. The skills approach emphasizes the capabilities of the leader and that skills can be learned. It identifies technical, human, and conceptual skills. The situational approach suggests that leadership style depends on the situation.

1. Leadership Theories
Visit my blog at http://leadershiptheories.blogspot.com/ for more content.
The followingmaterial isahighlevel summaryof twelve approaches/theoriesinleadership.Eachsection
coversa theory/approachtoleadership.The sectionscoverthe basicassumptions,references,diagrams,
leadershipinstruments,strengthsandweaknesses.Thissummaryisbasedon myreadingsfroma
diversityof booksandexperience withleadership.Twobooksinparticular,Ihave foundto be
indispensable andare a mustread.
 LeadershipTheoryandPractice,PeterG.Northouse, Third Edition.
 Managementof Organizational Behavior,Paul Hersey, Seventh Edition
On Leadership
In perusingthese materials,Ididnotfinda simple answerorrecipe forleadership.Assuspected,
leadershipisapart of all us at home,inour business,andourcommunity.Whatwasextremely
beneficial to me wasthat readingthroughthe varioustheories,andcase studies,Iwasable to identify
withmanyof these examplesandsituations.Ithadenrichedme withaninsightaboutmyself andthose I
interactwith.Frequently,afterreadingaparagraph,I would relate aparticularsituationormethodtoa
behaviorthatI or someone Iknowwasengagedin.
It isthat veryawarenessof bothmy personal andotherpeople'sbehaviorsthatmakesleadership
possible.Iamthe firstto admitthat learningaboutall these approachestoleadershipdoesnot
automaticallymake one agoodleader,buttheygive atremendousinsightandthe possibilitytobecome
a betterone.
My ownviewisthat"Leadership is a processto changeorcreate something fromwhatotherwisewould
be chaos.Itmustbe highly flexible and demandsawareness,skills,and sensitivity.Itis highly dependent
on situations.Leadership is being human."Inmyview,the combinationof the majorityof these
approachesandtheoriesisthe true leadershiptheory.Theyare all equallyeye openingforeveryonein
an organization.
Management vs. Leadership
There are of course distinctionsbetweenthe conceptsof ManagementandLeadership.Thisishowever
anotherindepthdiscussion.Forthe sake of thissummary, theywill bothbe synonymousinthe
upcomingsectionswiththe exceptionof the snippetbelow.
The classical descriptionof managementworkcomesfromDrucker(1973). He has definedfive basic
functionsof a managementjob.Theyare planning,organizing, controlling,motivatingandcoordinating.
Thisis the basisfor manylaterrole definitions.
Leadershave differentrolestoaccomplish.Maybe the bestknowndefinitioncomesfromBennis
betweenaleaderanda manager.Inhisclassic“On becominga leader”(1989, 44-45) he has written
aboutthe differencesof leadersandmanagersasfollows:

2. - The manager administers;the leaderinnovates.
- The manager isa copy; the leaderisan original.
- The manager maintains;the leaderdevelops.
- The manager focusesonsystemsandstructure;the leaderfocusesonpeople.
- The manager reliesoncontrol;the leaderinspirestrust.
- The manager hasa short-range view;the leaderhasalong-range perspective.
- The manager askshowand when;the leaderaskswhatand why.
- The manager haseye alwaysonthe bottomline;the leaderhashiseye onthe horizon.
- The manager imitates;the leaderoriginates.
- The manager acceptsthe status quo;the leaderchallengesit.
- The manager isthe classicgood soldier;the leaderishisownperson.
- The manager doesthingsright;the leaderdoesthe rightthings.
Leadership definitions
It isclear that leadershipcanbe definedinmanydifferentways andthere are more subjective waysof
definingitthanobjectiveones.Asyoureadabouttheoriesand researchonleadershipinlatersections,
youwill recognize thatthe theoristsandresearcherseachhadhis/herowndefinitionsof leadership,and
that theyfocuson somewhatdifferentaspectsof the jobrequirementsof aleader.Anexample of a
theorythat isnot coveredinthe upcomingsections,butisworthnotingisthe decisiontree approach.
The decisiontree approach presentedbyVictorVroomisfocusedentirelyonwhetherleaderchoosesto
make a decisiononhis/herownorif the group shouldbe involvedinthe decision.Inthisapproach,you
ask a seriesof yes/noquestionsandbasedonthe response toeachto each branch, the decisiontree
takesyouto the nextquestionortoa final decision.
The questionsof the decisiontree involve whetherthe leaderhasthe informationnecessarytomake
the decision,whetherthe decisionhasqualityrequirements,whetherthe followershave the
informationnecessary,whethertheyare likelytoacceptthe decisionif the leadermakesitalone,andso
forth.The processis designedtohelpthe leadermake ordelegate the decision.
Thisapproach clearlyfocusesonone aspectof leadership(decisionmaking) thisisanexampleof a
contingencytheoryof leadership
One distinctiontokeepinmindwhilereadingthe material isthe difference between emergentand
assigned leadership.Manyof the approachesand theoriessetforthdeal withemergentleadershipand
fewof themtalkabout the assignedleadershiproles.
The self-monitoringscale
The self-monitoringscale wasdesignedtomeasure the extenttowhichapersonissensitive tothe
expectationsof othersinasocial situation.Italsomeasuresthe extenttowhichthe personisable to
shape hisor her behaviortomatchthose expectations.Boththe malesandfemalesreceivedvarying
scoreson the self-monitoringscale,butonlythe females'scoreswere relatedtothe numberof
leadershipnominationstheyreceived.The explanationthatGaryOdouscame up withgoesas follows:
The female studentswere adistinctminorityinthe class.Eachstudygroup had one or twofemales
amongthe sevenoreightstudentsmakingupthe group.The classis offeredinthe collegeof business,
where the majorityof the studentsare male.Asa result,we mightassume thatthe subjectmatterof
the class--andindeedthe classitself--mightbe consideredamasculine-orientedactivity.Fora female

3. memberof the studygroupto emerge as a leader,she hadtorecognize the masculine demandsof the
situationandconformherbehaviortothose demands.The womenwhohadhighself-monitoringscores
were betterable todo thisthanthose withlow self-monitoringscores.
The Trait Approach
Firstsystematicwaystostudyleadershipinthe 20thcentury.Focusedonwhat made people "great
leaders".Identifiedinnate characteristicsforthe "GreatMan" theoriessuchasLincoln,Gandhi,etc.
Researchfocusedondeterminingthe traitsthatpeople are bornwith(Bass, 1990; Jago, 1982)
Duringthe Mid-20th century,the theorywaschallenged(Stogdill, 1948) that "no consistentsetof traits
differentiatedleadersfromnon-leaders."Anindividual whowasaleaderinone situationmightnothave
beena leaderinanothersituation.Itwasre-conceptualizedasa relationshipbetweenpeople as
opposedtoa set of traits(Stogdill,1948).
 The trait approach emphasizesthe personalityof the leader.
 In recentyears,there hasbeena renewedinterest.Bryman,1992; Lord DeVaderandAlliger1986
foundthat personalitytraitswere stronglyassociatedwithindividualsperceptionsof leadership.
 Locke and Kirkpatrick1991, claimedthateffectiveleadersare actuallydistincttypesof peoplein
several keyrespects.
 It startedwitha focuson the traits,shiftedtofocuson situations,thenshiftedbacktotraits.
 A goodoverviewwasfoundin 2surveys
o Stogdill,1948 survey:Analyzed124 traits.An individual does notbecome aleadersolely
basedon possessingthese traits.The traitsmustbe relevanttothe situationinwhichthe
leaderisfunctioning.The surveyarguedthatleadershipwasdeterminedbythe situational
factor.
 The followingdifferentiatedaleader fromotherindividuals.
 Intelligence
 Alertness
 Insight
 Responsibility
 Initiative
 Persistence
 Self confidence
 Sociability
o Stogdill,1974 survey:Analyzed163 traits.This surveywasmore balancedandarguedthat
that bothPersonalityandSituational factors were equal determinantsof leadership.
 The followingdifferentiatedaleaderfromotherindividuals.
 Drive forresponsibilityandtaskcompletion.
 Vigorand persistentpursuitof goals.
 Willingnesstoadventure andoriginalityinproblemsolving.
 Drive to exercise initiative insocial situations.
 Self-confidenceandsense of personal identity.
 Willingnesstoacceptconsequencesof decisionandaction.
 Readinesstoabsorbinterpersonal stress.
 Willingnesstotolerate frustrationanddelay.
 Abilitytoinfluence otherpersons'behavior
 Capacityto structure social interactionssystemstothe purpose oathand.

4.  Mann, 1959 conductedsimilarstudywhichexamined1400 traits.He identifiedleadersashaving
strengthinthe following:Intelligence,Masculinity,Adjustment,Dominance,Extroversion,and
conservatism.
 Lord et al,1986 reassessedMannfindingsandusedthe meta-analysisprocedure.
 Locke and Kirkpatrick,1991 contendedthat"Leadersare not like otherpeople".Theypostulated
that leadersdifferfrom non-leadersin6 traitsincluding:Drive,desire tolead,honesty,integrity,
self-confidence,cognitive ability,andknowledgeof the business.
 The trait approach anda centuryof researchgivesthe would-beleadersasetof traits that they
can develop.
Stogdill (1948) Mann (1959) Stogdill (1974) Lord, DeVaderand
Allinger(1986)
Kirkpatrickand
Locke (1991)
Intelligence
Alertness
Responsibility
Initiative
Persistence
Self-confidence
Sociability
Intelligence
Masculinity
Adjustment
Dominance
Extroversion
Conservatism
Achievement
Persistence
Insight
Initiative
Self-confidence
Responsibility
Cooperativeness
Tolerance
Influence
Sociability
Intelligence
Masculinity
Dominance
Drive
Motivation
Integrity
Confidence
Cognitive ability
Task knowledge
 The traits that are central tothis listare:
o Intelligence
 Strongverbal ability,perceptual ability,andreasoning.Researchindicatesthata
leader'sintellectual abilityshouldnotvarytoomuch fromthat of hissubordinates.In
caseswhere there isa significantdifference,itcanbe counterproductive.
o Self confidence
 Abilitytobe certainaboutone'scompetenciesandskills.Itincludes self-esteem,self-
assurance and belief thatone canmake a difference.Thisisveryimportantforability
to influenceothers.
o Determination
 Desire toget the jobdone.It includesinitiative,persistence,dominance,anddrive.
Leadersexhibitingthisare proactive,andhave the capacityto persevere against
obstacles.
o Integrity
 Honestyandtrustworthiness.Adheretoa strongsetof principlesandtake
responsibilityfortheiractions.Leaderswithintegrityinspire confidence inothers.
Theydo whattheysay there are goingto do. Theyare dependable,loyal,andnot
deceptive.
o Sociability
 Thisis leader'sinclinationtoseekoutpleasantsocial relationships.Friendly,outgoing,
courteous,tactful,anddiplomatic.Theyare sensitive toothers'needs,show concern,
and wellbeing.
How does the trait approach work?

5. The trait approach focusesexclusivelyonthe leaderandnotthe followers.Itsuggeststhat
organizationswillworkbetterif people inmanagerial positionshave designatedleadership
profiles.Selectingthe "right"people will increase organizational effectiveness.Itisusedfor
personal awarenessanddevelopment.Whenmanageranalyzetheirtraits,theygaininsightinto
theirstrengthsandweaknesses.Itallowsleaderstogetanunderstandingandtake corrective
actions.
Strengths
o It isintuitivelyappealing
o It has a centuryof researchtoback it up
o By focusingexclusivelyonleaderithasbeenable toprovide some deeperunderstandingon
howLeader’spersonalityisrelatedtoleadershipprocess
o It has givensome benchmarksforwhatwe needtolookfor,if we wantto be leaders.
Weakness
o The failure todelimitadefinitive listof leadershiptraits
o It has failedtotake situationsintoaccount
o The approach has resultedinhighlysubjectivedeterminationsof the "mostimportant"
leadershiptraits
o It can alsobe criticizedforfailingtolookat traitsinrelationshiptoleadershipoutcomes
o It isnot a useful approachfortraininganddevelopmentof leadership.(The reasoninghere
isthat traits are relativelyfixed psychological structuresthatlimitsthe valueof training.On
the contrary, we couldchallenge thisassumptionconcerningatleastsome traits
changeable.)
Leadership Instrument
There are manyinstrumentsthatare usedbyorganizations.Commonpersonalitytestsinclude
MinnesotaMultiphase PersonalityInventoryorthe Myers-BriggsType indicator.The leadership
Trait Questionnaire (LTQ) assessesthe personalleadershipcharacteristics.

6. The Skills Approach
o The skillsapproachemphasizesthe capabilitiesof the leader.
o The advantage of thisapproachis anyone canbecome an effective leader.
o Similartothe trait approach,the skillsapproachtakesa leader-centeredapproachexceptthatit
focusesonthe skillsandabilitiesinsteadof the "Personality"traitswhichare usuallyinnate.
o The original researchcame fromthe "Skillsof aneffective administrator"HarvardBusinessReview
publishedin1955 by RobertKatz.
o A multitude of researchedwasdone inthe 1990's by Mumford,Zaccaro, Harding,Jacobs&
Fleishman.
o Katz identified3basicskillsbasedonhisobservationof executivesinthe workplace.Katz
emphasizedthatthe skillstell "Whatleaderscanaccomplish"asopposedtotraitwhich
emphasized"Wholeadersare".The skillsapproachtheorizesthatleaderscanbe developedand
trained.
 Technical
 Havingknowledge andbeingproficientinaspecifictype of workoractivity.
 Technical skillsisnotimportantatlowerlevelsof managementandlessimportantat
higherlevels.
 Abilitytoworkwith things.
 Human
 Abilitytoworkwithpeople.
 Beingaware of one'sown perspectiveonissuesandatthe same time beingaware of
othersperspectives.
 Leadersadapttheirownideaswiththose of others.ilityModel"
 Create an atmosphere of trustwhere employeescanfeel comfortable,secure,
encouragedtobe involvedinplanningthe thingsthataffectthem.
 Conceptual
 Abilitytoworkwithideasandconcepts.
 Works easilywithabstractionsandhypothetical situations.
 Creatingvisions,strategicplans.
 Is mostimportantat top managementlevels.

7. What are Schemas?
Northouse presentsthe conceptof the schema,buthe doesnotexplainitverycompletely.
Cognitive theoristshave constructedthe conceptof a schemato helpexplainhow we think,learn,
remember, andexperience the world.A schemaisessentiallyanetworkof ideassurroundinga
specificconcept.Suchconceptscouldinclude mothers,fathers,bosses,AfricanAmericans,
Hispanics,andevenyourself.Schemata(the pluralof schema) functioninawaythat organizesour
experiencesandallowsourinformationprocessingtobe efficient.Theiraffectcanbe good or bad,
dependingonthe circumstances.
For example,suppose youmeetanew personat work.The personisAfricanAmerican.Because of
your schemaaboutAfricanAmericanpersonsyouprobablyassume thatyoualreadyknow some
thingsaboutthisperson.Youmight,dependingonthe nature of your schema,assume thathe or
she has rhythm,or basketball-playingskills,orothercharacteristicsyouassociate withthe concept
AfricanAmerican.Youmaylearnsome thingsaboutthispersonthat are not congruentwithyour
existingschema.Youmayignore them, forgetthemorclassifythispersonasaspecial exceptionto
the concept.All of these will contributetomaintainingthe existingschema.
People have anatural tendencytoresistchangingourschemataon the basisof new information.
For example,peoplewhoare highlyprejudicedagainstAfricanAmericansare likelytobe very
resistanttochange in that schema.Althoughagoodleaderwill have alarge numberof schemata
aboutdifferentpeople,hisorherschemataare more likelytobe flexible andreceptive tonew
information.
o SkillsModel - Mumfordand collegesidentifiedanew skillsbasedmodelof organizational
leadership.
 Startedinthe early199s withfundingfromthe DOD. Focusedon1800 armyofficers
representing6gradeslevels.
 Theyattemptedtoexplain"EffectivePerformance".
 Theyuseda "CapabilityModel"toexplainthe relationshipbetweenaleader'sskillsand
knowledge.
 The skillsmodel doesNOTfocuson"whatleadersdo",buton the capabilities.
 It iscomposedof 5 differentcomponents
 Competencies
 Individual attributes
 Leadershipoutcomes
 Careerexperiences
 Environmental influences


8. Competencies
 Problemsolvingskills
 Abilitytosolve new,unusual,andill-definedproblems.Itincludesgatheringproblem
information;formulate new understandings,andgenerating prototypesplansfor
solutions.These skillsdonotworkina vacuum, butin the organizational context.
Leadersmustunderstandtheircapacitieswithinthe organization.
 An example isbeingthe directorof HumanResourcesfora mediumsizedcompany
tryingto developaplantoreduce the costs of healthcare costs.
 First- identifyfull ramificationsforemployeeschangingbenefits.
 Second - gatherinformationabouthow benefitscanbe scaledback.
 Third- Finda way to teachand informemployeesabout the change.
 Fourth- Create scenariosforhow the changescan be instituted.
 Fifth- Look closelyatthe solutionitself.How will thischange affectcompany's
mission?Careers?
 Last - Are there issuesinthe organizationthatinfringeonthe implementationof
these changes?
 Social Judgmentskills
 Capacityto understandpeopleandsocial systems.
 Workingwithotherstosolve problemsandmarshal supporttoimplementchanges.
SimilartoKatz' views,butdelineatedintothe following:
 Perspectivetaking
 Understandthe attitudesothershave towardsaparticularproblem.
 Thisis empathyappliedtothe problemsolving.Beingsensitivetoother
people perspective andgoals.
 Anothertemforthisis "Social Intelligence"
 Social Perceptiveness
 Havinginsightintohow otherswithinthe organizationfunction.
 What isimportantto others?What motivatesthem?
 A leaderwiththese skillshasakeensense of how employeeswill respond
to any proposedchange.
 Reactingto otherswithflexibility.Thisisthe abilitytochange one's
behaviorinlightof anunderstandingof othersperspectivesinthe
organization.
 Beingopenandnon-dogmatic
 Social Performance
 Includesawide setof skills.
 Leadersshouldeffectivelybe able tocommunicate theirownvisionto
others.
 Skillsof persuasionare essential.
 Functionasmediators.
 Knowledge
 Referstothe accumulationof knowledge andthe mental structuresusedtoorganize
information.ThisiscalledSchema(summary,diagrammaticrepresentationoroutline)
 Organizedinformation(schemata) becomemore meaningful thanthe bitsthat
comprisesit.

9.  Knowledgeable peopleare called"experts"andcanprocesscomplex informationof
the intricaciesof a particularfield.
Individual attributes
 General cognitive ability
 Simplysaid,thisisa person'sintelligence (fluidintelligence) whichincludesperceptual
processing,informationprocessing,general reasoning,creative anddivergentthinking
capabilities,andmemoryskills.
 Thisis linkedtoBiologyandnotto experience.
 Crystallizedcognitive ability
 Learnedandacquiredintellectual abilitythroughexperience.
 Grows continuouslyanddoesnotfall off winadulthood.
 Motivation
 Model suggeststhree typesof motivation.
a. Leadersmustbe willingandmotivatedtotackle complexorganizational
problems.A personmustbe willingtolead.
b. Leadersmustbe willingtoexpressdominance.
c. Leadersmustbe committedtothe social goodof the organization.
 Personality
 A wide range of traitsthat can influence leadershipsuchasOpenness,tolerance for
ambiguity,andcuriosity.
 Skillsmodel theorizesthataleaders'personalitycharacteristicshelpspeoplecope
withcomplex organizational situations.
Leadership outcomes
These outcomesare stronglyinfluencedbyleader'scompetencies.Whenleadersexhibitthese
competencies,theyincreasethe chance of problemsolvingandoverall performance.
 Effective ProblemSolving
 Thisis the keystone inthe skillsapproach.
 In volescreatingsolutionsthatare logical,effective,andunique.
 Performance
 Thisrefersto howwell aleaderdidtheirjob.
 Standardsexternal criteriaare usedtomeasure goodperformance suchasmerit
increases,recognitions,etc.
Career experiences
 Careerexperienceshave aneffectona leader'sabilitytosolve problems.
 Researchconducted byMumford,Hardinget al.in 2000 suggeststhatleaderscanbe
helpedby
 Challengingjobassignments.
 Mentoring.
 Appropriate training.
 Hands-onexperience.
 Careerexperiencescanalsopositivelyaffectanindividualcharacteristics(enhance
intellectual capabilitiesormotivation)
 Leaderslearnanddevelophigherlevelsof conceptual capacityif the kindsof problems
theyconfrontare progressivelymore complex.

10.  Accordingto thistheory,leaderscandevelopandare not "bornleaders"
Environmental Influences
 Representfactorsoutside the leaders'competencies,characteristics,andexperiences.
 Examplesincludelackingtechnology,agingfactory,subordinatesskills,etc.
How does the skill approach work?
The skillsapproachisdescriptive,describingleadershipfromaskillsperspective.Itprovidesstructurefor
effectiveleadership.
The 3 skillsapproachsuggeststhe importance of certainleadershipskillsdependingonwhere the leader
are inthe hierarchy.
Mumfordand colleaguesprovide asimilar butmore complex picture of skillsneededforeffective
leadership.The model contendsthatleadershipoutcomesare the directresultsof aleader's
competenciesinproblemsolving,social judgment,andknowledge.Eachcontainalarge repertoire of
abilities.Environmental influencesandcareerexperiencesplayadirector indirectrole inleadership
performance.
The skillsapproachprovidesamapfor how to reach effectiveleadershipinorganizations.
Strengths
 It isa leadercentricmodel thatstressesonthe developmentof some skills.Itconceptualize and
createsa structure of the process.
 It isintuitivelyappealing.Itmakesleadershipavailable toeveryone.
 It incorporatesanexpansiveview of leadershipthatincorporatesawide varietyof components
such as problemsolving,knowledge,social skills,etc.
 It capture the intricaciesinvolvedinleadershipbecauseithasmanyvariables.
 Providesastructure that isconsistentwiththe curriculaof mostleadershipeducationprograms.
Weakness
 The breadthsof the approachextendbeyondthe boundariesof the leadership(suchas
motivation,personality,critical thinking,etc.) Thismakesitmore general andlessprecise.
 It has a weakpredictive value.Itdoesnotexplainhow variationscanaffectperformance.
 It claimsNOTto be a trait model,butmajorcomponentsof the model include trait-like attributes
like personalityvariables.
 It may notbe suitablyorappropriatelyappliedtoothercontexts.The model wasconstructedby
usinga large sample fromthe military.Canitbe generalized?
The approach isrelativelynew andhasnotbeenwidelyusedinappliedleadershipsettings.Despite the
lack of trainingonthe skillsapproach,the scoresallow individualstoleanaboutareastheycan seek
trainingin.
Leadership Instrument

11. There are manyquestionnairestoassessindividual'sskills.Theyprovide auseful self-help,buttheyare
not usedinresearchbecause theyhave notbeentestedforreliabilityandvalidity.A typical
questionnaire isthe "SkillsInventory".
Style Approach
The Style approachemphasizesthe behaviorof the leader.Itfocusesonwhatleadersdoandhow
theyact. Researchersdeterminedthatthere are twotypesof behaviors.The central purpose isto
explainhowthe leaders combine these twokindsof behaviortoinfluence the subordinatestoreach
a goal.
1. Task behavior:Facilitatesgoal accomplishment.
2. Relationshipbehavior:Helpsubordinatesfeelcomfortable withthemselves,withother
and withthe situation.
 There are manystudiesthathave beenconductedtoinvestigate the style approach.
 Some studieswere conductedatOhioState Universityinthe 1940s basedon Stogdill'sfindings.
 Some studieswere conductedatUniversityof Michiganinthe 1940s to understandhow leadership
functioninsmall groups.
 Otherresearchwasconductedby Moutonand Blake inthe early1960s to understandhow
managersusedTask/Relationshipinorganizational settings.
The OhioState University studies
 The analyticswere conducted byhavinga numberof subordinate’s complete questionnaires
abouttheirleadersandhowmanytimestheyengagedina certaintype of behavior.
 The original questionnaire(LBDQ) thatwasusedhad 1800 describingdifferentbehaviors.
 A simplifiedformof 150 questionswasgiventohundredsof individualsinMilitary,
educational andindustrial settings.Itshowedthatcertainbehaviorswere typical of leaders.
 Stogdill publishedashorthandversionin1963 calledLBDQ-VXII
 Researchersfoundthatthatthere are 2 typesof behaviorsforleaders:
 Initiatingstructure: This isessentiallytaskbehaviorsuchasorganizingwork,giving
structure,definingroles,scheduling,etc.
 Considerationstructure: Thisisessentiallyrelationshipbehaviorssuchasbuilding
camaraderie,respect,trust,etc.
 The studiesshowedthatthese 2behaviorswere distinct,independent,andona different
continuum.A Leadercan be highor low oneitherandthe degree withwhichaleader
exhibitedacertainbehaviorwasnotrelatedtothe other.
 Otherstudieswere conductedtodetermine whichone makesamore effectiveformof
leadership.Insome contexts,highconsiderationwasfoundeffective,inothercontexts,
initiatingstructure wasmore effective.Otherresearchshowedthathighon bothwas
optimum.
The University of Michiganstudies
 Focusedonimpactof leadersforsmall groups.
 Identified2typesof leadershipbehaviors:
 Employee orientation:Describesleaders behaviorwhoemphasizesthe humanside,
take an interestinindividualsashumanbeings,individuality,andpersonal needs.Thisis
similarto"considerationbehavior"

12.  Production Orientation:Referstothe technical aspectof the job.Similarto"Initiating
Structure".Workersare meansto get the jobdone.
 Unlike the OhioState research,thisstudyconceptualizedthatthe twobehaviorswere
opposite endsof the same continuum.Thissuggestedthatleaderswhowere oriented
towardsone endwere lessorientedtowardsthe other.
 Afteradditional studies,itwasconceptualizedthatthe twobehaviorswere independentof
each othersimilartothe OhioState studies.(Kahn,1956)
 Additional studieswere made duringthe 1950s and 60s tryingto finda universal theory.The
resultswere contradictoryandunclear(Yulk,1994).
 Some of thisresearchpointedoutthat leaderswhoare hightaskand highrelationshipwas
mosteffective.However,itwasinconclusive.
Blake and MoutonManagerial/LeadershipGrid
 Appearedin1960s and wasrevisedmanytimesin1964, 78, 85, 91.
 Usedin consultingfororganizationaldevelopmentthroughoutthe world.
 It has beenusedextensivelyinorganizationaltraininganddevelopment.
 The Grid is tryingto explainhow managers/leadersinorganizationsare tryingtoreachtheir
purposesthroughconcernforpeople andconcernforproduction.
 Concernfor production:Achievementsandtasks.
 Concernfor people:how a leaderattendstopeople,HR,trust,relationships,etc.

13. 
 Made up of two axis.Horizontal isleader'sconcernforresultsandvertical isleader'sconcern
for people.Ithasa 9 pointscale.1 representsthe minimum.Itportrays5 majorleadership
stylesandtwoadditional styles.
Authority-Compliance(9,1)
 Heavyemphasisontaskand jobrequirements.
 Lessemphasisonpeople exceptthatpeople are toolstogetthe jobdone.
 Subordinate communicationisnotemphasizedexceptforthe purpose of giving
instructions.Resultsdriven.
 The leaderinthiscategory is seenascontrolling,demanding,hard-driving,and
overpowering.
CountyClubManagement(1,9)
 Low concernfor taskaccomplishmentcoupledwithhighconcernfor
interpersonalrelationships.
 The leaderstryto create positive climate bybeingagreeable,eagertohelp,
confronting,anduncontroversial.Theymake sure people needsare met.
ImpoverishedManagement(1,1)

14.  Unconcernedwithbothtaskand relationships.
 Acts uninvolvedandwithdrawn.Little contactwithfollowers.
 The leadermaybe viewedasindifferent,noncommittal,resigned,andapathetic.
Middleofthe roadmanagement(5,5)
 Describesleaderswhoare compromisers.
 Intermediateconcernforbothtaskand relationships.
 A leadermaybe describedasexpedient,middle groundpreference,softpedals
disagreement,andswallowsconvictionsinthe interestof progress.
TeamManagement(9,9)
 Strongemphasisonbothtask and relationships.
 Promoteshighdegree of participationandteamwork.
 A leaderinthiscategorycan be viewedasstimulatingparticipation,acting
determinedgetsissuesintothe open,makesprioritiesclear,followsthrough,
behavesopenmindedly,andenjoysworking.
Paternalism/Maternalism
 Leaderswhouse (9,1) and (1,9),but doesNOTintegrate the two.Thisisthe
benevolentdictator.
 Theyact graciousforthe purpose of goal accomplishmentonly.
 Theytreat people asthoughtheywere disassociatedwiththe task.
Opportunism
 A leaderwhousesanycombinationof the basicfive stylesforthe purpose of
personal advancement.
 Thisleaderusuallyhasadominantgridstyle anda backup style thattheyreferto
whenunderstress.Blake &Mouton (1985)
How does the style approach work?

15. It isnot a refinedtheorythathasorganizedsetof prescriptionsforeffective leadership.Itprovidesa
frameworkforassessingeffective leadership.Itworkbydescribingtoleadersthe major
componentsof theirbehaviorandNOTbytellingthemhow tobehave.
 It remindsleadersthattheiractionstowardsothersare bothat the task andrelationship
levels.
 In some situationstaskbehaviorismore appropriate,inothersrelationshipismore suitable.
 Similarly,some subordinatesneedleaderswhoprovide alotof direction.Othersneedalotof
supportand nurturance.
The style approachcan be easilyappliedin organizations. Itprovidesamirrorfor managersthat
helpsthemunderstand,howtheyare performingasa manager.Leadership(Managerial)Gridhas
beenwidelyusedinpractice inthe past.Today itis commonlyseenasanold-fashionedapproachby
managementdevelopmentprofessionals.
Strengths
 It broadenedthe scope of leadershipresearchtoinclude the behaviorsof leadersandwhat
they do invarioussituations
 A wide range of studiesonleadershipstylevalidatesandgivescredibilityto the basictenets
of thisapproach
 The style approachhas ascertainedthata leader’sstyle iscomposedof primarilytwomajor
typesof behavior:taskandrelationship
 The style approachis heuristic:itprovidesusabroadconceptual mapthat is worthusingin
our attemptstounderstandthe complexityof leadership.
Weakness
 The research on styles has not adequately shown, how leaders´ styles are associated
withperformance outcomes(Bryman1992; Yukl 1994)
 It has failed to find a universal style of leadership that could be effective in almost
every situation
 It implies that the most effective leadership style is the high task and high relationship
style (Blake and McCanse 1991) when the research findings provide only limited
support for a universal high-highstyle(Yukl 1994).
Leadership Instrument
Many instrumentsare availabletoassessthe leader'sstyle,butthe twomostcommonlyusedones
are LBDQ (Stogdill,1963) and leadershipGrid(Blake &McCanse,1991). This isdesignedtobe
completedbythe observers.The leadersthemselvescomplete the LOQ(LeaderOpinion
Questionnaire).
Initially,asresearchersanalyzedthe resultsof bothsurveys,theyfound thatthe initiatingstructure
scoresand considerationscoreswere relativelyindependentof one another.However,whenthey
testedthe questionnairesinfurtherresearch,theydiscoveredthatonlythe LBDQresultsseemedto
be predictive of workgroupoutcomes.Apparently,leadersexpressedopinionsonthe LOQ that
theirsubordinatesdidnotobserveorreporton the LBDQ. Asa result,onlythe LBDQcontinuedon
as a tool forleadershipstyle research.

16. TheSevenManagerial GridStyles:
9,1 – Controlling(Direct&dominant) I expectresultsandtake control byclearlystating
a course of action.I enforce rulesthatsustainhigh
resultsanddo notpermitdeviation.
1,9 – Accommodating(Yield&Comply) I supportresultsthatestablishandreinforce
harmony.I generate enthusiasmbyfocusingon
positive andpleasingaspectsof work.
5,5 StatusQuo (Balance & Compromise) I endorse resultsthatare popularbutcaution
againsttakingunnecessaryrisk.Itestmyopinions
withothersinvolvedtoassure ongoing
acceptability.
1,1 – Indifferent(Evade &Elude) I distance myself fromtakingactive responsibility
for resultstoavoidgettingentangledinproblems.
If forced,I take a passive orsupportive position.
PAT Paternalistic(Prescribe &Guide) I provide leadershipbydefininginitiativesfor
myself andothers.Iofferpraise andappreciation
for support,anddiscourage challengestomy
thinking.
OPPOpportunistic(Exploit&Manipulate) I persuade otherstosupportresultsthatofferme
private benefit.If theyalsobenefit,that’seven
betteringainingsupport.Irelyonwhatever
approach isneededtosecure anadvantage.
9,9 - Sound(Contribute &Commit) I initiate teamactionina waythat invites
involvementandcommitment.Iexplore all facts
and alternative viewstoreacha shared
understandingof the bestsolution.
The Situational Approach
 Thisis one of the mostwidelyrecognizedandusedapproaches.
 It was developedbyBlanchardandHerseyin1969
 Basedon Reddin's 3-Dmanagementstyle theory.
 It was revisedanumberof timessince inception,1993, 1985, 1977, and1988
 It has beenusedextensivelyinorganizationsfortraininganddevelopment.
 The basic premise isthatdifferentsituationsdemanddifferentkindsof leadership.A leaderneeds
to adapt hisor herstyle to the situation.
 It iscomposedof two dimensions:
 Supportive dimension
 Directive dimension
 To assesswhattype of leadershipisneeded,aleadermustevaluatethe employeesandassess
howcompetentandhowcommittedtheyare to performagiventask.
 Because employees’ skillsandmotivationvaryovertime,the theorysuggeststhatleadersshould
change the degree towhichtheyare directive orsupportivetomeetthose needs.
 A leadermustmatchtheirstyle tothe competence andcommitmentof the subordinates.

17. Leadership styles
 Directive Style:Assistgroupmembersaccomplishagoal throughgivingdirections,establishing
goals,settingtimelines,schedules,definingroles.Itisaone way communication.
 Supportive style:Helpgroupmembersfeelcomfortableaboutthemselves,theirco-workers,and
the situation.Itinvolvestwo-waycommunication.Examplesincludeaskingforinput,problem
solving,praising,andsharinginformation.
There are fourdistinctcategories:
S1 -Directing- High Directive,Low Supportive
 Leaderfocusesongoal achievementcommunicationandlessfocusonsupport.Leadergives
instructionsonhowgoalsare to be achievedandsupervisesthemcarefully
S2 - Coaching- High Directive,High Supportive
 Leaderfocusesonbothgoal achievementandsupportivecommunication.Leadergives
instructionsonhowgoalsare to be achievedandsupervisesthemcarefully.Leaderstill
ownsthe final decisions.
S3 - Supporting- High supportive,Low Directive
 Leaderdoesnotfocus exclusivelyongoals,butusessupportivebehaviorthatbringsoutthe
employeesskillsaroundthe task.The style includeslistening,praising,askingforinput,and
givingfeedback.Itgivesthe subordinatethe decisionsmakingona dayto day basis.
S4 - Delegating- Low supportive,Low Directive
 The leaderofferslesstaskinputandlesssocial support.Theyfacilitate employees
confidence andmotivation.Theylessentheirinvolvementinplanning,control of details,
and goal clarification.Subordinatestake responsibilityforgettingthe jobdone astheysee
fit.

18. Development Levels
Thisis concernedwiththe developmentlevelsof subordinates.Thisistheirdegree of competenceand
commitmenttoaccomplishingatask.Employeesare atthe highdevelopmentlevel if theypossessthe
skillsandthe confidence togetatask done.Alternatively,theyare ata low developmentlevel if they
lack the skills,butpossessthe confidence todoa particular task.
On a particulartask,an employee canbe classifiedinto4categories:
 D1 or R1
 Employeesare newtoa task or do notknow how to do it,but theyare excitedaboutthe
challenge init.

19.  D2 or R2
 Employeeshave some competence,butlow commitment.
 D3 or R3
 Employeeswhohave moderatetohighcompetence,butlow commitment.
 D4 or R4
 Employeeswhohave bothahighcompetence anda highdegree of commitment.
How does the situational approach work?
The approach iscentered onthe ideathat employeesmove forwardandbackwardalongadevelopment
continuum.Forleaderstobe effective,theyneedtodiagnose where subordinatesare onthe continuum
and adapttheirstyle toit. Leaderscan beginbyaskingquestions:
 What isthe taskthat needstobe accomplished?
 How complicatedisthe task?
 Are subordinatessufficientlyskilledtodothe task?
 Do theyhave the desire togetthe taskdone?
There isa 1-1 relationshipbetweenthe Leaderstylesandthe developmentlevels.Because subordinates
move back andforth,it isimperative thatleadersadjusttheirstyle.Subordinatesmaymove between
levelseitherquicklyorslowly.
The bell curve superimposeduponthe largerbox isthe keytoimplementingthe situational leadership
model. Inthismodel,itisthe situation,orthe readinessanddevelopmentlevel of the followersthat
determinesthe appropriate leaderstyle.Byerectingaperpendicularline fromanypointonthe
developmentorreadinessscale,we candetermine the appropriateamountof directiveandsupportive
behavioratthe pointwhere the line intersectsthe bell curve.If,forexample,we were todraw a
perpendicularline directlyupfromthe D1 label inthe developmentbox tothe bell curve,itwould
intersectthe curve rightaboutwhere the "C" indirectingislocated.Fromthispositiononthe grid,we
see that the amountof directive behaviornecessaryisatabout80 percentof the maximum, while
supportive behaviorisatabout35 percentof the maximum.If we follow the same procedure forthe D2
pointon the developmentscale,we will intersectthe curve ata pointjustto the leftof the initial Cin
coaching.In thiscase,directive behaviorneededisatabout 60 percentof the maximumandthe
supportive behaviorneededisnearthe maximumatabout90 percent.Atthe D3 level,directive
behaviorisstill substantial atabout40 percent,while supportive behaviorisat90 percent.Finally,the
highestlevelof development,D4,requiresonly25percentsupportive behaviorand25 percentdirective
behavior.The curve demonstratesthatasfollowersmove fromthe lowestlevel of developmenttoward
higherlevels,the amountof supportivebehaviorthatleadersshouldexhibitfirstincreasesata fairly
dramaticrate and then beginstodecrease atabout the same rate.Directive behavior,onthe otherhand
shouldconstantlydecrease atasteadyrate.
One of the strengthsof the situational leadershipmodel isthatitmakesthe leaderresponsiblefor
helpingfollowersmove to higherdevelopmentallevels.Butleadersmustalsobe aware thattheirwork
situationchangesasfollowersmove tohigherdevelopmental levels.Inordertocontinue tobe effective,
leadersmustlearntomodifytheirownbehaviorasthe situationchanges
The situational leadershipmodel iswidelyusedintraininganddevelopmentof leaders,because itis
easyto conceptualize andalsoeasy toapply.The straightforwardnature of situational leadership makes
it practical for managerstouse. It is applicable invirtuallyanytype of organization,atany level,for

20. almostall typesof tasks,so there are a wide range of applicationsforit.Froma practical pointof viewit
isperhapsthe bestleadershipmodel sofar.Butit isalso a productof itsown time, 1960´and 1970´s, in
whichleadershipisperceivedasbeingaone-to-one relationship.
Strengths
 It iswell knownandfrequentlyused;ithasstoodthe testinthe marketplace 400/500 fortune 500
companies
 Intuitivelysimple.
 It isverypractical,but still basedonsoundtheories
 It isprescriptive:ittellsyouwhattodoand not to doin variouscontexts
 It emphasizesthe conceptof leaderflexibility
 It reminds us to treat each subordinate differently based on the task at hand and to seek
opportunities todevelopsubordinates.
Weakness
 There have beenonlyafewresearchstudiesconductedtojustifythe basicassumptionsbehind
thisapproach.Doesit reallyimprove performance?
 The concept of the subordinates´ readiness or development level is rather ambiguous
(Graeff 1997; Yukl 1998)
 Alsohowthe commitmentisconceptualizediscriticized(Graeff 1997)
 The match of the leaderstyle andthe followers´readinesslevel isalsoquestioned.Twostudies
conducted(300 highschool teachers,Universityemployees).Performance of mature teacherswas
unrelatedtothe style exhibitedbyprinciples.
 Doesnot addressdemographicvariations.
 Education,Experience,age,andgender.
 StudiesconductedbyVecchio&Boatwrightin2002 showedthatlevelsof educationwere
inverselyrelatedtothe directive styleandnotrelatedtothe supportive style.
 Age was positivelyrelatedtothe desire forstructure.
 Female employeesexpresseddesireformore supportivestyle.
 It does not fully address the issue of one-to-one versus group leadership in an
organizational setting.Example:Woulda20 employeesmatchtheirstyle toeachindividual orto
the overall developmentlevel of the group?
 The leadershipquestionnairesthataccompanythe model have alsobeencriticized.Theyare bias
because the answershave beenpredetermined.
Leadership Instrument
Many similarinstrumentsare available.Theyprovide12-20 situationswherethe respo0ndantsselect
the preferredstyle.
In theirworkwithleaders,HerseyandBlanchardhave determinedthatmostleadershave some
flexibilityinthe styleof leadershiptheyemploy.Tomeasure leadershipstyle,HerseyandBlanchard
developedatool theycalled LEAD.Thistool hastwo parts.The firstiscalledthe LEAD self,inwhichthe
leaderhimself respondstoa varietyof hypothetical situations.The secondpart,the LEAD other,asks co-
workerstodescribe the behaviorof one of theircolleagues.The twoparts of the LEAD tool helptopaint

21. a clear picture of a manager'sleadershipstyle.A leadermayuse differentstyleswithdifferentfollowers,
or he or she mayhave a mainstyle anda backup style thatcomesintoplaywhenthe mainstyle doesn't
seemtobe working.Still,otherleadersseemonlytohave one mainstyle.HerseyandBlanchard's
researchfocusedonleaderswhousedtwostyles.Bycreatingastyle profile foraleader,trainersusing
the situational leadershipapproachare able topinpointsituationsinwhichaleadermayhave some
difficultyandcanprepare themtodeal withthose situations.
For example,aleaderwithanS1,S3 profile workswithahighdirective,low supportivestyle orahigh
supportive,lowdirective style.Suchaleaderwouldhave difficultyinworkingwithagroupof followers
where manyare changingdevelopmentallevelsbymovingfromD1 to D2. Thisleadermighteither
continue touse the now inappropriate S1style,ormove directlytothe alsoinappropriateS3style.
A leaderwithanS1, S4 profile seemstojudge everythingoncompetence.If workersdon'thave itand
S1, S4 leaderwill "ride"the followersandcloselysupervise theiractivities.Once afollowershowsjob
competence,the S1,S4 leaderpullsbackshowingneitherdirectivenorsupportivebehavior.AnS2,S3
leaderisable tovary the amountof directive behavior,butmaintainsahighlevel of supportive
behavior.AnS1,S2 leaderisable tovary the amountof supportive behaviorshown,butmaintainsa
highlevel of directive behavior.AnS2,S4 profile leadershowsbehaviorwhichiseitherhighinboth
directive andsupportivebehaviororislow inboth.Finally,anS3, S4 leaderischaracterizedbynever
showingahighlevel of directivebehaviorbutvarying hissupportive behaviorfromhightolow.
The Contingency Theory
o The theoryis concernedwithstylesandsituations.
o Many approachescan be calledcontingency,butthe mostwidelyrecognizedisFiedler'sin1964,
1967. FredFiedlerfromUniversityof Illinoisdevelopedit.
o Thisis a leader-matchtheorywhichtriestomatchthe rightleaderforthe situation.
o The approach was developedbystudyingthe stylesof manydifferentleaderswhoworkedin
differentcontexts,primarilymilitary.
o Hundredsof leaderswere analyzedwhowere goodandbad.
o The LPC (LeastPreferredcoworker) wasdevelopedtomeasure the leader’sstyles.Leaderswho
score highor Loware task motivated.The LPCiscloselyrelatedtothe "Semanticdifferential
scales"(The measurementof meaning,book).
o The LPC scale.Fiedlerthoughtthathow a leaderfeelsaboutpeople he orshe workswithmight
be a goodindicatorof whetherhe orshe wouldbe effectiveindealingwiththem.Inhisearliest
workFiedleractuallyusedtwoscales.He askedhisrespondentstodescribe bothhisorherleast
preferredcoworkerandhisorher mostpreferredcoworker.Fiedlerthencalculatedthe
difference betweenthe evaluationof the mostpreferredcoworkerandthatof the leastpreferred
coworker.He chose to call the resultingscore the AssumedSimilarityof Opposites(ASO)score.
Fiedlerlaterdiscoveredthatthere wasverylittle variationinthe waythe mostpreferred
coworkerwasdescribedbymostpeople.Onthe otherhand,the evaluationsof leastpreferred
coworkersvariedquite widely.Asaresult,the onlythingthatwas contributingtothe resultswas
the leastpreferredcoworkerscore.
Leader Styles
Task motivated:concernedwithreachingagoal
Relationshipmotivated:concernedwithdeveloping close relationships.

22. Situational variables
o Leadermemberrelations
i. Group atmosphere anddegree of confidence,loyaltyandattractionthatfollowersfeel
abouttheirleader.
o Task Structure
i. The degree towhichthe requirementsof ataskis clearand well defined.
ii. Well-structured tasksgive more control tothe leader.
iii. Vague anduncleartasks give lesscontrol andinfluence.
iv. A taskis consideredstructuredwhen
1. The requirementsof the taskare clearlystatedandstructured.
2. The path to accomplishingthe task hasfew alternatives.
3. The completionof the taskcan be clearlydemonstrated.
4. Limitednumberof correctsolutionstothe taskexist.
v. An example of astructure taskis "Cleaningthe milkmachine atMcDonald's"
vi. An example of anunstructuredtasksistorun a fundraiserfor an organization.
o PositionPower
i. The amount of authoritya leaderhasto rewardor punishemployees.
 The 3 situational factorsdetermine the favorablenessof the situations.
 The most favorable situationsare definedbyhavingagoodleader-followerrelation,defined
tasks,and strongleaderpositionpower.
 The leastfavorable situationsare definedbyhavingapoorleader-followerrelation,unstructured
tasks,and weakleaderpositionpower.
 The theorypositsthat certain stylesbe more effectiveincertainsituations.
 Task motivatedindividualsare more effective inVeryfavorable &veryunfavorable
situations.
 Relationshipmotivatedindividualsare more effectiveinmoderatelyfavorablesituations.
How does the Contingency Theory work?
By measuringthe LPCscore and the three variables,one canpredictwhetheraleaderwill be effectivein
a particularsituation.Once the nature of situationisdetermined,the fitbetweenthe leaderand the
situationcanbe evaluated.Leaderswill notbe effectiveinall situations.
Contingency theory represents a major shift in leadership research from focusing only on the
leaderto consideringthe situationalcontext. Itslessonhasbeen toemphasize the importance of
matchinga leader’sstyle withthe demands of asituationandwidercontext. Ineverydaylife we have

23. noticedthatsome executives,whomaybe extremelysuccessful inone organization,canfail in another
organizationwithadifferentculture,valuesandwayof operation.
The contingencytheoryhasmanyapplicationsinthe real world.Itcan explainforexample whyan
individualiseffective orineffective in acertainsituationbasedonthe variousvariables.Itcanalso
predictwhetheranindividual waseffective inacertainpositioncanbe effective inanother.
Strengths
 It issupportedbya great deal of empirical research
 It has forcedusto considerthe impactof situationsonleaders
 It ispredictive andprovidesusefulinformationregardingthe type of leadershipthatwillmost
likelybe effective incertaincontexts
 It is realistic in saying that leaders should not expect to be able to lead effectively in
everysituation
 It providesdataonleaders´styles thatcouldbe useful toorganizationsindevelopingleadership
profiles.
Weakness
 It failstoexplainfully,whyindividualswithcertainleadershipstylesare more effective insome
situationsthaninothers.Fiedlercallsthisa"BlackBox".The theory explainsthatthe low LPCsare
effectiveinextreme situationsisthattheyfeel more certainwhere theyhave control.
 The leadershipscale,whichthe model uses,isoftencriticized.Itdoesnotseemvalidonthe
surface.
 It isdifficulttoapplyinpractice.Itrequiresanalyzingthe leaderstyleandthree relativelycomplex
situational variables.
 It failstoexplainadequatelywhatorganizationsshoulddowhenthere isamismatchbetween the
leaderandthe situationinthe workplace.
Leadership Instrument
The LPC scale is usedinthe contingencytheory.Itmeasuresyourstyle byhavingyoudescribe a
coworkerwithwhomyouhave difficultycompletingajob.The scores are indicatedbythree categories
(LowLPC, Middle LPC,andHigh LPC).Low LPCsare task motivated.HighLPCsare relationship
motivated,andMiddle LPCsare socio-independent.
Historical overview of the leadership theory
Basketball teamsandsurveyingteams.Basedonhisstudyof the literature onleadership,Fiedler
predictedthatpeople whodescribe theirleastpreferredcoworkerinpositive termswouldmake better
leaders.Suchpeople,he theorizedwouldbe able togetalongwitha widervarietyof people.Totest
thisideahe decidedtomeasure the LPCof some leadersandcorrelate theirscoreswiththe successof
the group.For thispurpose he neededgroupsforwhichaclear indicationof successwaspossible.He
chose boys'highschool basketball teamsinthe state of Illinois.Atthe beginningof the seasonhe went
to a numberof teamsand had each teammembercomplete the LPCscale.He alsoaskedeachboyto
nominate those onthe teamtheyliked,those theylookedupto,those theyhungoutwith,etc.These

24. are calledsociometricquestions.Usinghisresults,Fiedlerwasable todeterminewhothe informal
leaderof the teamwas.At the endof the seasonhe correlatedthe informal leader'sLPCscore withthe
team'swinningpercentage andfoundaresultthatsurprisedhim.There wasaquite substantial and
statisticallysignificantnegative correlation.The leaderswithlow LPCscorestendedtobe onwinning
teams.Since he hadmade the opposite prediction,he feltitwasnecessarytoreplicate those results
before publishingthe results.Withanothersetof highschool basketball teamshe foundthe same
results.He replicatedthe researchwiththree-personsurveyingteamsfromengineeringclasses,using
the instructor'sgrade on theirpractice surveysashis measure of success.Againhe foundthatlowLPC
informal leadershadmore successfulteams.
Bombercrewsare notbasketball teams.Convincedthathe hadfoundan importantfactorinvolvedin
leadership,Fiedlerexpandedhishorizons.He obtainedaresearchgrantto studyleadership
effectivenessinAirForce bombercrews.Using verysimilartechniquestothose he hadusedwiththe
basketball teamshe obtainedLPCscoresandbombingrunscoresfor a substantial numberof bomber
crews.He testedall crewmembers,butcorrelatedthe planecaptain'sLPCscore withthe crew's
bombingrunscores.To hisshock anddismay,the correlationwasnotsignificant.Determinedto
understandwhathadhappenedhe triedtodeterminewhatdifferencesexistedbetweenthe bomber
crewsand the basketball teams.He thoughthatone importantdifference mightbe thatinthe
basketball teamsthe leaderswere emergent,nominatedbythe teammembers,while the plane
captainswere assigned.Goingbacktohisdata he determinedthatmostplane captainswouldqualifyas
informal leadersusingthe same criteriahe usedwiththe basketball teams.He thendroppedthe
captainswhodidnot qualifyasinformal leadersandrecalculatedthe correlation.Withthisselectedsub
sample the correlationwasnowsignificantlynegative,thatisthe low LPC captainstendedtohave crews
withhigherbombingrunscores.The correlation,however,wassubstantiallylowerthanthose he had
foundinhispreviousstudies.Sohe begansearchingforanotherdifference betweenbombercrewsand
basketball teamsandfoundone.Whileall the playersonabasketball teammustworkhardand play
togethertowingames,the same was nottrue of bombercrews,at leastnoton practice bombingruns.
He determinedthatona bombingrunthere isone keymemberof the team whose actionsdetermine
howhighthe score will be.Ondaylightbombingrunsthiswasthe bombardier,onnighttime runsitwas
the radar operator.
The firstcontingency.ArmedwiththisinformationFiedlerbegantolookat how the dynamicsof the
relationshipbetweenthe captainand hiskeyman mightbe involvedinthe failure tofindstrongsupport
for the relationshipof lowLPCwitheffective leadership.Since Fiedlerhadobtainedsociometric
nominationsfromthe bombercrews,he wasable todeterminehow eachcaptainfeltabouthiskey
man.Some plane captainshad nameda keymanas someone theylikedtoworkwithandsome plan
captainshad notnameda keymanas someone theylikedtoworkwith.Fiedlerthendividedthe sample
up intothose captainswhofeltpositivelytowardakeyman andthose whodidnot. He thencorrelated
the captains' LPCscores withthe bombingrunscoreswithineachof those twogroups.The resultswere
striking.Inthe groupof crewswhere the captainfeltpositivelyaboutthe keyman,the correlationwas
substantial,significantandnegative.Aswiththe basketball teams,planecaptainsinthatsubsample
withlowLPC scoreshad highbombingrunscoresandthose withhighLPC scoreshad low bombingrun
scores.Surprisingly,inthe subsampleof crewswhere the plane captainhadnotvoicedpositive feelings
for the keyman,the correlationwassignificant,substantialandpositive.Inthatsubsample,plane
captainswithhighLPC scoreshad highbombingrunscoresand captainswithlow LPCscoreshad low
bombingrunscores.In the bombercrewsthe relationshipbetweenleader'sLPCscore and teamsuccess
was contingentonthe kindof relationshipbetweenthe captainandthe keymanon the team.

25. Fiedlerinterpretedtheseresultstomeanthatthere was an optimumdistance thatneededtobe
maintainedbetweenaleaderandhis/herfollowers.He feltthatlow LPCleaderstendtobe somewhat
distantbecause of theirbasicleadershipstyle.He alsoproposedthatwhenaleadernominatedakey
man as someone he likedto workwith,thatleadertendedtohave a more close relationshipwiththat
man.On the other hand,whenthe leaderdidnotfeel thatthe keymanwas someone he likedtowork
with,thatleadertendedtohave a more distantrelationshipwiththatman.The explanationwentas
follows.A lowLPCleadertendstobe somewhatdistantbynature.Whenthislow LPCleaderchooses
the keyman as someone he likestoworkwith,the distance isnotincreasedandtheyworkproductively
together.Whenthe lowLPCleaderdoesnotlike toworkwiththe keyman,the distance isfurther
increasedtoa level toogreatfora productive workingrelationship.
A highLPC leader,onthe otherhand,tendstomaintainquite close relationshipswithpeople becauseof
hisbasic nature.Whenthe highLPC leaderchoosesthe keymanassomeone he likestoworkwith,the
naturallyclose relationshipbecomesperhapseven closer,tooclose foragoodleader-follower
interaction.Inthese conditionsthe leadermayfail tobe as critical and demandingasa leaderneedsto
be in orderto getthe bestproductivityfromafollower.WhenahighLPC leaderdoesnotmeetakey
man withwhomhe likestowork,he createsenoughdistance tomaintainaproductive working
relationship.Thisconclusionsuggestsaninterestingapplication.If youare a highLPC person(thatis you
describe yourleastpreferredcoworkerinverypositive terms) thenyoushouldtrytoworkwithpeople
youdon't particularlylike if youwanttobe productive.Onthe otherhandif you are a low LPC person
(youdescribe yourleastpreferredcoworkerinquite negativeterms) thenyoushouldtrytowork with
people youlike andrespect.Fiedlerabandonedthissocial distance interpretationwhenhe developed
the full contingencytheory.
The contingencytheory.FiedlerandhisassociatesconductedmanyresearchstudiesonLPCand leader
effectivenessoverthe next several years.Inthatperiodhe discoveredtwoothercontingenciesthathad
a moderatingeffectonthe relationshipbetweenLPCandleadereffectiveness.Eventuallyhe arranged
the three contingencieshe hadfoundinthe mannershowninfigure 6.1 on page 111 of the textbook.By
dichotomizingeachof the contingencies,he producedeightcombinationsarrangedinthe ordershown.
As the textbookauthorpointsout,the contingencycombinationsgoingfromlefttorightare considered
alsoto be from mostfavorable toleastfavorable forthe leader.Thuswe cansee that the most
importantcontingencyisleader-memberrelations,because asituationwithgoodleader-member
relationsisalwaysconsideredbetterthanasituationwithpoorleader-memberrelationsregardlessof
the nature of the othercontingencies.We canalso see thattask structure ismore importantthan
leaderpositionpower,since ahighstructure situationisalwaysbetterthana low structure situation
regardlessof the amountof positionpower.
Fiedlerthensurveyedthe researchthathadbeendone tothat time usingLPC andplacedeach study
intoa category basedonleader-memberrelations,taskstructure,andpositionpowerof the leader.In
sevenof the eightcategoriesthere wereatleasta few studiesrelatingleaderLPCtoperformance of the
group.In the three mostfavorable categoriesonthe left(octants1,2 and 3) the average relationship
was quite substantiallynegative andalmostall the studiesproducedanegative relationshipbetween
leaderLPCscoresand performance.Surprisingly,inoctant4 (goodleader-memberrelations,low
structure and weakpositionpower) the relationshipshiftedinthe opposite direction.Inoctant4 the
average relationshipbetweenLPCandperformance was substantiallypositive,meaningthatinthese
conditionshighLPCleaderstendedtohave groupswithhighperformance andlow LPCleaderstended
to have groupswithlowperformance.Nearlyall the studiesthatfellintooctantfourproducedpositive
relationshipsbetweenLPCandgroupperformance.The studiesinoctantfive producedresultssimilarto

26. those inoctant four.Fiedleractuallyhadnostudieswherethe conditionsfell intooctantsix whenhe
firstproposedthe contingencytheoryin1964. In octantseventhe average relationshipbetweenLPC
and performance waspositivebutlow.Inoctanteightthe average swungquite sharplyagain.Inthe
conditionsof octanteight,where none of the contingencieswere favorable forthe leader,the average
relationshipwassubstantiallynegative andalmostall of the studiesproducedanegative relationship.In
these worstconditionsforaleader,lowLPCleaderswere againclearlymore effectiveinproducing
results.Subsequentresearchpredictswhichkindof leaderislikelytobe more effectiveforeachoctant.
There isstill some doubt,however,whetheraclearpredictioncanbe made for octantseven.
Fiedler'sinterpretationof the theory.Inhismanypublicationsonthe model,Fiedlerproposesthatthe
low LPC leaderwhoiseffective inpromotingproductivityinboththe three mostfavorable contingency
situations(octants1,2 and 3) andthe mostunfavorable situation(octant8) doesnotbehave the same
inthe favorable andunfavorablecircumstances.He has suggestedthatall leadersprioritizewhatthey
try to accomplish.Fora lowLPC leader,the mainfocusisgoal achievementandtaskaccomplishment
and the secondaryfocusisbuildinggoodrelationshipsanddevelopingfollowers.The reverseistrue of
the highLPC leader.Hisor hermaingoal isbuildinggoodrelationshipswiththe secondarygoal of task
accomplishment.Insituationswhichare moderatelytoverydifficultforthe leader,mostof hisorher
effortsgointopromotingthe maingoal--taskaccomplishmentforthe low LPCleader,andrelationship
buildingforthe highLPCleader.Accordingtocontingencytheory,inthe worstconditionsforaleader
(octant8), workingfortask accomplishmentatall costs isapparentlythe bestthingtodo.In this
unfavorable situation,the low LPCleadershines.Inmoderatelydifficultsituations(octants4,5 and 6), it
appearsthat a strong,drivingtaskorientationonthe partof the leaderdoesnotworkverywell.In
those moderatelydifficultsituations,the highLPCleaderismore successful.
In the three mostfavorable contingencysituations(octants1,2 and 3), the leaderhasthe luxuryof
takingit easyonhis/hermaingoal and puttingeffortintothe secondarygoal.The highLPCleadermay
pressharderfor task accomplishmentinthese situationsfeelingthatthe goal of relationship
developmentdoesnotrequire somuchattention.The low LPCleaderonthe otherhand,backs off from
so muchpressure ontask accomplishmentandputsmore effortintorelationshipbuilding.Fiedlerhas
indicatedthathe has evidencethatlowLPCleadersengage inmore relationshipbehaviorsthanhigh
LPC leadersinthese situationsthatare favorable forthe leader.
The effectsof trainingandexperience onleadereffectiveness.Some of the mostinterestingand
provocative aspectsof contingencytheoryinvolve ideasaboutthe effectof trainingandexperience on
leadereffectiveness.Accordingtocontingencytheory,trainingandexperience allowsthe leadertogive
more structure to hisor herworksituation.Inotherwords,if a leaderisworkingina situationwhere
the task has lowstructure,suchas octants 3 and 4 and octants7 and 8, as he or she gainsexperience or
isgivengoodtrainingthe taskbecomesmore structured.Thusa leaderina situationlike octant4,with
goodleader-followerrelations,low structure andweakpower,wouldwithtrainingandexperience
change to a situationlike octant2, withgoodleader-followerrelations,highstructure andweakpower.
At firstglance,thisshouldbe agood thing,transformingamoderatelydifficultsituationintoone thatis
much more favorable forthe leader.Butwait.If the leaderinquestionishighLPC,he orshe was likely
quite effective workinginthe octant4 situation.Shiftingthisleadertooctant2, accordingto
contingencytheory,wouldresultinloweredeffectiveness.However,if the leaderwere low LPCthe shift
fromoctant 4 to octant 2 shouldincrease effectiveness.
In anotherexample,if the leader startsinoctant 8, withpoor leader-followerrelations,low structure
and weakpower,andisable throughtrainingandexperience tobringstructure tothe task, he or she

27. wouldendupinoctant 6. In thiscase we wouldexpectimprovedperformance fromhighLPCleaders
and reducedperformance fromlowLPCleaders.Inotherwordsthe effectivenessof trainingand
experience inimprovingleaderperformance dependsonthe LPCscoresof the leadersyoutrainand the
contingencysituationinwhichtheyare now working.Thisconclusionsuggeststhatinsome situationsa
little (ora lot) of trainingcan be a dangerousthing.Fiedlerhasevensuggestedthatsome leadersbe
rotatedback intomore unfavorable circumstanceswhentheirexperience hasallowedthemtoimprove
the situationbyimposinggreaterstructure.
Martin Chemers,atthe Universityof Utah,conducteda fascinatingstudythatdemonstratedthe
differentialeffectof trainingbasedonthe LPCof the leaderandthe contingenciesof the situation.The
studywas conductedatthe heightof the VietNamwar.At that time studentsatmostuniversities,
includingthe Universityof Utah,feltquite negativelyaboutthe government,the military,andthe war.
ChemersusedArmyROTCcadetsfrom the universityashisleaders.The studywasconductedondays
whentheywouldbe wearingtheiruniforms.The otherstudentsinthe groupswere notROTCcadets,
creatingconditionswhere the leaderfollowerrelationswouldlikelynotbe verygood.The taskthe
groupswere givenwasto decode messages.The groupswere notgivenanytrainingorinstructionin
howto go about breakingthese codes,guaranteeingthatthe taskwasquite unstructured.Since these
groupsmetin a lab as volunteersfora psychologyexperimentandwere givencreditforjustshowing
up,the leadershadnopositionpoweroverthe othergroupmembers.The situationwassetupto be an
octant 8 combinationof contingencies.Half of the ROTCstudentleaderswere highLPCbasedonan
earliertest,andhalf were lowLPC.Finally,half of the ROTCstudentleaderswere givenashorttraining
sessionpriortothe group meetingonhow togo about breakingcodes,andhalf were givennotraining
at all.
Ordinarily,we wouldexpectall groupswhose leadershadbeengiventraininginhow tobreakcodesto
do betterthanall groupswhose leadershadnotbeengivenanytraining.Onthe otherhand,
contingencytheorysaysthatinthe worst situationfora leader,octant8, low LPCleadersshouldhave
groupsthat performbetterthanthose of low LPC leaders.If the trainingchangedthe situationtooctant
6, we wouldexpectthe trainedhighLPCleaderstodobetterthanthe trainedlow LPCleaders.Thiswas
exactlywhathappened.The groupswithtrained,low LPCleaderssolvedfewercodesthanthe groups
withuntrained,lowLPCleaders.The groupswithtrained,highLPCleadersperformedbetterthanthe
groupswithuntrained,highLPCleaders.Inotherwords,the traininghelpedthe leaderbe more
effectiveif he washighLPC,but made hisperformance worse if he waslow LPC.
Where doescontingencytheory fit?
The situational leadershiphaspassedthe testof the market.It isverypopularwithorganizationsbut
has verylittle researchvalidation.Contingencytheory haspassedthe testof research.Itliterallygrew
out of researchrelatingleadershipstyle withfollowerproductivity.The contingencymodel is
reproducedineveryorganizational andindustrial psychologytextbook,buthasmade verylittle impact
on the leadershiptrainingof businessorganizations.Fiedler,Chemers,andothershave attemptedto
applythe theorythroughtheirLeaderMatch trainingprograms,butthese have notbeenverypopular.
The problemseemstobe withthe basicideaof how muchleaderscan change theirbehavior.
Situational leadershipseemstomake the assumptionthatanintelligentpersoncaneasilychange hisor
herbehaviortomatch the demandsof the situation.All theyhave tolearnishow to diagnose the
developmentlevel of theirfollowers.Contingencytheoryseemstoargue thatleaderscan'treally
change.Theyare effective orineffective dependingonthe situationtheyare inandwhetheritmatches
theirownnature.The truth of the matterislikelysomewhere inbetween.Leadersmaybe able tomake
some changesintheirbehavior,butthese changeswillbe difficult,andrequire considerabletraining

28. and effort.Itisalsolikelythatorganizationscouldbenefitsubstantiallyfromdevotingmore attentionto
matchingthe styles of theirleaderstothe demandsof the situationandmovingleadersaroundto
enhance the match.
The Expectancy Theory
Thisis nota leadershiptheory,butIcoveredithere because the path-goal theorywasbasedonit.The
Expectancytheorywasdesigned toexplainwhythere isnotaveryhighrelationshipbetweenthe offer
of incentivesinaworkplace andan increase inthe effortputforthbythe workersthere.Expectancy
theoryexplainsthe manyplaceswhere the connectionmaybe broken.
a. The nature of the incentive.Whatisofferedmustbe valuedbythe personforwhomitissupposed
to have incentive value.Forexample,workersmaybe toldthatif theyworkhard and performwell
theywill be promotedtoa supervisoryposition.Some individualsinthe workgroupmayplace
highpersonal value onsucha promotion.Othershowever,maynotwantthe added
responsibilities.So,the firstprincipleof expectancytheoryisthatthe incentive orrewardmustbe
valuedbythe individualoritwill not resultingreaterworkeffort.
b. Self-confidence.The workermustbelieve thatif he or she putsforthincreasedeffort,thiswill
resultinthe level of performance specifiedasnecessarytoearnthe incentive.Manyworkersare
not sure that if theywork evenharder,theycanperformat the specifiedlevel.
c. Level of uncertaintyaboutthe reward.Manyincentivesare offeredonavague or uncertainbasis.
Workersmay be toldthat if theirperformance isupto certainstandardstheywill become eligible
for promotion,forraisesinpayor bonuses.There are usuallynotenoughpromotionssothat
everyone whoisperformingwell canbe promoted.Oftenworkersdonothave faiththat effort
and performance level isthe primarydeterminantof whogetspromoted.Raisesandbonusesare
dependenttosome degree onhow well the companyisdoingeconomically,andnotjuston how
well employeesare performing.Asaresult,the uncertaintyaboutactuallyreceivingthe reward
may cause some workerstofeel thatpurringforthextraeffortisnot justifiedbythe probabilityof
receivingthe reward.
The bottom line isthata personislikelytoputforthextraeffortas the resultof an offeredincentive
onlyif that personvaluesthe rewardhighlyandhasa highdegree of expectationthatsuchincreased
effortwill resultinactuallyresultinreceivingthe reward.Path-goal theoryisdesignedtohelpleaders
understandthe variousthingsthatmaypreventaworkerfrom believingthe goal canbe reached.The
leader'sbehaviorisdesignedtohelpworkersbelieve theycanperformwell andthatperformance will
yieldmanyvaluedrewards.
Path-Goal Theory
 Thistheoryisabout howleadersmotivate subordinatestoaccomplishgoals.
 It focusesonenhancing employee’s performancebyfocusingon employee’s motivation.
 It firstappearedinthe 1970s heavilydrawingfromresearchonmotivationbasedonthe worksof
(Evans,1970), (House,1971),(House & Dessler,1974).
 The path-goal theoryemphasisthe relationshipbetweenthe leader'sstyleandthe
characteristicsof the subordinatesandworksetting.
 Basedon the expectancytheory,the Path-Goal theory,assumesthatsubordinateswillbe
motivated

29. o if theythinktheyare capable of performingtheirwork
o if theybelievetheireffortswill resultinacertainoutcome
o if theybelievethatthe payoffsfortheirworkare worthwhile
 Effective leadershipwill selectthe style thatmeetsthe subordinatesneeds
o Choose behaviorthatsupplementorcomplementwhatismissinginthe worksetting.
o Leadersinformationorrewardstosubordinatestoenhance goal attainment(Indvik,1986)
 Leadershipmotivateswhenitmakesthe pathtothe goal clear,easyto reach,provide coaching,
removesobstacles,andmake the workitselfpersonallysatisfying.(House &Mitchell,1974)
 Whenleadersselectthe properstyle,theyincreasethe subordinate’s chance forsuccessand
satisfaction.
 Path-Goal theoryiscomplex.
ThebasicprinciplebehindPath-Goal theory
Themajorcomponentsofthe Path-Goal theory

30. Leader Behavior
 There are fourbehaviors,butthe theoryisleftopenforinclusionof additionalbehaviors.
 The following4behaviorswere examined
o Directive
 Similarto"InitiatingStructure"or"Telling"style insituationalleadership
 A leaderwhogivesinstructionsaboutatask,how is itdone,expectations,andthe
timeline?
o Supportive
 Resembles"ConsiderationBehavior".
 Beingfriendlyandapproachableasa leader,attendingtothe wellbeingandhuman
needsof subordinates.
 Supportive leadersgooutof theirway tomake workpleasantforemployees,treat
themas equal.
o Participative
 Referstoleaderswhoinvite subordinatestoshare indecisionmaking.
o Achievement-Oriented
 Characterizedbya leaderwhochallengessubordinatestoperformworkatthe
highestlevelpossible.
 Thisestablishesahigherstandardof excellence andseekscontinuousimprovement.
 These leadersshowahighdegree of confidence thatsubordinatesare capable of
accomplishingthe work.
 House & Mitchel suggestedthatleadersmayexhibitanyorall of these behaviorswithvarious
subordinatesandindifferentsituations.The leaderisNOTlockedintoa specificstyle.

31.  There may be instanceswhere aleadermayuse a blendof differentbehaviors.
 Leadershouldadapttheirbehaviortothe situationandthe motivationof the subordinates.
 The leaderbehavioritself iscontingentonthe othertwo componentsof the Path-Goal theory
(Characteristicsof the subordinateandcharacteristicsof the task)
Subordinates Characteristics
 Determineshowthe leaderbehaviorwillbe interpretedbysubordinatesinagivenworkcontext.
 Researchhasfocusedon subordinate needsforaffiliation,preferencesforstructure,desire for
control,and self-perceivedlevelsof taskability.
 Affiliation
o The theorypredictsthatsubordinateswhohave astrong "Affiliation"needsprefer
supportivestyle.Friendlyandconcernedleadershipisasource of satisfaction.
o The theorypredictsthatsubordinateswho are "DogmaticandAuthoritarian"prefer
Directive style.Thisprovidespsychological structure andtaskclarity.These subordinates
feel more comfortable whenaleaderprovideasense of certaintyinthe worksetting.
 Desire for control
o Subordinateswithinternal locus of control believe theyare incharge of the thingsthat
occur in theirlife.
 Participative styleismostsatisfying.Itallowssubordinatestofeel incharge andbe a
part of the decisionmaking.
o Subordinateswithexternallocus of control believethatchance,fate andoutside forcesare
the determinantsof lifeevents.
 Directive leadershipisbestbecause itparallelsthe subordinatefeelingsthat outside
forcesare incontrol.
 Motivation
o As subordinatesconfidence of theirownabilitiesgoup,the needfordirective leadership
goesdown.
Task Characteristics
 Task characteristicshave a majorimpacton the way a leader'sbehaviorinfluencessubordinates.
 The characteristics include
o Designof the subordinate task
o Formal authoritysystemof the organization
o primaryworkgroup of subordinates
 These characteristicscancollectivelyprovide motivatingforthe subordinates.
 An example iswhenasituationprovidesastructuredtask,stronggroup norms,andan
establishedauthoritysystem, the employeeswill feel asif theycanaccomplishthe taskon their
own.Leadership inthese contextscanbe seenasunnecessary,un-empathetic,andexcessively
controlling.
 Otherexamplesthatneedleadershipincludetasksthatare repetitive,soleadershipcankeepthe
employeesmotivated,orambiguoustasksthatmay needleadershiptoclarifythem.
 A special focusof the path-goal theoryisforleaderstohelpremove obstacles.Thisincreasesthe
oddsof the successfullycompletingthe tasksandincreasesthe employeesconfidence.
 in1996, House publishedanadditional 8classesof behaviorsforthe Path-Goal theory
o Directive
o Supportive

32. o Participative
o Achievementoriented
o Work facilitation
o Group orienteddecisionprocess
o Work Group representationandnetworking
o Valuerbasedleaderbehavior
 The revisedtheoryassertsthateffective leadershipneedtohelpsubordinatesbygivingthem
whatis missingintheirenvironmentandbyhelpingthemcompensate fordeficienciesintheir
abilities.
Leader Behavior Group Members Task Characteristics
Directive Leadership
Providesguidance andpsychological structure
Dogmatic
Authoritarian
Ambiguous
Unclearrules
Complex
Supportive Leadership
Providesnurturance
Unsatisfied
Needaffiliation
Needhumantouch
Repetitive
Unchallenging
Mundane and Mechanical
Participative
ProvidesInvolvement
Autonomous
Needforcontrol
Needforclarity
Ambiguous
Unclear
Unstructured
Achievement Oriented
ProvidesChallenges
Highexpectations
Needtoexcel
Ambiguous
Challenging
Complex
How does the Path-Goal theory work?
 The Path-Goal theoryiscomplex,butpragmatic.
 It providesasetof assumptionsabouthow leadershipstyleswillinteractwithcharacteristicsof
subordinatesandtasksandhowit affectsmotivation.
 The theoryprovidesdirectionabouthow leaderscanhelpsubordinatestoaccomplishtasks.
 For tasksthat are structured,unsatisfying,andfrustrating,the theorysuggeststhe supportive
style.
 The theorysuggeststhatthe directive styleisbestforthe tasksthat are ambiguous,unclear
organizational rules,dogmatic,andauthoritarianemployees.
 Participative leadershipisalsosuggestedforambiguoustasksbecause itbringsclarity.
 Achievementorientedleadershipismosteffectiveinsettingswhere subordinatesare requiredto
performambiguoustasks.
 Although the path-
goal theory is not applied in many management training programs, it bringsmany
interestingperspectivestoleadershipthinking.Itwasone of the firsttheoriestospecifyfour
conceptuallydistinctvarieties of leadership;notonlytask-orientedandrelationshiporiented
leadership.It was also one of the first theories to explain how task and subordinate
characteristicsaffectthe impactof leadershiponsubordinate performance.

33.  It can be appliedatall levelswithinanorganization.
Strengths
 It providesauseful theoretical frameworkforunderstandinghow variousleadershipbehaviors
affectthe satisfactionof the subordinatesandtheirperformance.
 It attemptstointegrate the motivationprinciplesof the expectancytheoryintoatheoryof
leadership.Itisthe onlytheorythatdealswithmotivation.
 It providesamodel thatina certainwayis verypractical.
 It remindsleadersof theirpurposewhichistoguide andcoach employeesasthey move along
the path to achieve agoal.
Weaknesses
 It isquite complex andtriestoincorporate manydifferentaspectsof leadershipthatmake ita
little confusing.
 It has receivedonlypartial supportfromthe manyempirical studies
 It failstoexplainadequatelythe relationshipbetweenleadershipbehaviorandworker
motivation
 The approach treatsleadershipasaone-wayeventw1here the leaderaffectsthe subordinate.It
placesa great deal of responsibilityonthe leaderandless onthe subordinateswhichcanmake
themtoo dependentonthe leader.
Leadership instrument
The path-goal questionnaire isthe preferredinstrument.The scoresrepresentthe fourtypesof
behaviorandtellsthe leaderwhichstyletheyuse more dominantly.
Leader-MemberExchange (LMX) theory
 While mosttheorieshave emphasizedthe pointof viewof the leader,the LMXtheory
conceptualize leadershipasa processthat iscentered onthe interaction betweenleadersand
followers.
 LMX theorymakesa dyadicrelationship betweenleadersandfollowersasthe focal pointof the
process.
 It was firstdescribedin1975 by Dansereau,Graen,andHaga. It had undergone several revisions
since.
 Priorto LMX, researcherstreatedleadershipassomethingleaders didtowardsfollowersand
assumedleaderstreatedfollowers inacollective wayasa groupusingan average leadership
style.
Early Studies
 Thisis basedonthe vertical dyadlinkage (VDLtheory).The focuswasoneach of the VDLs that
are formedbetweenthe leaderandeachof the followers.
 It was determinedthere are twodyads:
o in-groups(extraroles)
o out-groups(definedroles)

34.  Subordinatesbecomeeitherpartof the in-groupor the out-groupbasedonhow well theywork
withthe leaderandhowthe leaderworkswiththem.Personalityandothercharacteristicsare
relatedtothisprocess.
 Becomingpartof the in-groupsinvolvessubordinates negotiatingwiththe leaderaboutwhat
theyare willingtodoto become part of the group. The activitiesinvolvegoingbeyondtheir
formal jobdescriptionsandthe leaderinturndoesmore forthese subordinates.
 Subordinatesthatare notinterestedintakingdifferentjobresponsibilitiesbecome partof the
out-group.
 Subordinatesinthe in-groupreceivesmore information,influence,confidence, andconcernfrom
the leaders.Theyare alsomore dependable,highlyinvolved,andmore communicative.
 Subordinatesinthe out-groupare lessinvolvedandreceivelessattentionandperksfromthe
leader.Theyjustcome towork,do theirjoband go home.
Later Studies
 A shiftinfocustookplace.Early studiesfocusonin-groupsandout-groups.Laterstudiesfocused
on howthe LMX theoryisrelatedtothe organizational effectiveness.
 Researchdeterminedthathigh-qualityLeader-Memberexchangesproduced
o Lessemployee turnover
o More positive performance evaluations
o Higherfrequencyof promotions
o Greaterorganizational commitment
o More desirable workassignments
o Betterjobattitudes
o More attentionandsupportfromleaders
o Great participation
o Fastercareer progressover25 years
 OrganizationsprosperfromhighqualityL-Mexchanges
Leadership Making
Stranger Acquaintance Partner
Roles Scripted Tested Negotiated
Influence One Way Mixed Reciprocal

35. Exchanges Low Quality MediumQuality HighQuality
Interests Self Self/Other Group
 Thisis a prescriptive approachtoleadership.Itemphasizesthata leadershoulddevelophigh-
qualityexchangeswithall of theirsubordinatesratherthanjusta few.Itattemptstomake every
employeepartof the in-group.
 Leadershipmakingsuggeststhatleadercreate partnerships throughoutthe organizationwhich
benefitsthe organizationatlargeraswell astheirowncareer.
 Graen andUhl-Bien(1991) suggeststhatleadershipmakingdevelopsovertime in3phases
o The stranger phase
 Interactionsare rule bound.
 Reliesheavilyoncontractual relationships
 Leader-Memberrelaytoeachotherwithinthe describedorganizationroles
 Lowerqualityexchangessimilartothe out-groups
 Subordinate complieswiththe formal leaderwhohashierarchical statusforthe
purpose of achievingeconomicrewards.
 The motivesare directedtowardsself interestratherthanthe goodof the group.
o The acquaintance phase
 Beginsbyan offerfromthe leaderorthe subordinate forimprovedcareeroriented
social changes.
 It involvessharingmore resourcesandpersonal information.
 It isa testingperiodforbothleaderandemployee.
 Dyadsshiftfromaway fromthe prescribedjobdescriptionandthe definedroles.
 Leader-Memberexchange isimproved.
 They tendto focuslesson self-interestandmore onthe goals of the group.
o The mature partnershipphase
 Thisis a partnership.
 Highqualityleader-memberexchanges.
 Highdegree of mutual trust.
 Respectandobligationtowardeachother.
 Leadersandsubordinatesare tiedtogetherinaproductive waythatgoesbeyond
traditional hierarchy.
 Schriesheim,Castro,Zhou,andYammarino(2001) foundthat goodleader-member
relationswere more egalitarianandinfluence andcontrol were equallybalanced.
How does the Leader-Member Exchange theory work?
 As a whole,itisa veryinterestingapproachtothe leadershipprocess,anditoffersusa lotof
ideastounderstandbetterthe relationshipbetweenaleaderandafollower.
 Although,this theoryhasnotbeenpackagedtobe usedintrainingand development,itoffer
much insightthatmanagerscan use to improve theirleadershipbehavior.
 The ideassetforthby the LMX theorycan be usedat all levelsof the organization.
 The ideasalsoapply to creatingnetworkswithinanorganizationandcallinguponthisnetworkto
helpsolve problemsoradvance careergoals.
 The theorytellsusto be fair to all employees,andtobe sensitive.
 It worksin 2 ways:

36. o It describesleadership - Highlightsthe importance of recognizingthe existenceof in-
groupsand out-groups.
 The differencesonhow goalsare accomplishedusingthe in-groupsorout-groupsare
substantial.
 In-groupmembers domore thatjobdescriptionrequiresandlookforinnovative
waysto advance the group. Inresponse,leadersgive themmore responsibilitiesand
more opportunities.Leadersalsogive themmore timeandsupport.
 Out-groupmembersoperate strictlywithintheirprescribedorganizational roles.
Theydo whatis requiredof them, but nothingmore.Leaderstreatthemfairlyand
accordingto the formal contract,but do notgive themspecial attention.Theyget
standardbenefits.
o It prescribesleadership -
 The authors advocate that leadersshouldtrytocreate special relationshipswith all
subordinates.
 Leadersshouldoffereachsubordinatethe opportunitytotake new rolesand
responsibilities.
 Leadersshouldnurture high-qualityexchangeswiththeirsubordinates.
Strengths
 It isa strongdescriptive theorythatmakesintuitivelysense.
 We maynot like itbecause itisunfair,butit isa realitythatthe theorydescribes.
 It isthe onlyleadershiptheorythatmakesthe conceptof the dyadicrelationshipthe centerpiece
of the leadershipprocess.
 It directsourattentiontothe importance of communicationinleadership.
 There isalso a large bodyof researchthatsubstantiateshow the practice of the LMX theoryis
relatedtopositive organizationaloutcomes.Itisrelatedtoperformance,organizational
commitment,jobclimate,innovation,organizationalcitizenshipbehavior,empowerment,
procedural,distributivejustice,andcareerprogress.
Weaknesses
 On the surface itruns counterto the basic humanvalue of fairness.
 The existence of in-groupsandout-groupsmayhave undesirableeffectsonthe groupas a whole.
Our culture repelsthe discriminationof age,gender,etcandthistheoryawakensthe
discriminationfactors.
 Questionshave beenraisedregardingthe measurementof leader-memberexchangesinthis
theory.The measurementscale lackscontentvalidity.
 The basic ideasof the theoryhave notbeenfullydeveloped.Itdoesnotexplainhow the high-
qualityleader-memberexchangesare created.Itmentionedthatpersonalitycompatibilitiesare
keyto these high-qualityexchanges,butneverwentindepthaboutthe details.
Leadership instrument
The LMX-7 providesareliable andvalidmeasureof the qualityof leader-memberexchanges.Itis
designedtomeasure respect, trust,andobligation.
Transformational Leadership (TL)

37.  Thishas beenthe focusof researchsince the 1980s.
 It isbasedon the "great man"theory,butdoesnot assume thatthe leadermusthave all of the
characteristicsof the great manin orderto be an effective leader.
 Part of the "NewLeadership"paradigm.
 The transformational leaderseesthe needforchange,expansion,orcomplete transformationin
orderto take the organizationtowardgoalsthatothersmaynot have evenimagined.The
transformational leadermusthave vision,problem-solvingskills,andthe abilitytoinspire
followerstogo beyondtheircurrentrequirements,be creative,andchange the waytheythink
abouttheirjobs.Basedon these assumptions,manylarge companiesattemptto identify
potential transformationalleadersearlyintheircareersandprovide themwithavarietyof
assignmentsthatwill developaverybroadperspective.Althoughthe conceptof
transformational leadershipisdifficulttodefine,the potentialgainsforthe organizationare
worththe effort.
 Givesmore attentiontocharismaticandaffective elementsof leadership.
 A thirdof the leadershipresearchtodayisabout"Transformational Leadership"(Lowe&
Gardner,2001)
 It isa processthatchangesand transformsindividuals.
 It isconcernedwithemotions,values,ethics,standards,long-termgoals.
 It includesassessingfollowersmotives,satisfyingtheirneeds,andtreatingthemashuman
beings.
 It worksto influencefollowersona1:1 level,wholeorganizations,andentire cultures.
 Both followersandleadersare boundtogetherinthe transformational process.
 The term wascoinedbyDownton(1973), butthe emergence of the theorywasthroughJames
MacGregor Burnsin1978.
o Leadersare those whotap the motivesof the followersinordertobetterreachthe goals
of the leadersandfollowers.
 Burns distinguishedbetweentwotypesof leadership
o Transactional
 Thisis the bulkof leadershipmodelswhichfocusesonexchangesbetween
leaders/followers.
 Examplesincludepoliticianswhowinvotesbypromisinglesstaxesormanagerswho
offerpromotionstoemployeeswhosurpasstheirgoals.
o Transformational
 Referstothe processwhere an individual engageswithothersandcreatesa
connectionthatraisesthe level of motivationandmoralityinbothleaderand
follower.
 Thistype of leadershiphelpsfollowersreachtheirfull potential.
 ExamplesincludeMohandasGandhi ora managerwhoattemptstochange their
company'scorporate valuestoreflecta more humanstandardof fairnessandjustice.
Transformational Leadership and Charisma - House
o House publishedthe charismaticLeadershipin1976.
o Burns publishedabookin1976 about the Transformational Leadershiptheory.Itreceivedagreat
deal of attention.
o The concept of "Charisma"wasfirstusedto describe aspecial giftthatselectindividualspossess.
It givesthemextraordinarypowers.Itgivesthemsuperhumanexceptional powers.(Weber,
1947)

38. o Weberrecognizedthe importantrole playedbyfollowersin validatingcharisma.
o The personal characteristicsof a charismaleaderinclude
o Beingdominant
o Havingstrong desire toinfluence
o Self-confident
o Strongsense of one'sownvalues
o Charismaticleadersalso
 Strongrole modelsforthe beliefsandvaluesthey wanttheirfollowerstoadopt.
 Theyappearcompetent.
 Theyarticulate ideological goalsthathave moral overtones(example:MartinLutherKing)
 Communicate highexpectationstofollowers
 Theyexhibitconfidence in follower’s abilitiestomeetexpectations. Thisincreasesthe
follower’s senseof competenceandself-efficacy.
 Arouse taskrelevantmotivesinfollowersincludingaffiliation,power, andesteem.
(Example:JFK,appealingtovaluesof the Americanpeople, asknotwhatyourcountry can
do foryou,but ask whatyou can do foryour country.)
o Effectsof charismaticrelationshipaccordingtoHouse.These mostlyoccurinstressful situations.
 Follower'strustinthe leader'sideology.
 Similaritybetweenfollower'sandleader'sbeliefs.
 Unquestionedacceptance of the leader.
 Expressionof warmthtowardsthe leader.
 Followerobedience.
 Identificationwiththe leader.
 Emotional involvementinthe leader'sgoals.
 Heightenedgoalsforthe followers.
 Follower'sconfidence ingoal achievement.
Personality
Characteristics
Behaviors Effects on followers
Dominant Setsstrongrole model Trust inLeader'sideology
Desire toinfluence ShowsCompetence Belief similaritybetweenleaderand
follower
Confident ArticulatesGoals Unquestioningacceptance
StrongValues CommunicatesHigh
Expectations
Affectiontowardleader
ExpressesConfidence Obedience
ArousesMotives IdentificationwithLeader
Emotional involvement
HeightenedGoals
Increasedconfidence
House - Personal Characteristics for Charismatic Leaders.

39. A model of Transformational Leadership - Bass
o (Bass,1985) providedamore expandedversionof the transformationalleadership.
o Bass extendedBurn'stheorybyfocusingmore onfollowersratherthan leaders'needs.
 SuggestedthatTL couldapplyto situationstowhichthe outcomeswere notpositive.
 Contendedthattransactional andtransformational leadershipwereonasingle continuum.
o Bass extendedHouse'stheorybygivingmore attentiontothe emotionalelementsandoriginsof
charisma.
 He suggestedthatcharismais necessary, butnotsufficientfortransformationalleadership.
o Bass suggestedthatTransformational leadershipmotivatesfollowersby:
 Raisingfollower’s consciousnessaboutthe importanceandvalue of idealizedgoals.
 Gettingfollowerstotranscendtheirown self-interestforthe sake of the organization.
 Movingfollowerstoaddresshigherlevelneeds.
Transformational Leadership factors
o TL isconcernedwithperformance of the followersanddevelopingthemtotheirfullestpotential
(Avolio,1999; Bass & Avolio,1990).IndividualswhoexhibitTLoftenhave astrong setof internal
valuesandideals,theyare effectiveatmotivatingfollowerstoactin waysthat supportte greater
goodrather than theirownself-interest(Kuhnert,1994).
o There are 7 factors that are includedinthe transactional/transformational model.
 Transformational Leadership
 Factor #1 - Idealizedinfluence/Charisma
 Factor #2 - Inspirational Motivation
 Factor #3 - Intellectual Stimulation
 Factor #4 - IndividualizedConsideration
 Transactional Leadership
 Factor #5 - ContingentReward,Constructivetransactions
 Factor #6 - Managementbyexception,Active andPassivecorrective Transactions.
 Laissez-Faire Leadership
 Factor #7 - Laissez-Fairenon-transactional
Transformational Leadership Factors (Very Effective)
Generallyspeaking,transactional leadershipresultsinexpectedoutcome while transformational
leadershipresultsgobeyondthe expectations.

40.  IdealizedInfluence
 Identifiesleaderswhoare charismaticandare strongrole models.
 Followersidentifywiththese leadersandwanttoemulate them.
 Leaderusuallyhave veryhighstandardsandethical conduct.
 Leadershere can be countedonto do the right thing.
 They are deeplyrespectedbyfollowers.
 Followersplace agreatdeal of trust inthem.
 These leadersprovidefollowerswithvisionandasense of mission.
 Example:NelsonMandela- Transformedandentire nation.
 Inspirational Motivation
 Thisis descriptiveof leaderswhocommunicate highexpectationstofollowersand
inspiringthemthroughmotivationtobecome committed.
 These leadersuse symbolsandemotionalappealstofocusgroupmembers'efforts
to achieve more.
 Team spiritisenhancedbythistype of leadership.
 Example:A salesmanagerwhoencourageshisteamthroughwordstoexcel.
 Intellectual Stimulation
 Leadershipthatstimulatesfollowerstobe creative andinnovative,andchallenges
theirownbeliefs.
 Supportsfollowersastheytrynew approaches andinnovative ways.
 It promotesproblemsolving.
 IndividualizedConsideration
 Representative of leaderswhoprovidesupportiveclimateswhere theylisten
carefullytothe needsof followers.
 Theycoach and advise while assistingfollowerstobecome fully actualized.
 These leadersmayuse delegationasameanto helpfollowersgrow.
Transactional Leadership Factors (Effective)
Thisdiffersfromtransformational inthatthe leaderdoesnotindividualize the needsof the
followersnorfocusontheirdevelopment.Theyare effective becauseitisinthe bestinterestof
the subordinatestodowhat the leaderwantsthemtodo. Theyessentiallyexchangethingsof
value withsubordinates.
 ContingentReward
 Effortsby the followersare exchangedforaspecificreward.
 Example:A college deanwhonegotiatesthe numberof publicationsneededfora
promotion.
 Management-by-exception
 Referstoleadershipthatinvolvescorrective criticism, negativefeedback,and
negative reinforcements.
 Active Management-by-exception
 An example isasupervisorthatcloselymonitorssubordinatemistakes
and makescorrective actionsimmediately.
 Passive Management-by-exception
 An example isasupervisorthatmonitorssubordinatesmistakesand
givesa poorperformance evaluation.
Non-Leadership Factors (Ineffective)

41. Thisis the absence of leadership.
 Laissez-Faire
 Abdicatesresponsibility.
 Delaydecisions.
 Give no feedback.
 Makes little ornoeffortstohelpfollowerssatisfytheirneeds.
Other models and perspective
The research of (Bennis&Nanus,1985) and (Tichy& DeVanna,1986, 1990) offeredotherperspectives.
Theyusedsimilarmethodologiesbyinterviewinganumberof CEOs usingunstructuredopen-ended
questions.
Bennis and Nanus
o TheyaskedCEOs 90 questionssuchasWhat re yourstrengthsandweaknesses?Events?Critical
careerpoints?,etc.
o Theyidentified4commonstrategiesusedbyleaderstotransformorganizations
 Clear visionofthe future state oftheir organizations.
 Visionsare attractive,realistic,believable, understandable,beneficial andenergy
creating.
 The compellingnature of the visiontouchedthe experiencesof followers.
 The visionneedstogrow out of the needsof the entire organization.
 While leadersplayarole inarticulatingthe vision,itemerges frombothleadersand
followers.

42.  These leaderswere social architects of theirorganizations
 Communicate directionthattransformsthe valuesandnorms.
 Theymove people toacceptnew groupidentityandphilosophyof organizations.
 These leaderscreate "Trust" in the organizations.
 Theymake theirpositionknownandstandbyit.
 Beingpredictable andreliable.
 Whenleaderscreate trustinthe organizations,itestablishesasense of identity.
 They use creative-deploymentofselfthroughpositive self-regard.
 Leadersknewtheirstrengthsandweaknesses.
 Theyemphasizedtheirstrengthsininsteadof dwellingintheirweaknesses.
Trichy and DeVanna
SimilartoBennisandNanus,theystudies12CEOs of mostlylarge corporations.Theymostlyfocused
on howleaderscarriedoutthe change process.Theywantedtofindout how leaderbringchange when
workingunderchallengingconditionssuchasincreasedcompetition,cultural changes,rapid
technological changes,etc.Theyfoundoutthatleadersbringchange througha 3 stepsprocess.
o Act 1 - Recognize the needfor change
 There isa tendencytobe comfortable withthe statusquoandresistchange.
 The needforchange sometimesgounrecognized.
 These leadersare change agents.
 Three techniquesweresuggestedby TrichyandDeVannatoincrease opennessforchange.
Encourage dissentandallow people todisagree
Encourage objective assessmentof how well anorganizationismeetingitgoals.
Encourage membersof the organizationstovisitotherorganizationstoobtain
differentview points.
o Act 2 - The creation ofthe vision
 A visioncreatesthe conceptual roadmapwhere anorganizationisheaded.
 Developamissionstatementasitisthe centerpiece of creatingavision.
o Act 3 - Institutionalizingchange
 Leadersneedtobreakdownoldstructuresand establishnew ones.
 Findnewfollowerstoimplementnew ideas.
 May needtocreate a newcoalitionof followerstobe compatible withthe vision.
How does the Transformational theory work?
 Thistheoryisa broad-basedapproachthatencompassesmanyfacetsanddimensionsof
leadership.
 It describeshowleaderscaninitiate,develop,andcarryoutsignificantchangesinorganizations.
 It setsout to empowerfollowersandnurture them, itraisestheirconcisenessandtranscend
theirown self-interestforthe sake of others.
 Leadersbecome strongrole modelswithahighlydevelopedsetof values,self-determinedsense
of identity,confident,competent,andarticulate.
 Followerswanttoemulate transformational leaders.
 Leaderscreate a visionwhichbecomesthe focal pointof the organization.
 Out of uncertainty,transformational leaderscreate change.
 Transformational leadersbecomesocial architects,clarifyingthe valuesandnormsinan
organization.

43.  Transformational Leadershipdoesnottell people whattodo,butprovidesabroad setof
generalizations.Itdoesnottell the leaderhow theyshouldactina particularsituation,butit
providesageneral wayof thinkingaboutleadership.
 Transformational Leadershipcanbe taughtinorganizationsatall levels,affectperformance,
usedinrecruitmentprocess,promotions,andtraininganddevelopment.
 The trainingand developmentbeginsbybasicallyworkingwithleadersontheirVision/Mission
statements.
Strengths
 It isa currentmodel thathas receivedalotof attentionbyresearchersandhas beenwidely
researchedusingqualitativestudiesof prominentCEOs.
 It has a strong intuitive appeal.Itisconsistentwiththe society'spopularnotionof what
leadershipis.People are attractedtotransformational leaders.
 It emphasizesthe importance of followersinthe leadershipprocess.
 It goesbeyondtraditional transactional modelsandbroadensleadershiptoinclude the growthof
followers.
 It placesstrongemphasisonmoralsandvalues.
 There issubstantial evidence thattransformational leadershipisaneffective formof leadership
(Yukl,1999)
Weaknesses
 It lacksconceptual claritybecause itcoversmanyaspects(Creatingvisions,motivation,change
agents,trust,social architects,etc.)
 There are some doubtsaboutthe validityof the MLQ measuringtransformational leadership.
 It sometimesimpliesthattransformational leadershiphas atrait-like quality.These leadersare
oftenseenasvisionaries.
 It can be seenaselitistandundemocraticbecausethe leaderscreate the visionandchange
directions.
 Researchdata focusheavilyonsenior-level leaders.The datamay applytoleaders of
organizationsandnotnecessarilyleaders in organizations.
 It has the potential tobe abusedbecause itisconcernedwithchangingpeople'svaluesand
movingthemtoa newvision.
Leadership instrument
The MLQ is made up of questionsthatmeasuresthe leader'sbehaviorandperceptionof the seven
factors inthe transformational leadership. There isalsoanabbreviatedversioncalledMLQ-6S
developedbyAvolioin1992.
The Team Leadership theory
o Thisapproach has become one of the mostpopularand rapidlygrowingareasof leadershiptoday.
o Teamsare organizational groupswhoare interdependent,share commongoals,andmust
coordinate activitiestoreachtheirgoals.

44. o The study of groupsbeganin the 1920s and1930 (PorterandBeyerlein,2000) withfocuson
humanrelations.The focusshiftedto"groupdynamics"inthe 1940s. The focusshiftedagainin
the 1950s movedtosensitivitytrainingandT-Groups.Inthe 1960s/70s, the focusshiftedto
developingteamandleadershipeffectiveness throughintervention.Due tocompetitionfrom
Japanin the 1980s, the focusshifted toquality teams,benchmarkingandimprovement.Inthe
1990s, while still focusedonquality,shiftedtoglobal perspective.
o The organizational teamstructure isone wayorganizations todaycanrespondtoadapt to the
rapidlychangingworkplace conditions(new technology,globaleconomy,economiccompetition,
and increasingdiversity).
o CurrentresearchI focusedonpractical problemsandhow to make teamsmore effective.
o Effective teamleadershipisthe primaryingredientof teamsuccess(Zaccaro,Ritman,& Marks,
2001). Ineffective leadershipisthe primaryreasonswhyteamsfail todevelop,yieldimprovement,
and quality.
o The organizational structure of excellent companies has changed from a functional and
matrix organizationintoaprocessand teamorganization.Teamsare importantperformance and
learningunitsin organizations today. Team work should enable the company to offer better
customerservice,improve the efficiencyof internal processesand improve the motivationof
personnel. Itshouldbe remembered thata team isa means of operation, nota goal itself; it
should alwaysbe evaluated, if teamwork isthe bestwayto achieve the objective.Moving over
to teamwork is a lengthydevelopmentprocessitself,whichneedsalotof training. A working
groupneedstime todevelopthroughdifferentphasesof beingapseudo-team, potential team
and real team(Katzenbach&Smith1994, 84). Nevertheless,the use of organizational teamshas
beenfoundtoleadto greaterproductivity, more effectiveuse of resources,betterdecisionsand
problemsolving,betterqualityproductandservicesandincreased innovationandcreativity
(Parker1990).
o Organizingandleadingteams,ratherthangroupsengagedinworkingtogethertomanufacture or
sell aproduct, hasprovedchallenging.Organizationsthatare able tomake teamswork have a
significantadvantage in the worldmarket.
o The team leadershipandthe teamleadershipmodel donotcompose atheorythatmakes
predictionsandistestedbyresearch.Thisdiscussionismore of an attempttohighlightthe special
problemsanddifficultiesthatexistinthe leadershipof teams.Itidentifiesplacestolookwhen
problemsarise inworkingwithateamandgivesa new teamleadersome guidelinesastohow
she or he couldanalyze andapproachthe task at hand.
Leader roles in the various team structures.

45. The "Functional Model" of the team Leadership
o Early scholarsidentified twocritical functionsof leadership:
 Helpthe group accomplishitstask.(TeamPerformance)
 Include solvingproblems,adaptingtochanges,makingplans,achievinggoals.
 Keepthe group maintainedandfunctional.(TeamDevelopment)
 Include developingpositiveclimate,solvinginterpersonalproblems,satisfying
members'needs,anddevelopingcohesion.
o The current focusof researchison "teams"asopposedto"groups".It alsofocusesonthe effect
of the environmentonthe teams.
o Effective leadershiphelpsthe teambalance the internalandexternaldemands.
o McGrath developed amodel forteamleadershipthatlooksattwodimensions:
 Monitoringversustakingactions
 Focuson internal groupissuesversusexternalgroupissues.
o The functionswithinthismodelof leadershipdoesnotrequire thatthe leaderalone carriesthe
responsibilityof execution,butexperiencedmemberswithinthe teamitselfcanalsoshare these
leadershipbehaviorsaswell.
o The keyassertionof the functional model isthata leaderneedstodowhateverinordertotake
care of anyunmetneedsof the team.If the team membersare takingcare of mostof the needs
thenthe leaderhasto do verylittle.

46. o The functional model isapractical approach that isdesignedprimarilytoanswer"Whatfunctions
doesthe leaderperformtohelpthe groupbe more effective?"
o The leaderisthe one who processesinformation(Barge,1996). Theyessentiallyhelpthe team
developanorganizingframeworkorsetof procedures. Thisstructure helpboththe leaderand
teamsmembersinterpretsinformation,make judgments,andtake actionforthe goodof the
group.
o Effective teamperformance beginswiththe leader's mental model of the situation.The mental
model reflectsnotonlythe componentsof the problemconfrontingthe team, butalsothe
environmental andorganizational contingenciesthatdefinethe largercontext.Here the leader
developsamental model of whatthe teamproblemsare withinthe currentcontext.The leader
needstobe behaviorallyflexible.
Monitoring
o To developanaccurate mental model,aleaderneedstomonitorbothinternal andexternal
environments,continuallygatherinformation,reduce equivocality, provide structure, and
overcome barriers.
o There are twophasesto monitoring(definedbyFleishmanetal.,1991)
 Informationsearch:seekoutinformation
 Informationstructuring: Analyze,organize,andinterpret.
o All membersof the groupcan be engaged inmonitoring(informationsearchandstructure)
Action Taking
o In additiontoinformationgathering,thereisalsotakingthe 'right'action.
o Actionmediationisatthe heartof leadershipbecause itinvolvesselectingfromamongcompeting
coursesof actionsand helpingthe groupcreate a systemof organizingthatallowsthe teamto
make qualitydecisions.(Barge,1996)
o There are twoskillsforactionsmediation
 Abilitytofacilitatedecisionmakingandtaskaccomplishment. (Task/TeamPerformance)
 Abilitytomanage interpersonal relations(TeamDevelopment)
o Team leadersmustlearntobe openandobjective aboutdiagnosingthe teamproblemsand
skillfulatselectingthe mostappropriate actionstohelpachieve the teamgoal.

47. Characteristics of effective teams
o Teamsare judgedontheirperformance outcomesandachievements.
o Researchersbegantostudyorganizational workteamstbetterunderstandwhatmakesthem
effectiveorineffective (Hackman,1990; Hughes,Ginnett&Curphey,1993; LaFasto & Larson,
2001; Zaccaro, 2001)
o The followingcriteriawere suggestedbyHackmanandWaltonin 1986 as necessaryfor
effectivenessof task-performing teams:
 Clear,engagingdirection.
 An enablingPerformance situation.
 A groupstructure that fostercompetenttaskwork.
 An organizational contextthatsupportsandreinforcesexcellence.
 Available,expertcoachingandprocessassistance.
3. Adequate material recourses.
o Larson and LaFasto(1989) conductedresearchthatincluded6000 teammembersand600 leaders
fromvariousindustries.Theyfoundthatregardlessof the type of team, there were 8
characteristicsthatwere associatedwithteamexcellence.
o Clear,elevatinggoals
 Team goalsneedtobe veryclear to easilytell if objectiveshave beenrealized.
 Team can fail due tovague goalsor if otherthingsreplace orshadow the goalssuch as
personal agendas,orpowerissues,etc.
 Leadersneedtokeepthe teamfocusedonthe goal.
Results-drivenstructure
 Teamsneedto have the bestpossible structure inordertoaccomplishtheirgoals.
 Top managementforexampledeal withpowerandinfluence,taskforcesdeal withideas,
customerservice teamsdeal withclients,productionteamsdeal withtechnology,etc.
 Problemsolvingteamsuchas taskforce needtohave a structure that emphasizes
'trust' so that everyone contributes
 Creative teamsneedtohave astructure thatemphasizesautonomytothateveryone
can take risks.

48.  Tactical teamssuchas an emergencyroomteamneedtohave a structure that
emphasizesclarity.
3. Competentteammembers
 Groups shouldbe composedof the rightnumberandmix of memberstoaccomplishthe
tasks.
 Membersneedtobe providedwithsufficientinformation,trainingandeducation.
 Team membersneedtonotonlybe able todo the job,but to be able to collaboratively
worktogether.
4. UnifiedCommitment
 Team needtodevelopasense of unityandidentification.
 Thiscan be developedbyinvolvingteammembersinall aspectsof the process(Larson&
LaFasto,1989).
5. Collaborativeclimate
 Trust basedon honesty,openness,consistency,andrespectseemstobe essential for
buildingacollaborativeclimate.
 Membersshouldfeel free tocompensate forone another,take risks,listentoeachother,
be focusedonthe problems,andlistentoeachother.
 The cause of team failuresmayreside notonlyinmemberinability,butalsointheir
collaborative failure tocoordinate andsynchronize theirindividual contributions(Zaccaro,
2001).
6. Standardsof excellence
 It isimportantto setupstandardsof excellence withinateamfortheirprocesses.This will
pressure the memberstoperformattheirhighestlevels.The standardsneedtobe clear
and concrete.
 The team leadercanfacilitate thisprocessby:
 Requiringresults - makingexpectationsclear
 Reviewingresults - providingfeedbacktoresolve performance issues.
 Rewardingresults - Acknowledgesuperiorperformance.
7. Principledleadership
 Leadershipiscentral tothe teameffectiveness(Zaccaro,2001). It affectsthe teamthrough
foursetsof processes:
 Cognitive - Helpsthe teamunderstandthe problemsfacingthe team.
 Motivational - The leaderhelpsthe teambecome cohesive andcapable of setting
highperformance standardsandaccomplishingthem.
 Affective- Helpsthe teamhandle stresscircumstancesbyproviding careergoals,
assignmentsandstrategies.
 Coordination - Leadercoordinate teamactivitiesbymatchingskillswithroles.
8. External support
 A commonmistake istogive organizational teamschallengingassignments,butno
organizational supporttoaccomplishtheseassignments(Hackman,1990)
 The bestgoals donot meanmuch if youdon't have money,equipment,orsuppliesto
accomplishthe goals.
Leaderscan reduce the effectivenessof theirteamwhentheyare unwillingtoconfrontinadequate
performance, whentheydilute the team'sabilitytoperformbyhavingtoomanypriorities,andby
overwhelmingthe positive aspectsof teamperformance.Effectiveleadersperformthe following
behaviors:
1. Keepsthe teamfocusedonthe goal

49. 2. Maintainsa collaborative climate
3. Buildsconfidence amongmembers
4. Demonstratestechnical competence
5. Setpriorities
6. Manages performance
Team Leadership Model
Hill (2001) hasalso developedamodel forteamleadership.The model attemptstointegratewhat
we knowaboutteams,leadershipandeffectivenessandtoprovide specificactions(Mental roadmap)
that leaderscanperform to improve team work. Effective team leaders need a wide repertoire of
competencies,which can be different than traditional leaders need.Team leaders and members
could use the model tosupportdecision-makingaboutthe currentstate of the team and toconsider
whatspecificactionstheyneed to take to improve the team´sfunctioning.The model should offera
cognitive maptoanalyze the teamsituation
The model demonstratesthe mediationdecisionsthata leadermustmake?

50. 1. Decision#1 - Whethermonitoringoractiontakingisthe mostappropriate forthe issue at hand.
2. Decision#2 - If an action course isneeded,thenthe leadersaskswhatlevelof teamprocess
needsleadershipattention?Isitinternal,external,teamissues,etc.
3. Decision#3 - Determine the mostappropriate functionorskill tobe performedinthe
intervention. Actionsmustbe carefullyselectedbasedonthe situation.
There are three setsof skillsthat a leaderneedto implement
1. Internal task leadershipfunctions(thisis to improve Task Performance)
 Goal focusing(clarifying,gainingagreement)
 Structuringforresults(Planning, organizing,clarifyingroles,delegating)
 Facilitating decisionmaking(informing,controlling,coordinating,mediating,synthesizing,
issue focusing)
 Trainingteammembersintaskskills(Educating,Developing)
 Maintainingstandardsof excellence (Assumingteamandindividual performance,
confrontinginadequate performance)
2. Internal relationshipleadershipfunctions(thisisto improve Team Relationship)
 Coachingteammembersininterpersonal skills.
 Collaborating(including,involving).
 Managing conflictsandpowerissues(Avoidingconfrontation,questioningideas).
 Buildingcommitmentandespritde corps(beingoptimistic,innovating,envisioning,
socializing,rewarding,andrecognizing).
 Satisfyingindividualmemberneeds(trusting,supporting, advocating).
 Modelingethical andprincipledpractices(fair,consistent, andnormative).
3. External environmental Leadershipfunctions(Thisisto improve environmental interface with
the team) - Teams do not existin a vacuum.
 Networkingandformingalliancesinenvironment(gatherinformation,increaseinfluence).
 Advocatingandrepresentingteamtoenvironment.
 Negotiatingupwardtosecure necessaryresources,support,andrecognitionforthe team.
 Bufferingthe teammemberfromenvironmentaldistractions.
 Assessingenvironmental indicatorsof team'seffectiveness(surveys,evaluations,
performance indicators).
 Sharingrelevantenvironmental informationwithteam.
How does the Team Leadershiptheory work?
o Leaderscan use thismodel tohelpthemmake decisionsaboutthe currentstate of theirteams
and realize whatactionstheyneedtotake toimprove the team'sfunctioninginordertoachieve
effectiveness.
o The model providesthe leaderwithacognitive maptoidentifygroupneeds.
o The model helpsthe leadermake senseof the complexityof groupsandofferpractical
suggestions.
o The model helpsthe leaderunderstandwhethertheyneedtomonitorortake actions.
o Helpsthe leaderdistinguishbetweeninternalandexternal challenges.
o The model helpspoint the waytoconstant teamanalysis.
o Researchsuggeststhatteamleadersoverestimatetheireffectivenessonthe dimensionsof
leadership.Theyscore themselvesmuchhigherthangroupmembers.Bycomparingscoresbythe
leaderandmembers,the leaderscandetermine whichdimensionsof teamorleadershipare in
needor improvement.

51. Strengths
o It focusesonreal life organizational workteamsandthe leadershipneededtherein.Thishasnot
beenthe focusof otherapproaches.
o It providesapractical model that helpsleaderstodesignandmaintaineffectiveteamsespecially
whenperformance isbelow standards.
o It takesintoaccount the changingrole of leadersandfollowersinorganizations.
o It can helpselectingteamleadersbyclarifyingthe competencieswhich aneffective teamleader
will need.Itcanhelpinthe processof selectingteamleaders.
Weaknesses
o It isa newapproach,and itis notcompletelysupportedortestedbyresearch.Wouldthe model
holdtrue in the newtechnologyconnectedvirtual teams?
o Althoughthe theorytakesintoaccountthe complexityof teas,itiscomplex inandof itself.
o It doesnotofferon the spotanswersforspecificsituations.
o It is still more like a framework, but doesn’t offer clearanswers to specific situations for
the team leader.
o It doesn’teitherofferclearinstructionshow tofocusteamleadershiptraining.
Leadership instrument
Several instrumentsare available,butLarson&LaFasto, 1989 have developedasurveyafterstudying
manyexcellentorganizationsteams.Theirresearchhasdemonstrated8criteriaorfactors that are
consistentlyassociatedwithhighperformingteams.The teamexcellence surveycontainsmore than40
questionsacrossthe 8 factors to diagnose the teamperformance.The teammembersare giventhe
survey,theirresultsare averagedandcomparedagainstthe leader'sanswers.
Psychodynamic Approach
ErnestL. Stech bringstogetherseveral differentattemptstoapplypsychoanalytictheoriestosocial
relationships,including leadership.
Thisapproach consistsof bitsand piecesborrowedfromanumberof scholarsandpractitioners.
 The psychodynamicapproachtoleadershipdevelopedfromthe methodsdealingwith
emotionallydisturbed individuals and from psychological theories of personality
development. The psychodynamic approach to leadership has its roots in Sigmund
Freud´s (1938) development of psychoanalysis. Carl Jung, one of Freud´s well-known
disciples, developed his own body of psychology,which is well accepted even today,
whereas classical psychoanalysis has found lessacceptance inrecentyears(Bennet
1983). Maslow (1962, 1971) and Rogers(1961) couldmaybe be mentionedhere as
humanisticpsychologiststorepresentthe psychological theoryof personalitydevelopment.
A leadingproponent topsychodynamicapproachhas been Abraham Zalenick(1977). At
the momentthe mostwell-knownexpertinthisareaiscertainlyManfredKetsde Vries
(2001). One branch of psychodynamictheoryiscalledpsychohistory,whichattemptsto
explainthe behaviorof famoushistoricalfigures(seeeg.Ketsde Vries1999).
 The psychodynamic approach places emphasis on leaders obtaining insight into their
personality characteristics and understanding the responses of subordinates, based on
their personalities.Leadersshouldalsoencourage workgroupmemberstogaininsightinto
theirownpersonalitiessothat they could understand their reactions to the leader and

52. each other. Important concepts inpsychodynamicapproachtoleadershipincludee.g.the
familyof origin, individuation,dependence andindependence,regressionandthe shadow
self. These conceptscome frompsychoanalysisandpsychiatryandcansometimesbe
abstruse andnot easilyunderstood.That isthe reasonthat there hasbeenattemptsto
make psychodynamictheorymore accessible.
o There are several fundamentalpropositionsunderlyingthisapproach.
 Leadersare more effective whentheyhave aninsightintotheirownpsychologicalmakeup.
 Leadersare more effective whentheyunderstandthe psychological makeupof their
subordinates.
 Thisapproach makesnoassumptionsaboutpersonalitycharacteristicsorstyles.It
emphasizesthataleadershouldhave aninsightintohisorheremotional responsesand
habitual patterns of behavior.Anauthoritarianleader,asan example,canbe effectiveif she
understandsthatherownbehaviorsarise frominfluencesinthe past.Itis alsobetterif the
leaderalsohasan understandinghow theirbehaviorsresultindifferentresponses.
 An importantassumptionisthatthe personalitycharacteristicsof individualsare deeply
ingrainedandvirtuallyimpossible tochange.The keyisacceptance of one'sown personality
feature andquirksandthe understandingandacceptance of featuresandquirksof others.
BACKGROUND
o The emergence of thisapproachhas itsroots inthe worksof SigmundFreud,1938. He was
followedbyCarl Jungwhodevelopedthe Jungian psychology.
o The roots are inthe individual andfamily.
o Our firstexperience of leadershipwaswhenwe were born.Momanddad were ourleaders.
o Basedon the childhoodexperiences,some peoplerespondandrespectauthorityfigures,others
rebel.
o AbrahamZaleznik(1977),a managementprofessoratHarvard isa leadingproponentof this
approach.He isalso behindmuchof the workon the charismaticleadershiptheory.
Important Concepts in the Psychodynamic approach
o Familyof Origin
 Underliesanyunderstandingof the behaviorof adults.
 Each of us beginsourlife intoafamilyof twoparentsandone or more children(Today,
there are many more single parenthomes)
 The childbeginslife asavery self-centered being,more animalthan human.
 The parent’s role inthe earlyinfancyisto meetthe child'sneeds.
 In one sense the parenthascontrol overthe child,butthe childalsohasan equal degree of
control.
 Such total dependencycantake place inleadershipsituations.The leadertakestotal
responsibilityforthe subordinates(PaternalisticManagement"
o Maturation or individualization
 The childbecomesmore independentof the parentswithtime.Thoughthe childdriftsaway
fromthe parental home,theystill carryaparent inside “ParentWithin"orconscience thatis
constantlysupervising,Analyzing,orjudging.

53.  The individualizationisthe processof achildas theystepintoadolescence, theybecome
unique anddifferentfromeachparent.A childonthe otherhandis attachedto their parent
witha psychological umbilical cord.
 Two keyissuesinthe individualizationprocess.
 The relationshiptoauthorityfigures.
 Highlyauthoritarianparentcaninduce eitheraverysubmissive orveryresistant
attitude ina child.
 A Laissez-Fairecancreate a confusedchildwhohastrouble definingboundaries
and limits.
 Responsestoauthorityfiguresjusthappen.Theyare notrational.
 Intimacyandopenness
 Parentsrange alonga continuumof kindness,tenderness,andnurturance.
 As an adult,one may continue the style of the parentor rebel andchoose the
opposite.
 A nurturingleadercanproduce feelingsof warmthandevenlove ina
subordinate.
o Dependence andIndependence
 A leader'sstyle resultsfromthe modelsof leadershipexhibitedbyparents,teachers,
coaches,and otheradultsduringthe maturationprocess.
 Followersare more likelytoreactto an authoritarianleaders.Psychodynamically,an
individualmayreactina
 Dependent- Self-explanatory.
 Counterdependent - rebelliousness,rejectingdirectives.
 Independentmanner- The subordinate assessesleadershipattemptsandlookingat
the situationobjectively.The teammemberdecidesif the directive isethical,
reasonable,practical,etc.
o Repressionand shadow self
 Thisapproach reliesonthe "DepthPsychology"orsubconscious.Mostotherleadership
theoriesare basedonthe behaviororconsciouspsychology.
 Repression:The conceptof repressionisputtingindeeprecessesof the midthose thoughts
and feelingsthatare not deemedacceptable by society.
 Shallow:IntroducedbyJungianpsychology.The shadow self ispartof the personalitythatis
unacceptable andconsciouslydeniedexistence orexpression.The shadow selfisoften
evidenttoothersalthoughdeniedbythe self.The only way inwhichwe canbe aware of
our shadowself istosolicitperceptionsof ourselvesfromothers.
o Archetypes
 Thisis a strongpattern inthe humanpsyche that persistsovertime.Itisa template of
humanbehaviorandbelief.
 Pearson(1989, 1991) setup6 archetypes.Pearsonassertsthatthe archetypesare not
encounteredinastraightline orby everyone.People cangetstuckinone of the archetypes.
Most people cycle backandforth.
 Innocent
 Existsbefore the journey
 Orphan
 Movesout of the home/comfortable territoryintothe world.
 Martyr
 Devotestime andenergytothe welfare of others.
 Wanderer

54.  Veryindependent
 Warrior
 Goesout intobattle suchas the professional onthe roadto successintoday's
terms.
 Magician
 Thisis notalwaysattainedbyindividuals.
Warrior Leader Magician Leader
Seekssuccessforself Seekssuccessforthe team
Want to be seenas strongand
aggressive
Wants to be seenas solidandcentered
Destroysandconquerscompetitors Motivatedbycompetition.Adaptsideasfromthem.
Worriesaboutand deniesfailure Learnsfrom failure;moveson.
Emotionallyneutral Celebratessuccesses;Grievesfailures.
Works forstatus andMoney Work isits ownreward
Accumulatesmoneyandresources Believesthere isenoughforeveryone;make do withthe
minimum.
 The warrior and the magicianarchetypesare concernedwithleadership.
 The warrior is the stereotype embodyingthe goalsof strengthandeffectiveness.Hen
facedwithdanger,the warriorattacks. The wandererflees,andthe martyrsacrifice
self forothers. The warrioris competitiveandgoal oriented.The warriorimposes
his/herwill onothers.The warrioriscontrolled(pokerface) andrepressmostfeelings
and worksformaterial reward.The warriorwant to be seenasconfidentand
respected.
 The magician is the stereotype.Itrepresentsthe notionof changingthe lesserinto
the better.Itis abouttransformational.Someone inthe magicianmode hasgone
beyondthe aggressive andcompetitive mode of the warrior.Theyestablishmutuality
inthe relationshipwithsubordinates.The magicianacceptsandunderstands
emotional responses.Theystrive toachieve the teamgoalsthroughthe rule,
regulationsandnormsof an organization.Monetaryorstatusgainsare secondary.
Thisarchetype wasdividedintotwotypesbyMaslow
 D-Motivation(Deficit):A personwhodoesnothave the money,status,
resources,orpowerand ismotivatedtogetthem.
 B-Motivation(Being):Thispersonasall of the above and isfreedtobe
concernedaboutothers,the team, andthe organization.
Relational Analysis
o A popularpsychodynamicmodel createdbyEricBerne (1961). There are 3 egostates:
 The Parent :
 Critical - Judgmental,faultfinding,andstrict.

55.  Nurturing- Kind,gentle,andloving.
 The Child:
 Playful:Adaptive anddependent.
 Rebellious:Counterdependence subordinate.
 The Adult:
 As people mature,theyoperate outof thisadultegostate.Thisisthe abilitytodo
realitytesting.Peopleoperatingoutof the adultstate,make tentative decisions,and
use trial and error to findout whatto do. It alsoincorporatesboththe Childand
Parentegostateswhenneeded.
o Cathecting:psychodynamictechnical term.Thismeansthateachpersoncathectsor pullsoutthe
otherpersonmatchingresponse pattern.A leaderwhobehavesinaparentego,will cause a
subordinate tobehave inchildegoandvice versa.
o A goodleaderwill make everyefforttooperate outthe adultegostate.The leader'sresponsibility
inthisapproach isto bring issuesoutintothe opensothat theycan be discussed.
How does the Transformational theory work?
o It isa lifelongendeavor.
o There are manybooks,seminars,workshopsonthe subject.
o A self-assessmentbyPearsonhelpsthe individualdetermine whicharchetype predominatestheir
life atthe moment.
o The basic principle isthata leaderwhounderstandtheirstyle ismore effective.Evenmore
importanthowever,if the leaderunderstandswheretheirstylecame from(theirorigins).
The psychodynamic approach brings an important aspect to leadership by emphasizing our past
experiences,unconsciousness, feelings, self-understanding and personality types. Alsothe
transactions andthe Cathectingprocessare importanttoremember.

56. The approach worksbecause people becomeaware of eachothertypesandthusthe differencesare
broughtintothe openwhere people can discussthem.
Strengths
o It emphasizesthe relationshipbetweenthe leaderandthe follower,atransactionbetweenthese
twopersons.Itresultsinan analysisof the relationshipbetween them.
o The universalityof thisapproach.Presumablyare applicable acrosscultures.
o It emphasizesalsothe needforpersonal insightonthe part of the leaderandalsothe follower.
o It discouragesmanipulative techniquesof leadership.Effective leadershipisbasedon self-
understandingandempathy.
o It encouragesthe leadertopursue acourse for personal growthanddevelopment.
Weaknesses
o Thisapproach isbasedon clinical observationsandtreatmentof personswithseriousdifficulties.
o The subjective nature of the findingsof clinical psychologists(alsothe cultural biases).
Psychiatristsandtheirpatientsforthe mostparthave beenwhite, atleastmiddle class,witha
Judeo-Christianbackground.
o Early workinpsychodynamicswasbasedonthe traditional two-parentfamilyorigin.Divorce and
remarriage create a setof complex relationships.
o It doesnottake intoaccount organizational factors.
o It doesnotlenditself totraininginanyconventional sense.
Leadership instrument
There are a lotof psychological testswhichyoucanuse as a tool to improve yourself-knowledge.
One of the mostused onesis the Myers-BriggsType IndicatorbasedonJung´spsychological types
(KroegerandThuesen1992). There are fourdimensions of personalitytypes,whichare extrovert vs.
introvert, sensor vs. intuitor, feeler vs. thinkerand perceiver vs judger. Asa resultof these
dimensionsthere are altogether16 potential personality types.Itcanbe veryuseful toknow your own
personality type. Sharingthe leader’s personality type and those of the team members isassumed
to improve understandingamongthe participants.
The Myers-BriggsType Indicator,(http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes1.htm)isthe most
widelyusedinstrumentforhelpingmembersof organizationsgaininsightsintotheirinnerselves.There
are some problemswiththisandothersimilarmeasures.The firstisthe ideaof types.Inthe early
historyof psychology,researchersandtheoristsspentagreatdeal of effortinattemptingtomeasure
personalitytypes.A type meansthatthere are categoriesintowhichpeoplecanbe successfully
grouped,withoutagreatdeal of overlappingbetweengroups.Infact,virtuallyeverypsychological scale
that has beendevelopedresultsinabell-shapedcurve of scores.Most scoresare bunchednearthe
meanor the medianandthere are fewerandfewerscoresasyougo up the scale to higherscoresor
downthe scale to lowerscores.Thisbell-shapedcurve meansthatwhenyoutryto use the scoresto
make up non-overlappinggroupsyourunintotrouble.A secondproblemwithtypesisthe assumption

57. that once you have placedanindividual intoagroup,thatindividualhasall of the characteristicsyou
tendto attribute tothe group and none of the characteristicsthatapplyto membersof othergroups.
We will see inthe nextlessonthe problemsthishascreatedassociatedwiththe conceptsof sex and
gender.We needmuchmore researchshowingthatapplyingaMyers-Briggstype toan individual and
to those he or she workswithreallyresultsintheirbeingbetterable toworksuccessfullytogether.
Anotherassumptionmade withthe Myers-Briggstest(http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-
win/JTypes1.htm) isthatsince the persontakingthe testisrespondingfromtheirconsciousmind,alow
score in a certainarea indicatesthatthisareais a strong dynamicinthe shadow self.Thisessentially
meansthat an individual isreallythe oppositeof whathe or she thinks.Again,we needalotmore
researchbefore we canaccept thisprinciple atface value.
Women and Leadership
o Genderreferstoway inwhichmeaningandevaluationsare associatedwithsex bymembersof a
culture.
o The degree withwhichMalesandFemalesare expectedtobehave differently,treateddifferently,
and are valueddifferentlyhaslittle todowithsex (biology) andeverythingtodowithgender
(learnedbeliefs)
o Learnedbeliefscaneasilybe misleadingwhenthereare onlytwocategoriesinaset(female/male
or masculine/feminine).There are three cognitivedistortionswithbi-polarcategories.
 People'sthinkingbecomesimplifiedbecause of the belief thateveryone mustfitintoa
specificcategory.
 The categoriesalsoseemtoimplythateveryone withina categoryisidentical.
 Many people erroneouslytendtovalue one categoryasmore superiorthanthe other.
o Althoughmanyexecutivesandmanagersrefertobelieve thatorganizationsare objective about
meritand genderneutral,the datafromresearchshows thatmostwork placesuse genderasthe
basisfor manydecisions(Hale,1996).
o Ongoingresearchhasindicatedcontinueddilemmasforwomenleaderswhoseektobalance work
demandswithpersonal life (Ensher,Murphy,Sullivan,2002)
o The applicationof this sectionhasthree benefits
 Can helporganizationsthathave experienceddifficultiesinretainingwomen.
 It can informwomenof whattheyneedtodo to developasleaders.
 It can informmenof the subtle patternsenacted everyday inthe workplace that impedes
progress.
o A studyfoundthatmalesdidwell undercooperative conditionswhile femalesdidwellunder
competitiveconditions.The female participantsweremore concernedwiththe feelingsof other
participantsthanthe males were.The femalesspentmore time andefforttogettoknow the
othersintheirgroupsand perhapsfeltthatthose interpersonal relationshipswere more
importantthanthe game and itsoutcomes.Butwhy,youmightask,did thismake themlessable
to cooperate witheachother.The answerliesinthe nature of the game.Winningmaybe more
importantto malesthanto females,whetheritisas a groupoverother groupsor as an individual
overothersinthe group.Inorder forthe groupto effectivelycooperate itwasnecessarythat
uncooperative behaviorbe stoppedquickly.Whenworkingtogethertosolve aproblemunder
time pressure,malesare prettygoodatsuspendingconcernforfeelingsandfocusingonthe task.
Femalesonthe average are lesswillingor able todo that.There is a general belief thatwomenare

58. more likelythanmentoadopta participative ordemocraticstyle of leadership.Womenseemto
preferworkingincooperativesituationsratherthancompetitive ones.
Overview of research trends
Researchersoverthe past20 years,have focusedonthree mainquestions:
a. Can women be leaders?
i. The answerof course is,Yes.Some interestingdemographics.
1. 135 Millionpeople employedinthe US.46.6% are women(2001).
2. Womenearned.76 centsfor every dollarearnedbymenin2001.
3. Womenfilled`5.7%of corporate officerincluding7.1% of CFO, 16.1 of general
counsels.
4. 5.2% of top-earningcorporate officerswere filledbywomen.
5. 12.4% of seatsheldinFortune 500 corporate directors.
6. 6 Female CEOforFortune 500 companiesand11 female CEOsof Fortune 500 & 1000.
7. 44% of small businessesinUS(20.4 million) are ownedbywomen.
8. 5% of venture capitalistand3% of governmentcontractsare awardedto women
ownedbusinesses.
9. 12% of state governorship.13% inUS Senate.14% of US House of representatives.
10. In 1998, Fortune profiled50womenleaders.
11. AfricanAmericanwomencurrentlyrepresentthe largestgroupof colorin
managementpositionsandare surpassingAfricanAmericanMenin
Executive/Managerialpositions.
12. Womeninclusioninleadershiphasincreasedoverthe lastfew decades,butdoesnot
reflecttheiroverall proportionof laborforce.
13. EnhancedProductivity,competitiveadvantage,andfinancial performance,are three
of the reasonswhydeveloping andpromotingwomenleadersare inthe bestinterest
of employers.(Barney,1997) - Capacityto optimize the use of the internal resources.
14. Underutilizedwomenandpeople of colorare majorsourcesof untappedvalue that
can enhance organization'screativity,change efforts,teamwork,andfinancial
performance (Appold,Siengthai&Kasarda,1998)
b. Do male and femalesdifferintheir behaviorand effectivenessinorganizations?
i. The purpose of thisquestionshiftedmanytimes.Sometimestoresearchequality, other
timesisto understandimpactof genderonleadership.
ii. Recentresearchhasusedmeta-analysis(setof statistical proceduresthatforanalyzingall
studiestodetermine the overall trends)
iii. Meta-Analysesinthe last15 yearsindicate thatassumingdifferencesinbehavior,cognition
couldleadto erroneousconclusions.A Meta-Analysesof 160 studiesconcludedthatthere is
onlyone difference (Womenusedamore participative ordemocraticstyle andless
autocratic or directive stylethanmendid.)
iv. Both Men andWomenemphasizedtaskaccomplishmentwhenthe settingwasnumerically
dominatedbyleadersof theirownsex.
v. 82 studiesdidnotfoundthatfemalesandmalesdidnotdifferineffectiveness.(Dobbins&
Platz,1986; Donnell &Hall,1980; Powel,1993)
vi. Anothermeta-analysisfoundthatfemale andmake leadersare evaluateddifferently(Eagly,
Makhijani,&Klonsky,1992) whichaffectthe impactof managementtraining.
1. Both Female andMale leaderswere evaluatedequallyfavorablywhentheyuseda
stereotypicallyfeminine style(democratic)

59. 2. Onlyfemale leaderswere evaluatedunfavorablywhentheyusedamasculine
leadershipstyle (Autocraticordirective)
3. Womenwere particularlydevaluedwhentheyworkedinamale dominatedsetting.
vii. Anotherstudyfoundthatfemalesandmalesleadersdifferin:
1. The lengthof time theyneedtogo to getpromoted
2. The needto adapttheirbehavioratwork
3. Amountof supporttheytendto receive atwork
4. The impact of familyvariablesoncareerdevelopment.
viii. A theorybasedonsex differencesinsocial behavior(Eagly,1987) proposesthatpeople are
generallyexpectedtoengage inactivitiesandactionscongruentwiththeirculturallydefined
genderroles.
ix. Comparisonof leaderrolesfavoredmenoverwomenwhenthree conditionsweretrue:
1. Whenthe settingwasmale dominated(especiallymilitary)
2. Whena highpercentage of subordinatesweremale.
3. Whenthe role was seenasmore congenial tomeninterms of self-assessed
competence,interest,low requirementforcooperation,highrequirementforcontrol.
x. Comparisonof leaderrolesfavoredwomenovermenwhenthese threeconditionswere
reversed.Inaddition,womenleaderswere favoredinmiddlemanagementinbusiness,
education,andgovernmentorsocial services.Menwere favoredinentrylevel or
supervisorypositionsespeciallyinthe military.
xi. Eagly(1992) concludedthatleadershiprolesmaybe definedinamore masculine or
femininefashiondependingonthe organizationalcontextof management.Acrossmost
sectorsof the economyotherthanthe military,women'seffectivenessincreasedasthey
movedupthe hierarchyand as cooperationratherthancontrol was required.
xii. Three recentstudiesbyAdvancedTeamware,inc.conductedastudywhere 6000 people
completedaquestionnaire about915 middle-uppermanagers.Of the 31 areasexamines,
womenoutperformedmenin28 includingconflictresolution,workquality,adaptationto
change,productivity,ideageneration,andmotivationof others.Menhandledpressure and
copedwithfrustrationbetterthanwomendid.Bothgroupsscoredequallyondelegating
authority.
xiii. Anotherstudyby(Saville &HoldsworthinNew Zealand) conductedastudyof 3000
managers.Theyfoundnodifferenceson30 attributesanalyzed.However,theyfoundthat
women emphasizedplanningandorganizingworkandan empathicapproach. Theyplaced
lessemphasisonthe needtowinat all costs.
xiv. Generallyspeaking,womenleaderstendtobe more participativeandlessautocratic,more
effectiveinmiddlemanagement,andin situationsrequiringcooperation.
c. Whydo so fewwomenleadersreach the top?
There are three commonexplanations.
1. "Womenabsence fromexecutive positionsisafunctionof nothavingbeeninmanagerial
positionslongenoughfornatural careerprogressionto occur.” There isdata to supportthis.
2. "Womenlackgeneral managementorline experience"(Raginsetal,1998). There isdata to
supportthisexplanation.However,there are otherstudiesthatshowsthattopexecutives
were notdistinguishedfrommiddle managementbytheirline experience,butbythe
breadthof positionsanddepartmentstheyworkedin.The studyalsofoundthatthe longer
managersservedinline positions,the lesslikelytheymove intotopmanagement.
3. "Womenleadersare themselvesthe problem.Theyare eitherlesssuitedforexecutive
demandsratherthanmen,unavailable because sofew are sufficientlyqualified,orlackingin

60. self-confidence.(Morris,1998).This hasbeenrefutedbya large numberof published
research.
Recentstudieshave foundthatwomen’sslowprogresstothe tophave beenthe focusof a "Glass
Ceiling". (FederalGlassCeilingCommission,1995).There are three broadcategories:
1. Organizational barriers
1.Higher standards of Performance and effortsfor women have been reportedinmany
studies(Mainiero,1994; Morris, 1998)
2.Inhospitable corporate culture (Raginsetal, 1998). The culture,
a. Discouragesbalancinghighcareeraspirationswitnonworkobligations
b. Communicate thatwomendon'tbelonginexecutivepositions.
c. Require thatwomenaccomplishmajortaskswithoutsufficientresources.
A studyfoundthata males-onlyorganizationalhierarchyhinderedwomen's
promotionsintolowerandmiddlemanagementwhile havingfemale leader’sfostered
women'spromotions.
3. Homophily- The tendencytopreferto workand interactwithpeople whoare similar
demographicallyandattitudinally.Homophilycanease the initial interactionsina
group,but can restrictcreative thinkingandbalanceddecisionmaking(Cox,1993).
Since women of colordifferintwodemographicfromEuropeanAmericanmen,they
are more likelytoexperience marginalizationatwork(Bell etal,1993).
4. Organizationshave limitedthe challenge of assignmentsgiventowomen.Inastudyof
507 managers,bothmenandwomenwere givenopportunitiestostartnew ventures
and turn aroundbusinesses introuble,butmenwere givenhigherlevelsof
responsibilities.Thisreducedthe potential of promotionsforwomen.
5. Anotherstudyof 2431 white collaremployees,showedthatbothmenandwomen
promotionstomiddle managementwerefosteredbyenhancinghumancapital
variables(education,training,andchallengingwork).Women'spromotionswere
fosteredbythe presence of awomanin the hierarchyandhinderedbythe lackof one.
Theirpromotionstouppermanagementwere fosteredbycareerencouragement.
Men's promotionswere unaffectedbythese variables.
2. Interpersonal barriers
1.Refertothe obstaclesthatoccur primarilyinthe contextof a workingrelationship.
Supportive relationshipsare especiallyimportantinwomen'sleadership
advancement.
2.Genderprejudice cantake manyformsand usuallynotconscious.The mostbasic
preconceptionsisthatagood managerisinherentlymasculine.
3.Preconceptionsthatwomenare lesscompetentmeansthatwomenhave toprove
themselvesrepeatedlyineachnew situations.
4.Womenmustidentifyadexplicitlyaskforchallengingassignmentsratherthansimply
havingsuchassignmentsofferedtothem.
5.Womenperceivedthataneedtoadapt theirbehavioral stylesothatmencouldavoid
feelingintimidated.(Raginetal,1998)
6.Male leaderswere positivelyevaluatedwhentheybehavedeithercooperativelyor
autocratically.Womenleaderswere evaluatedpositivelyonlywhentheybehaved
cooperatively.(Eaglyet al.1992).
7.Several studiesdocumentedthatwomenexperiencedlowersupportintheircareers
than similarlyemployedmen.

61. 8.Informal networksare veryimportantandyetstudiesshownthatwomenleadershave
eithertendedtobe excludedorhadto work harderto be included.
9.A critical relationshipismentoring.Studiesinmentoringhadpointedoutthatthere is
dramaticimpact onsalariesof employeesandthatEuropeanAmericanmenwere
mostlikelytobe the protégé.
10. Womenand menwere likelytobe mentors,butwomenwere more likelytohave
same sex protégés.
11. Bad mentoringcanbe worse than none at all (Ragins,Cotton,&Miller,2000)
3. Personal
1.Womenleadersthemselveshave reportednaïveté andlowerpolitical savvyasabarrier.
2.To mature organizationally,blackwomenhave adoptedperseverance,willingnessto
change employers,and self-generateddevelopmental opportunities.
3.The most seriouschallengeforwomenleadersare the non-workobligationsthatthey
remainprimarilyresponsibleforina household.Some studiesfoundthatthe multiple
rolesthatwomenplayinwork andnon-workactuallyenhancestheirleadershipskills.
4.The abilitytobalance the "have it all"needhasbeenafrequenttheme inwomen
leaders.Some womenhave copedbypurchasingdomesticservices,supportiveor
non-employedhusband,orscalingbacktheirfamilies.
Strengths
o Researchongenderdynamicshave made a roaderimpacton leadership.Improvementsinthe
workplacesand insocietyoccur onlywhenunconsciouspatternsandbeliefsare uncoveredand
recognized.
o Consideringthe sex of leadersandemployeescanyieldinsightswithinthe majortheoretical
traditions.There are manyexamplesof thisdiscussedinthe varioustheoriesaboutsituationsand
acceptable/non-acceptablebehaviors.
o Researchinthisarea has contributedtothe broaderconversationinthe USsocietyaboutvalues
and questionslike this:
 Do we prefera workplace that rewardstalentsordemographiccharacteristics?
 Doesprofitmattermore than people's wellbeing?
 Doesworkmatter more than personal relationships?
 Is meritconsistentlyappliedif one sex have toconsistentlyworkharderandreceivedless
pay andrecognition?
Weaknesses
o The disadvantage of focusingonthe individual'ssex canbecome the onlyorthe primaryattribute
identifyingthemratherthanone of the manyattributes.
o A seriousissue inthe researchonsex andgenderisthe assumptionthatmembersof each
categoryare identical inrace,sexual orientation,age,etc.Infactmost of the respondentstothe
surveyswere EuropeanAmericanWomen.
Leadership instrument
The BSRI developedbyBemin1974 has oftenbeenusedtomeasure the self-perceptions of genderrole.
Anotherinstrumentthatwasdevelopedby Yost& Herbertin 1985 measuresthe attitudestoward
womenasmanagers(ATWAM)

62. Leadership Ethics
o Verylittle researchhasbeenpublishedonthe theoretical foundationsof leadershipethics.
o There has beenmanystudiesonleadership,butlittle hasbeenrelatedtoleadership.
o One of the first leadershipethicswritingsappearedin1996 byW.K. Kellogg
Ethics defined
o Developmentof ethicstheorydatesbacktoPlatoandAristotle.
o It isconcernedwiththe kindsof valuesandmoralsan individual orsocietyfindsdesirable.
o These are rulesand principlesthatprovide the basisforunderstandingwhatitmeanstobe a
morallydecenthumanbeing.
o The choicesthat leadersmake andhow theyrespondtoa givencircumstance are informed
and directedbytheirethics.
Ethical theories
Ethical leadershiptheoriesfall intotwocategories
o Leader'sconduct(Theiractions)
i. Consequences(Theological theories) - Focusonwhatis rightand whatis wrong.
1. Ethical Egoism - Anindividualshouldacttocreate the greatestgoodfor
themselves.A leadersshouldtake acareerthat theywouldselfishlyenjoy(Avolio
& Locke,2002). Thisiscloselyrelatedtotransactional leadershiptheories.For
example,amiddle-level managerwhowantstheirteamtobe the bestin the
companyisacting out of ethical egoism.
2. Utilitarianism- We shouldact to create the greatestgoodfor the greatest
number.Maximize the social benefitswhileminimizingthe social costs
(Shumann,2001). Example:whenthe USgovernmentallocatesalarge portionof
the federal budgettothe healthcare insteadof catastrophicillness,itisacting
out of the utilitarianethics.
3. Altruism- Thisis the opposite of Ethical Egoismandisconcernedwithshowing
the bestinterestforothersevenwhenitrunscontraryto self-interest.Authentic
transformational leadershipisbasedonaltruisticbehavior(Bass,Steidlmeier,
1999).
ii. Duty (Deontological Theories)
 Thisis tellingthe truth,keepingpromises,beingfair,independentof the
consequences.
 Actionsshouldnotinfringe onothers'rightsandshouldnotfurtherthe moral
rightsof others.
Leader'scharacter (Whotheyare)
Virtue-basedtheories -
1. These are not innate,butcan be acquired.
2. Theyare rootedinheart of the individual andintheirdisposition.
3. It focusesontellingpeople "whattobe"as opposedof "whattodo"
4. Examplesincludecourage,temperance,generosity,self-control,honesty,
sociability,modesty,fairness,andjustice.
5. Thistheoryisabout beingand becomingaworthyhumanbeing.
Centrality of ethics to leadership

63. o The influence dimensionof aleaderrequiresthattheyhave animpacton the livesof those
theylead.To make a change inother people carrieswithitanenormousamountof ethical
burdenandresponsibility.
o Leadershave an ethical responsibilitytotreatfollowerswithdignity,respect,asahuman
beingwithunique identities.
o The "respectfor people"demandsthataleaderbe sensitivetofollower'sowninterests,
needs,andconscientiousconcerns.
o Leadersplayan importantrole inestablishingthe ethical climateof the theirorganizations.
Heifetz's Perspective on Ethical leadership
o A psychiatristwhoobservedworldleaders.
o His approachemphasizeshow leadershelpfollowersconfrontconflictandeffectchanges
fromconflict.Itis abouthelpingfollowersdeal withconflictingvaluesthatemerge inrapidly
changingworkenvironmentsandsocial cultures.
o His approachdealswithvalues.
o Leadersmustutilize authoritytoimmobilizepeople toface toughissues.
o The leaderprovidesthe holdingenvironmentinwhichthere istrust,nurturance,and
empathy.
o The leader'sdutyisto assistfollowersinstrugglingwithchange andpersonal growth.
Burns's Perspective on Ethical leadership
o Transformational leadershipplacesastrongemphasisonfollowers'needs,values,and
morals.
o It involvesattemptsbyleaderstomove followerstohigherstandardsof responsibility.
o It isthe responsibilityof the leadertohelp followersassesstheirownvaluesandneedsin
orderto raise themto a higherlevel of functioning,toa level thatwill stressvaluessucha
liberty,justice,andequality.
Greenleaf's Perspective on Ethical leadership
o He developedaparadoxical approachtoleadershipcalled"Servantleadership"in1970s
o It gainedincreasedpopularityinrecentyears.
o It has a strong altruisticethical overtone andemphasizesthatleadersshouldbe attentive to
concernsor theirfollowers.
o He arguedthat leadershipwasbestowedonapersonwhois bynature a servant.The wayan
individualbecomesaleaderisbyfirstbeingaservant.
o A servantleaderfocusesonthe needsof the followersandhelpsthembecome more
knowledgeable, freer,andmore autonomousandmore like servantsthemselves.
o Servantleaderhasa social responsibilitytobe concernedwiththe have-notsandto
recognize themasequal stakeholdersinthe organization.
o Greenleaf placesagreatdeal of emphasisonlistening,empathy,andunconditional
acceptance of others.
o Many of these ethical theoriesemphasisthatthe relationshipbetweenleader-followerisan
"ethical"one and it’srelatedtothe "caring principle"(Gilligan,1982).

64. Principles of ethical leadership
Northouse haslistedfiveprinciples of ethical leadership.Actuallythe originsof these canbe traced
back to Aristotle.Theseprinciplesprovideafoundationforthe developmentof soundethical
leadership.Accordingtothese principlesethical leadersrespectothers,serve others,are just,are
honestandbuild community.Tobe an ethical leader,we mustbe sensitive to the needsof others,
treat othersinwaysthat are justand care forothers.
1. Ethical leaders respectothers
o Immanuel Kantarguesthatit isour dutyto treat others withrespect.One shouldtreatothers
as endsinitself andneverasmeansto an end.
o BeauchampandBowie (1988) pointedoutthat"Personsmustbe treatedas havingtheir
autonomouslyestablishedgoalsandmustneverbe treatedpurelyasthe meanstoanother
person'sgoals."
o Leaderswhorespectalsoallow otherstobe themselves. Theyapproachotherswithasense
of unconditional worthandvalue individual differences(Kitchener,1984)
o Respectmeansgivingcredence toothers'ideasandconfirmingthemashumanbeings.
o A leadershouldnurture followersinbecomingaware of theirownneeds,values,and
purposes.
o Respectmeansthata leaderlistenscloselytotheirsubordinates,isempathetic,andtolerant
to opposingviews.
o Whena leaderexhibitsrespect,subordinatesfeelcompetentabouttheirwork.
2. Ethical leaders serve others
o Thisis basedonthe concernforothers(Ethical egoism)
o Thisis an example of altruism.
o An example of thisis observedinmentoring,empowerment,behaviors,andteambuilding.
o Verysimilarconcepttothe "Beneficence"thatistaughtto healthprofessionals.

65. o Senge contendedthatone of the importanttasksof leadersinlearningorganizationsistobe
a steward(servant) of the visionwithinthe organizationandhighlightsthe importance of not
beingself-centered,butintegratingone'sself orvisionwiththe visionof the organization.
3. Ethical leadersare Just
o Justice demandsthatleadersplace the issue of justatthe centerof theirdecisionmaking.
o No one shouldbe treateddifferentlyunlesstheirparticularsituationdemandsitandif thatis
the case,thenthe rulesfordifferentialtreatmentshouldbe made clear.
o Good coachesare those whoneverhave favoritesandthose whomake apointof playing
everyone inthe team.
o The goldenrule (Rawls,1971) isto "Do unto othersas youwouldhave themdountoyou."
o The principlesof distributive justice includes:
i. To each person,andequal share.
ii. Accordingto individual needs
iii. Accordingto that person'srights
iv. Accordingto individual efforts
v. Accordingto societal contribution
vi. Accordingto merit.
4. Ethical leaders are honest
o Beinghonestisnotjustabout tellingthe truth.Ithasto do withbeingopenwithothers,
representingrealityasfullyandacompletelyaspossible.
o There are timesof course where tellingthe complete truth canbe destructive and
counterproductive.The challenge istostrike abalance.
o It isimportantfor leaderstobe authentic, butsensitive tothe attitudesandfeelingsof
others.
o Dala Costa(1998) made a pointinthe Ethical Imperative book."Donotpromise whatyou
can't deliver,donotmisrepresent,donothide behindspin-doctoredevasions,donot
suppressobligations,donotevade accountability,donotaccept the 'survival of the fittest'
pressures"
5. Ethical leaders buildcommunity
o Leadershipisoftendefinedasthe "processof influencingotherstoreacha commonor
communal goal."Thisdefinitionhasaclearethical dimension. The commongoal impliesthat
leadersandfollowersagree onthe directionsof the group.
o Authentictransformationmeansthataleadercannotimpose theirwill onother. Theyneed
to searchfor goalsthat are compatible witheveryone.
o Ethical leadershipdemandsattentiontocivicvirtue (Rost,1991).This meansthatboth
leadersandfollowersneedtoattendtocommunitygoalsandnotjusttheirmutually
determinedgoals.
Maybe the mostimportantthingisto realize thatleadershipinvolvesvalues;one cannotbe a
leaderwithoutbeingaware of andconcernedaboutone’sown values. We can say alsothat rather
than tellingpeoplewhattodo,we shouldtell themwhattobe andhelpthemto become more
virtuous.
Whenpracticedovertime goodvaluesbecome habitual andapart of the personsthemselves.
Strengths

66. o It providessome directioninhow tothinkaboutethical leadershipandhow topractice it.
o It remindsusthat leadershipisamoral process.Otherthan the transformational theoryof
Burns,no othertheoryconsideredorhighlightedethics.
o It describessome basicprinciplesthatwe can use indevelopingreal-worldethical leadership.
These ethicshave bee present forover2000 years.
Weaknesses
o It is still inanearlystage of development.Itlacksa strongbodyof traditional research.
o Thisarea of researchreliesonthe writingof afew individuals,whose workhasbeen
primarilydescriptiveandanecdotal.
Leadership instrument
Craig andGustafson(1998) developedthe PerceivedLeaderIntegrityScale (PLIS). Itisbasedonthe
Utilitarianethical theory.Itevaluatesleaders'ethicsbymeasuringthe degreetowhich
subordinatessee themasactinginwaysthat produce the greatestgoodfor the greatestnumberof
people.