This document summarizes a study examining the higher education experiences and outcomes of Taiwanese Aboriginal students. The study analyzed government policies and statistics from 1999-2011 on Aboriginal students' access to higher education, degree completion rates, and job placement after graduation. The researchers found that while Aboriginal student enrollment in higher education has increased over time, they still lag behind overall student rates. They also have higher dropout rates. The study calls for education policy reforms that promote self-determination and cultural identity for Aboriginal students to better support their success in higher education.

1. Succeeding in Higher Education:
A Critical Review of Taiwanese
Aborigines
Succeeding in Higher Education:
A Critical Review of Taiwanese
Aborigines
David Che-Wei Lee (Paljaljim Rusagasag),
W. James Jacob, and Sheng Yao Cheng
University of Pittsburgh
CIES Annual Conference, Montreal, Canada
5 May 2011
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1

2. Where are Taiwan Aborigines?
Geographical Location and Distribution of Taiwanese Aborigines
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2
Source: Council of Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan (2011).
Source:
http://www.nativevillage.org/Archives/2009%20Archives/Jan
%201%202009%20News/1-1-
2009%20V4/Taiwan's%20aborigines%20Find%20New%20Vo
ice.htm (2011)

3. Images of Taiwan Aborigines
3
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Tsou
Paiwan
Amis
Taruku
Sadiq
Kavalan
Saisiyat Thao
Yami
Puyuma
Rukai
Atayal BununSakizaya

4. Outline
• Questionable Context and Consciousness
• Theoretical Framework and Methods
• Conditions and Themes on Taiwanese Aboriginal
Higher Education
• Critical Analysis of Talented Aboriginal Cultivation
and Employment
• Examination of Education Policy and Planning
• Decolonized Reform and Praxis
• Conclusions and Recommendations
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5. Context and Purpose
• Assimilation in the Retrocession Era: 1945-1962
• Integration and Unification Stage: 1963-1987
• Open Development Stage: 1988-2005
• Self-determination Stage: 2005-2011
• Key Issue: The Loss of Subject in Mainstream Education
System
• Purpose: Researchers explore potential liberating
pathways by examining whether Taiwanese Aboriginal
students achieve their self-emancipation through
succeeding in higher education from gaining access,
completing their degrees, and obtaining jobs following
their graduation.
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6. Research Questions
• Gaining Access to Higher Education
• Degree Completion
• Job Placement After Receiving Degree
• Policy Environment
• Success or Failure?
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7. Theoretical Framework and Methods
• Methods: This study is primarily based on archival analysis of the
existing literature and discourse analysis regarding government
requirements and policies.
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Theoretical
Perspective
Level of Analysis Primary Focus Theoretical Theme
Cultural Discontinuity
Theory
Microlevel Precollege students Cultural incongruence
Structural Inequality
Theory
Macrolevel Both precollege and
college students
Social inequality
Internationalist
Theory
Microlevel College students Community
transition/college
integration
Transculturation
Theory
Microlevel College students Cultural identity
Table 1. Theoretical Perspective on American Indian Education
Source: Huffman, Terry. (2010). Theoretical perspectives on American Indian education: Taking a new
look at academic success and the achievement gap. Maryland: AltaMira Press.

8. Conditions on Taiwanese Aboriginal
Higher Education
• 1999 and 2000 Statistics
• 2009 Statistics
• 2010 Statistics
• 2011 Statistics
– The Rate of Registration and Enrolment for College
Entrance Exam
– The Rate of Various Departments
– Dropout Rate
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9. © 2011 David Che-Wei Lee All rights
reserved
9
Level 2000 2001
All
Students
(A)
Aborigines
(B)
% (B/A) All
Students
(A)
Aborigines
(B)
% (B/A)
Doctoral Degree 12,253 4 0.033 13,822 3 0.02
Master’s Degree 54,980 32 0.058 70,039 64 0.09
Undergraduate 470,030 1,939 0.413 564,059 2,667 0.47
Vocational/Juni
or College
457,020 4,805 1.051 444,182 5,453 1.23
Table 2. Population and Rate of Enrolment in Higher Education Level in 2000 and 2001
Sources: Kao (2000, p. 6; 2001, p. 6).
Level
Enrolment in
2000 (A)
Graduation in
1999 (B)
Enrolment in
2001 (C)
Graduation in
2000 (D)
%
(Aborigines/All
Students)
%
(Aborigines/All
Students) (B-A)
%
(Aborigines/All
Students)
%
(Aborigines/All
Students) (C-D)
Doctoral Degree 0.033 0.000 (-0.033) 0.02 0.07(+0.05)
Master’s Degree 0.058 0.020 (-0.038) 0.09 0.03(-0.06)
Undergraduate 0.413 0.225(-0.188) 0.47 0.27(-0.20)
Vocational/Juni
or College
1.051 0.366(-0.685) 1.23 0.47(-0.76)
Table 3. Population and Rate of Enrolment and Graduation in Higher Education Level in 2000 and 2001
Sources: Kao (2000, p. 6, 8; 2001, p. 6, 15).

10. 10
All examinee Non-Aborigines Aborigines
Registration
(A)
Enrollment % Registration Enrollment Registration
(B)
Enrollment
n Percentage n Percentage n (%=B/A) Percentage
1999 Total 121,222 59.83 120,427 59.94 695 (0.57) 41.44
Male 63,891 61.69 63,506 61.82 385 (0.60) 38.96
Female 57,231 57.76 56,921 57.84 310 (0.54) 44.52
2000 Total 130,468 57.70 129,617 57.84 851 (0.65) 37.13
Male 68,297 58.28 67,823 58.45 474 (0.69) 34.39
Female 62,171 57.06 61,794 57.16 377 (0.61) 40.58
Table 4. Comparison of Population and Rate of Registration and Enrolment on the College
Entrance Exam in 2000 and 2001
Sources: Kao (2000, p. 47; 2001, p. 69).

11. 11
Natural
Science
Mathemat
ics and
Computer
Science
Engineering Commerce and
Management
Education Law Medicine and
Hygiene
Others Total
2000 Aborigines
(%)
1.4 2.4 7.9 10.2 14.7 3.6 17.0 42.8 100.0
All
Students
(%)
3.7 8.3 18.5 21.5 6.8 1.9 8.1 33.1 100.0
2001 Aborigines
(%)
1.2 3.6 10.9 11.4 11.7 2.4 17.5 41.0 100.0
All
Students
(%)
3.3 8.4 20.2 22.4 5.5 1.7 8.5 30.0 100.0
Table 5. Comparison of Rate of Various Departments between Aboriginal Students and
All Students in 2000 and 2001
Sources: Kao (2000, p. 13; 2001, p. 13).

12. 12
University Junior
College
Senior
High
School
Vocational
School
Junior
Higher
School
Elementary
School
Aborigines
(%)
3.07 1.19 0.58 4.63 2.67 0.22
All
Students
(%)
1.75 0.32 0.24 1.54 0.62 0.06
Table 6. Comparison of Dropout Rate of Various Education Levels in 2001
Sources: Kao (2001, p. 25)

13. Themes on Taiwanese Aboriginal Higher Education
• Assimilation policies influence education
• Multicultural conceptions are hard to fulfill
• Inequality and limited access of higher education
• Conflicted relation among persistence, retention, and
ethnic/cultural identity (family support, economic difficulty )
• Disconnection between employment opportunities and
professional skills, techniques, and knowledge
• General dysfunction of family structure
• Lack of lifelong learning perception
• Low academic achievement
• Schooling discrimination
• Lack of protection through an individualized law system
• Lack of long-term systematic planning and programs
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14. Critical Analysis of Talented Aboriginal Cultivation and
Employment
• Connection between occupational choices and
employment: social status and education
achievement
• What kinds of talented aborigines will be
needed? Tradition and Modern
• Imbalance of quantitative and qualitative nature
of talented and specialized aborigines
• The success/failure of employment: self-
willingness, self-motivation or structural
requirement and qualification?
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15. Examination of Education Policy and Planning
• Analysis of Indigenous Policy Guidelines:
– Five-Year Plan of Development and Improvement of Aboriginal
Education (Phases 1 and 2) (1990 & 1998)
– Report of Aboriginal Education Reform (1990s)
– White Book of Aboriginal Policy for the New Century (1995)
– Act of Aboriginal Education (1995)
• Lack of Aboriginal research members and assistants (subjective loss)
• Lack of indigenous voices and perspectives
• Unitary and rough research methods
• Lack of other urban aboriginal samples
• Lack of diverse and rich references
• Lack of strong evidences and warrants
• Overlapping the local government’s assignments
• Misplacing the long-term plan into the short-term plan (ex. establishing Ethnic
Universities)
• Lack of general evaluation so that is lack of reliability and validity
• Lack of the public, local/central government’s recognition
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16. • Reflections on Indigenous Policies:
– Overview of Taiwanese Aboriginal Education
History (Eliminate Biases, Prejudice, and Negative
Discrimination Historically, Socially, and
Biologically)
– Following International Indigenous Education
Policies and issues around the world
– Education Administrative Perspectives: Equity,
Efficiency, Choice, and Excellence
– Persistent Education Survey
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17. Colonization, Colonialism, and
Internal Colonization
• Reconceptualization of Colonization,
Colonialism, and Internal Colonization
• Nature of Colonial Education
• Problems of Colonial Education:
– Loss of Ethnic Languages, Culture, and Identity
– Low Education Achievement
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18. Taiwanese Aboriginal Colonial Education
• Assimilation as a Fundamental Basis
• Enlightenment as a Motivation
• De-politicize as an Approach
• Deprivation of Ethnic Subject
• Lack of Cultural Compatibility
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19. Decolonized Reforms and Praxis
• Aboriginal Education Reforms
– Lack of inner-system agency
– Lack of Aborigine-based leadership
– Lack of critical self-consciousness
– Lack of autonomy and self-determination
• Decolonized Praxis is needed to counter these
reforms
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20. Conclusions and Recommendations
• Open Access to Higher Education (Notice the
drawbacks of preferential treatment)
• Degree Completion with a Support System
• Job Placement After Receiving Degree with
Diverse Mechanisms (Tradition and Modern)
• Policy Environment with Self-Determination
Ingredients and more autonomy (indigenous law)
• Success or Failure? Internal cultural identity,
transculturation, and external critical praxis are
the final determinant!
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21. The End
Masalu (Thank you)! I look forward to your feedback.
9/4/2013
© 2011 Lee, Jacob, and Cheng
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