I think this is an excerpt I took from someone online.. If it is yours sorry.. Plz PM to take it down. For now, I am just leaving it here to share with other fellow friends who are developing themselves professionally. TQ
Teopista Birungi Mayanja Commissioner, International Commission on Financing Global education opportunity
Presentation to 9th International Policy Dialogue Forum
5-7 December 2016 Siem Reap, Cambodia
This document provides guidance for teaching diverse students, including those with special needs or who are reluctant learners. It discusses adapting teaching styles and materials to address different learning styles and abilities. The document also addresses culturally relevant teaching, socioeconomic factors, gender bias, English language learners, learning disabilities, disruptive behaviors, and creating supportive learning communities. The overall message is that teachers should understand each student's needs and background in order to engage all students in learning.
Professional learning communities (PLCs) are groups of educators that collaborate with the goal of improving student outcomes. They work to continuously enhance their teaching practice through sharing ideas and acting on new learning. Key characteristics of effective PLCs include a shared vision around student success, collective responsibility, and focus on student learning through collaboration. When teachers engage in high-quality PLCs, it can lead to benefits like higher student achievement, more commitment to shared goals, and greater job satisfaction among staff.
its all about the content and methods of comparative eduction,
meaning
scope
national system of education
philosophical factor
religious factor
geographical factor
economic factor
Reflective teaching involves critical reflection on one's own teaching practices and styles. It has three levels: reflection-in-action during teaching, reflection-on-action after teaching through analysis of lessons, and reflection-for-action to decide on future actions. Effective reflection requires self-reflection through tools like teaching portfolios and journals. Teachers can also reflect through peer observation, action research, and developing critical friendships with colleagues to discuss practices and seek advice. The goal of reflection is to improve teaching and student outcomes by distinguishing effective methods from less successful ones.
The document discusses the impact of diversity in education. It notes that diversity contributes to high expectations and institutional commitment to diversity. Studies show that exposure to diversity on campus increases critical thinking and problem solving skills for all students. Effective strategies for addressing diversity in the classroom include acknowledging differences, connecting with families, establishing mentors, and implementing culturally responsive teaching.
Multicultural education aims to increase educational equity and is a progressive approach to transforming education. It has goals of creating a safe learning environment for all, strengthening cultural awareness, and preventing prejudice. James Banks identified four approaches to multicultural education: contributions, additive, transformational, and social action. The transformational approach changes curriculum structure to view concepts from multiple perspectives, while the social action approach includes activities for social change. Multicultural education increases productivity, problem solving, relationships, and societal vitality while decreasing stereotyping.
This document outlines 5 key aspects of quality education: 1) Healthy learners supported by their communities, 2) Safe and equitable learning environments, 3) Relevant curricula teaching basic skills and life skills, 4) Child-centered teaching approaches used by trained teachers to facilitate learning, and 5) Outcomes including knowledge, skills, and attitudes aligned with national education goals.
Teopista Birungi Mayanja Commissioner, International Commission on Financing Global education opportunity
Presentation to 9th International Policy Dialogue Forum
5-7 December 2016 Siem Reap, Cambodia
This document provides guidance for teaching diverse students, including those with special needs or who are reluctant learners. It discusses adapting teaching styles and materials to address different learning styles and abilities. The document also addresses culturally relevant teaching, socioeconomic factors, gender bias, English language learners, learning disabilities, disruptive behaviors, and creating supportive learning communities. The overall message is that teachers should understand each student's needs and background in order to engage all students in learning.
Professional learning communities (PLCs) are groups of educators that collaborate with the goal of improving student outcomes. They work to continuously enhance their teaching practice through sharing ideas and acting on new learning. Key characteristics of effective PLCs include a shared vision around student success, collective responsibility, and focus on student learning through collaboration. When teachers engage in high-quality PLCs, it can lead to benefits like higher student achievement, more commitment to shared goals, and greater job satisfaction among staff.
its all about the content and methods of comparative eduction,
meaning
scope
national system of education
philosophical factor
religious factor
geographical factor
economic factor
Reflective teaching involves critical reflection on one's own teaching practices and styles. It has three levels: reflection-in-action during teaching, reflection-on-action after teaching through analysis of lessons, and reflection-for-action to decide on future actions. Effective reflection requires self-reflection through tools like teaching portfolios and journals. Teachers can also reflect through peer observation, action research, and developing critical friendships with colleagues to discuss practices and seek advice. The goal of reflection is to improve teaching and student outcomes by distinguishing effective methods from less successful ones.
The document discusses the impact of diversity in education. It notes that diversity contributes to high expectations and institutional commitment to diversity. Studies show that exposure to diversity on campus increases critical thinking and problem solving skills for all students. Effective strategies for addressing diversity in the classroom include acknowledging differences, connecting with families, establishing mentors, and implementing culturally responsive teaching.
Multicultural education aims to increase educational equity and is a progressive approach to transforming education. It has goals of creating a safe learning environment for all, strengthening cultural awareness, and preventing prejudice. James Banks identified four approaches to multicultural education: contributions, additive, transformational, and social action. The transformational approach changes curriculum structure to view concepts from multiple perspectives, while the social action approach includes activities for social change. Multicultural education increases productivity, problem solving, relationships, and societal vitality while decreasing stereotyping.
This document outlines 5 key aspects of quality education: 1) Healthy learners supported by their communities, 2) Safe and equitable learning environments, 3) Relevant curricula teaching basic skills and life skills, 4) Child-centered teaching approaches used by trained teachers to facilitate learning, and 5) Outcomes including knowledge, skills, and attitudes aligned with national education goals.
The document discusses the integrated approach to teaching and learning, which allows students to explore topics across subject areas without barriers. It emphasizes that students will see connections between different curriculum areas and develop deeper understanding through hands-on activities. An effective approach to ICT integration is constructivist and student-centered, promotes higher-order thinking, and involves learning within a community. The role of educators includes facilitating, co-assessing, designing, and mediating. To successfully integrate technology, schools should conduct a SWOT analysis, create a shared vision, formulate an action plan, implement it, and regularly review and modify the process. In conclusion, integrating ICT enhances instruction and prepares students with 21st century skills.
Importance of motivation in teaching and learning
A project to promote conceptual learning for all;
Dr. Amjad ali arain; University of Sind; Faculty of education; Pakistan
Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests people actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. Key founders of constructivism include Jean Piaget and John Dewey. According to constructivism, learning involves a process of assimilation of new information and accommodation or adjustment of existing knowledge. Constructivism emphasizes hands-on, active learning and problem solving over rote memorization. It suggests learning occurs through collaboration and social interaction.
The document discusses the behaviorist perspectives on learning and education from 1900-1950s. It describes three major behaviorist theories - classical conditioning by Pavlov, connectionism by Thorndike which included four laws of learning, and operant conditioning by Skinner. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior due to environmental stimuli. It had a significant influence on reading instruction, breaking reading down into discrete skills taught through direct instruction and reinforcement. Research studies found both support and limitations for behaviorist theories in reading development.
The Content and Method of Comparative EducationChe-Wei Lee
The document summarizes Kandell's 1955 article "The Content and Method of Comparative Education". It discusses key topics in comparative education including the historical context, aims and scope, importance of cultural and political forces, and challenges in establishing national education systems. The article also emphasizes that comparative education involves analyzing both similarities and differences between countries, as well as effective and ineffective cases, to better understand factors shaping different systems.
The document discusses curriculum development in education in Pakistan. It defines curriculum and outlines its key components like aims and objectives, content selection, and learning experiences. It describes Pakistan's education system challenges at independence and key reforms over time. The process of curriculum development involves situational analysis, formulation of aims, content selection, learning experience organization, and evaluation. National and provincial bodies collaborate in curriculum development and textbook production according to this process.
The document discusses three major trends in education: whole child education, project based learning, and STEM education. Whole child education focuses on the social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development of students. Project based learning uses investigations of complex topics to allow students to gain knowledge and skills. STEM education takes an interdisciplinary approach to teaching science, technology, engineering, and math. These trends are becoming more prevalent in schools as they encourage real-world application of knowledge and student engagement.
343 educational implications of vygosky’s theory1Anna Montes
1. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes scaffolding students' learning through collaborative activities, challenging tasks broken into simpler parts, and instruction within students' zone of proximal development.
2. Constructivism views learning as active knowledge construction through social interactions, with students making sense of information.
3. Approaches like problem-based learning, inquiry learning and cognitive apprenticeship promote student-centered, active learning through problem-solving, hypothesis testing, and guidance from experts.
The document discusses the differences between cooperative and collaborative learning. It states that cooperative learning involves structuring social interactions through steps defined by the teacher, with the goal of completing a specific task or product. Collaborative learning gives students more control over processes and outcomes, emphasizes consensus building, and respects individual contributions. Both are based on constructivist learning theory and involve active participation, but collaborative learning is less teacher-directed and gives students greater responsibility for their learning.
Lev Vygotsky's social constructivist theory posits that culture provides cognitive tools like language and social context that influence cognitive development. According to this view, knowledge is constructed through social interactions and cultural influences. Effective social constructivist teaching strategies include collaborative learning, situated or anchored learning activities, and problem-solving approaches that engage students in realistic scenarios.
Active learning refers to techniques where students are actively engaged in the learning process through activities like discussion, problem-solving, presentations, and group work. It is based on the assumptions that learning is an active process and people learn in different ways. Some goals of active learning include developing communication and collaboration skills as well as encouraging student responsibility for learning. Examples of active learning methods include think-pair-share, collaborative learning groups, games, and student debates. Research shows that active learning is more effective than passive listening, as it increases the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching while providing opportunities for students to apply skills and explore their own thinking.
This slide set provides an overview of reflective practice, geared towards teachers. It describes what it is, how to undertake it, and how it supports teachers' professional development.
What it takes to be an effective teacher essential teaching skillsAmy Woods
To be an effective teacher in 2010 and beyond requires demonstrating essential teaching skills such as having a positive attitude, being well organized, strong communication skills, maintaining student focus, providing feedback, effective questioning techniques, and conducting lesson reviews and closures. Future teaching may involve more group work and creative assessment to maximize student learning and interaction. However, teachers will still need fundamental skills and address potential distractions from technology to be effective.
classroom observation and type of observersSiwar Bdioui
Classroom observation involves a person sitting in on class sessions to record both the teacher's practices and student actions. The purposes of observation include providing feedback to teachers and training future teachers. Key aspects to observe include the instructor's words and actions, student engagement, and the interaction between teachers and students. There are different types of observers, including participant observers who interact closely in the classroom, non-participant observers who do not participate but have a planned structured approach, and structured versus non-structured approaches to recording observations.
This module will help you to —
• understand the genesis and importance of School Based Assessment,
• familiarize with learner-centred approaches for assessment,
• facilitate integration of teaching learning process with assessment procedures,
• develop context-based exemplars in the relevant subject areas for the purpose of assessment.
The document summarizes several theories of classroom management including Choice Theory by William Glasser, Student Directed Learning by Alfie Kohn, Behavior Management Theory by B.F. Skinner, and Assertive Discipline by Lee Canter. It also discusses the differences between classroom management and discipline management as well as preventative theories of classroom management proposed by theorists like Carl Rogers and Jacob Kounin.
This document provides an overview of the concept of comparative education, including its meaning, need, scope, and structure of education in Pakistan. Comparative education involves comparing educational systems, practices, and outcomes across countries to better understand relationships between education and society. It can help improve national education policies and practices. The scope of comparative education encompasses subject matter, geographical units of study, ideological perspectives, themes, and historical development. Studying comparative education provides benefits like understanding one's own education system, solving problems, and promoting international cooperation. The education system in Pakistan has five levels - primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary, and higher education. At each level, the document outlines goals and approaches.
Reflective teaching as innovative approach pptAnnie Kavitha
Reflective teaching is a process where teachers think critically about their teaching practices by analyzing lessons and looking for ways to improve student learning outcomes. It involves self-evaluation techniques like peer observation, journaling, and recording lessons to better understand classroom interactions. Reflective teaching supports teachers' professional development and helps them meet rising educational standards by ensuring they are aware of each student's learning and tailoring instruction appropriately.
Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy where small teams of students work together on learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. It originated from philosophers like John Dewey who believed in progressive education to create responsible democratic citizens, and psychologists like Morton Deutsch who saw cooperation as building trust and relationships. Cooperative learning structures provide different roles for students and specialized expertise to promote positive interdependence and accountability. Implementing cooperative learning effectively involves forming heterogeneous teams, developing students' teamwork skills, and having groups reflect on their process.
Collaborative learning involves students working together in groups to solve problems, complete tasks, or create a product. It positions the teacher as a facilitator rather than expert transmitter of knowledge. Students work as a team to master materials, with rewards based on group performance. Collaborative learning develops problem-solving, critical thinking, social and communication skills while promoting diversity and self-management. It fosters intellectual and social involvement as well as teamwork, leadership and positive attitudes.
Teacher student interaction ta approach newBhaskar Naidu
The document discusses some key concepts of transactional analysis (TA), including the three ego states of parent, adult, and child. It explains that transactions are exchanges between people from their different ego states, and that strokes (acts of recognition) are important in transactions. Effective communication in TA involves using complementary transactions that exchange positive strokes while being direct with any necessary negative feedback. The goal is to operate from an "I'm OK, you're OK" life position in interactions.
Verbal and non verbal strokes - Transactional AnalysisManu Melwin Joy
You are walking along the street. You catch sight of a neighbor of yours coming in the other direction.
As you and the neighbor pass, you smile and say: “Nice day!”.
Your neighbor smiles back and replies: “ Yes, it is”.
You and your neighbor exchanged both verbal and non verbal strokes.
You spoke to each other and you smiled.
The document discusses the integrated approach to teaching and learning, which allows students to explore topics across subject areas without barriers. It emphasizes that students will see connections between different curriculum areas and develop deeper understanding through hands-on activities. An effective approach to ICT integration is constructivist and student-centered, promotes higher-order thinking, and involves learning within a community. The role of educators includes facilitating, co-assessing, designing, and mediating. To successfully integrate technology, schools should conduct a SWOT analysis, create a shared vision, formulate an action plan, implement it, and regularly review and modify the process. In conclusion, integrating ICT enhances instruction and prepares students with 21st century skills.
Importance of motivation in teaching and learning
A project to promote conceptual learning for all;
Dr. Amjad ali arain; University of Sind; Faculty of education; Pakistan
Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests people actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. Key founders of constructivism include Jean Piaget and John Dewey. According to constructivism, learning involves a process of assimilation of new information and accommodation or adjustment of existing knowledge. Constructivism emphasizes hands-on, active learning and problem solving over rote memorization. It suggests learning occurs through collaboration and social interaction.
The document discusses the behaviorist perspectives on learning and education from 1900-1950s. It describes three major behaviorist theories - classical conditioning by Pavlov, connectionism by Thorndike which included four laws of learning, and operant conditioning by Skinner. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior due to environmental stimuli. It had a significant influence on reading instruction, breaking reading down into discrete skills taught through direct instruction and reinforcement. Research studies found both support and limitations for behaviorist theories in reading development.
The Content and Method of Comparative EducationChe-Wei Lee
The document summarizes Kandell's 1955 article "The Content and Method of Comparative Education". It discusses key topics in comparative education including the historical context, aims and scope, importance of cultural and political forces, and challenges in establishing national education systems. The article also emphasizes that comparative education involves analyzing both similarities and differences between countries, as well as effective and ineffective cases, to better understand factors shaping different systems.
The document discusses curriculum development in education in Pakistan. It defines curriculum and outlines its key components like aims and objectives, content selection, and learning experiences. It describes Pakistan's education system challenges at independence and key reforms over time. The process of curriculum development involves situational analysis, formulation of aims, content selection, learning experience organization, and evaluation. National and provincial bodies collaborate in curriculum development and textbook production according to this process.
The document discusses three major trends in education: whole child education, project based learning, and STEM education. Whole child education focuses on the social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development of students. Project based learning uses investigations of complex topics to allow students to gain knowledge and skills. STEM education takes an interdisciplinary approach to teaching science, technology, engineering, and math. These trends are becoming more prevalent in schools as they encourage real-world application of knowledge and student engagement.
343 educational implications of vygosky’s theory1Anna Montes
1. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes scaffolding students' learning through collaborative activities, challenging tasks broken into simpler parts, and instruction within students' zone of proximal development.
2. Constructivism views learning as active knowledge construction through social interactions, with students making sense of information.
3. Approaches like problem-based learning, inquiry learning and cognitive apprenticeship promote student-centered, active learning through problem-solving, hypothesis testing, and guidance from experts.
The document discusses the differences between cooperative and collaborative learning. It states that cooperative learning involves structuring social interactions through steps defined by the teacher, with the goal of completing a specific task or product. Collaborative learning gives students more control over processes and outcomes, emphasizes consensus building, and respects individual contributions. Both are based on constructivist learning theory and involve active participation, but collaborative learning is less teacher-directed and gives students greater responsibility for their learning.
Lev Vygotsky's social constructivist theory posits that culture provides cognitive tools like language and social context that influence cognitive development. According to this view, knowledge is constructed through social interactions and cultural influences. Effective social constructivist teaching strategies include collaborative learning, situated or anchored learning activities, and problem-solving approaches that engage students in realistic scenarios.
Active learning refers to techniques where students are actively engaged in the learning process through activities like discussion, problem-solving, presentations, and group work. It is based on the assumptions that learning is an active process and people learn in different ways. Some goals of active learning include developing communication and collaboration skills as well as encouraging student responsibility for learning. Examples of active learning methods include think-pair-share, collaborative learning groups, games, and student debates. Research shows that active learning is more effective than passive listening, as it increases the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching while providing opportunities for students to apply skills and explore their own thinking.
This slide set provides an overview of reflective practice, geared towards teachers. It describes what it is, how to undertake it, and how it supports teachers' professional development.
What it takes to be an effective teacher essential teaching skillsAmy Woods
To be an effective teacher in 2010 and beyond requires demonstrating essential teaching skills such as having a positive attitude, being well organized, strong communication skills, maintaining student focus, providing feedback, effective questioning techniques, and conducting lesson reviews and closures. Future teaching may involve more group work and creative assessment to maximize student learning and interaction. However, teachers will still need fundamental skills and address potential distractions from technology to be effective.
classroom observation and type of observersSiwar Bdioui
Classroom observation involves a person sitting in on class sessions to record both the teacher's practices and student actions. The purposes of observation include providing feedback to teachers and training future teachers. Key aspects to observe include the instructor's words and actions, student engagement, and the interaction between teachers and students. There are different types of observers, including participant observers who interact closely in the classroom, non-participant observers who do not participate but have a planned structured approach, and structured versus non-structured approaches to recording observations.
This module will help you to —
• understand the genesis and importance of School Based Assessment,
• familiarize with learner-centred approaches for assessment,
• facilitate integration of teaching learning process with assessment procedures,
• develop context-based exemplars in the relevant subject areas for the purpose of assessment.
The document summarizes several theories of classroom management including Choice Theory by William Glasser, Student Directed Learning by Alfie Kohn, Behavior Management Theory by B.F. Skinner, and Assertive Discipline by Lee Canter. It also discusses the differences between classroom management and discipline management as well as preventative theories of classroom management proposed by theorists like Carl Rogers and Jacob Kounin.
This document provides an overview of the concept of comparative education, including its meaning, need, scope, and structure of education in Pakistan. Comparative education involves comparing educational systems, practices, and outcomes across countries to better understand relationships between education and society. It can help improve national education policies and practices. The scope of comparative education encompasses subject matter, geographical units of study, ideological perspectives, themes, and historical development. Studying comparative education provides benefits like understanding one's own education system, solving problems, and promoting international cooperation. The education system in Pakistan has five levels - primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary, and higher education. At each level, the document outlines goals and approaches.
Reflective teaching as innovative approach pptAnnie Kavitha
Reflective teaching is a process where teachers think critically about their teaching practices by analyzing lessons and looking for ways to improve student learning outcomes. It involves self-evaluation techniques like peer observation, journaling, and recording lessons to better understand classroom interactions. Reflective teaching supports teachers' professional development and helps them meet rising educational standards by ensuring they are aware of each student's learning and tailoring instruction appropriately.
Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy where small teams of students work together on learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. It originated from philosophers like John Dewey who believed in progressive education to create responsible democratic citizens, and psychologists like Morton Deutsch who saw cooperation as building trust and relationships. Cooperative learning structures provide different roles for students and specialized expertise to promote positive interdependence and accountability. Implementing cooperative learning effectively involves forming heterogeneous teams, developing students' teamwork skills, and having groups reflect on their process.
Collaborative learning involves students working together in groups to solve problems, complete tasks, or create a product. It positions the teacher as a facilitator rather than expert transmitter of knowledge. Students work as a team to master materials, with rewards based on group performance. Collaborative learning develops problem-solving, critical thinking, social and communication skills while promoting diversity and self-management. It fosters intellectual and social involvement as well as teamwork, leadership and positive attitudes.
Teacher student interaction ta approach newBhaskar Naidu
The document discusses some key concepts of transactional analysis (TA), including the three ego states of parent, adult, and child. It explains that transactions are exchanges between people from their different ego states, and that strokes (acts of recognition) are important in transactions. Effective communication in TA involves using complementary transactions that exchange positive strokes while being direct with any necessary negative feedback. The goal is to operate from an "I'm OK, you're OK" life position in interactions.
Verbal and non verbal strokes - Transactional AnalysisManu Melwin Joy
You are walking along the street. You catch sight of a neighbor of yours coming in the other direction.
As you and the neighbor pass, you smile and say: “Nice day!”.
Your neighbor smiles back and replies: “ Yes, it is”.
You and your neighbor exchanged both verbal and non verbal strokes.
You spoke to each other and you smiled.
Strokes are a way to measure attention and recognition between people, as defined by Eric Berne. Strokes can be positive or negative, verbal or nonverbal, and range from a casual nod to an intimate relationship. Individuals need strokes for physical, mental, and emotional development and survival; deprivation of strokes can lead to retardation, anxiety, depression, and even death. Both giving and receiving strokes have advantages like being free, motivating, and improving personality by increasing emotional balances.
In an ulterior transaction, two messages are conveyed at the same time. One of these is an overt or social level message. The other is a covert or psychological level message. Most often, the social level content is Adult-Adult. The psychological level messages are usually either Parent –Child or Child –Parent.
This document discusses the concept of strokes in transactional analysis. It defines a stroke as a unit of attention or recognition that provides stimulation to an individual. Strokes can be verbal or non-verbal, internal or external, positive or negative, and conditional or unconditional. The document notes that while any kind of stroke is better than no stroke, the quality and intensity of strokes are important. It also discusses concepts like stroke profiles, stroke economies, and discounts.
Transactional analysis is a personality theory developed by Eric Berne that views a person as comprising three ego states - Parent, Adult, and Child. Berne proposed that people communicate through transactions between their ego states, and that unhealthy interactions can take the form of crossed transactions. He also introduced the concepts of life scripts, existential positions, strokes, games, and contracts to understand interpersonal relationships and facilitate change. Transactional analysis was influenced by Freud's psychoanalysis but focuses more on observable behaviors and interactions between people.
Transactional analysis is a technique used to understand interpersonal relationships and behavior, especially in organizations. It was introduced by Eric Berne and views personality and dynamics through ego states (parent, adult, child) and transactions between individuals. Key concepts include analysis of self-awareness using the Johari window model, understanding ego states and how they influence transactions, analyzing communication patterns and "games" people play, and identifying core beliefs about self and others through life positions and use of recognition ("stroking"). The goal is improved self-understanding and interpersonal relationships.
This document discusses classroom activities for teaching communicative language as described by Jack Richards. It outlines activities that focus on fluency or accuracy, including role plays, dialog reenactments, and grammar exercises. It distinguishes between mechanical, meaningful, and communicative practice and provides information gap and jigsaw activities as examples of communicative practice. Pair and group work are described as increasing student talking time and reducing anxiety, but they can be difficult for teachers to monitor and may not ensure individual student understanding. The relationship between classroom activities and real-world language use is emphasized.
Relevance of collaborative learning in classroomstsparvathi
Collaborative learning has several benefits in classroom settings. When students work together in groups, they can discuss new concepts, clarify misunderstandings, and learn from one another's strengths. Collaborative activities also help students develop important skills like critical thinking, communication, and social interaction. Effective collaborative learning involves students both teaching and learning from each other, with teachers taking on more of a facilitating role.
The document discusses cooperative and collaborative language learning, describing it as group learning where students are responsible for their own learning as well as helping others learn. It contrasts traditional teacher-centered language instruction with cooperative approaches that emphasize student interaction and communication. Key elements of cooperative learning identified include positive interdependence, individual accountability, and the teacher taking the role of facilitator rather than primary instructor.
This document provides an analysis of a discussion between a teacher and students. It examines the discussion through the framework of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development. The analysis finds that female students contributed most of the talk, unlike typical findings, and that all students participated openly. The teacher's open-ended questions encouraged students to think more deeply and support each other's ideas. While no clear resolution emerged, the questions likely extended students' thinking over the course of the unit. Overall, the discussion demonstrated dialogic teaching practices that support cognitive development.
The document discusses cooperative learning, providing details on:
1. Types of cooperative learning including formal, informal, and base group learning. Formal involves structured groups working on tasks, while informal uses temporary discussion pairs.
2. Techniques for cooperative learning like jigsaw, think-pair-share, and reciprocal teaching that involve student interaction and teaching each other.
3. Elements that define cooperative learning including positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, and developing social skills. Research shows cooperative learning improves learning outcomes and skills compared to traditional methods.
The document discusses the benefits of using pairwork and groupwork in the communicative classroom. It argues that these activities 1) motivate students by providing meaningful face-to-face interactions that resemble real-world communication, 2) increase opportunities for language practice as students can interact in smaller groups, and 3) allow students to monitor their understanding and be understood by interacting with classmates. Additional benefits include helping build understanding as students can discuss with peers and giving students more freedom in a learner-centered approach. Potential disadvantages are that the teacher may not see all student participation and shy students could feel frustrated, but providing a relaxing atmosphere can help address this.
The document outlines an agenda and lesson plan for a teacher training workshop on active learning. The workshop introduces the theory and importance of active learning, provides examples of techniques, and allows time for discussion and activities. Key topics covered include the benefits of engaging students in the learning process through techniques like questioning, group work, and relating material to real-world examples. The goal is for teachers to learn how to develop and apply active learning in their own classrooms.
This document discusses various cooperative and collaborative learning techniques. It describes think-pair-share, where students individually think about a question, discuss their answers with a partner, and share with the class. The jigsaw technique divides a lesson into parts and assigns one part to each student to teach peers. Collaborative learning involves groups working together on a project through different stages from forming to performing. The learning circle is a highly interactive structure where students build and share knowledge through open dialogue and reflection to achieve a shared outcome. These techniques increase student engagement and help develop social skills.
This document discusses strategies for dealing with heterogeneous student groups in the classroom. It begins by defining heterogeneous groups as those with students of varying instructional levels. Some advantages are improved reading levels through teamwork and skill-building. Key strategies discussed include cooperative learning, adapting materials to different ability levels, ensuring all students have chances to participate, and maintaining interest and discipline. The conclusion states that heterogeneous classrooms can help ensure no student is left behind, though students may not perform better academically but likely will not perform worse either.
The document discusses the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach. It emphasizes that the goal of CLT is developing students' communicative competence through meaningful communication. It describes four areas of competence: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. The principles of CLT are that students learn through communication, authentic activities should be the goal, fluency is important, and learning involves trial and error. The teacher facilitates communication and acts as a guide, while students are responsible for their own learning. Lessons should incorporate activities that focus on both accuracy and fluency, such as information gap tasks.
Collaborative learning refers to instructional methods where students work together in small groups toward a common goal. It allows students to learn from one another and take responsibility for their own learning as well as their peers'. The teacher acts as a guide rather than sole authority, and students develop interpersonal skills. Collaborative learning has advantages like promoting critical thinking, acknowledging individual differences, and developing interpersonal skills. However, it can take more time to implement than individual learning.
This document provides an overview of several theoretical bases of English education, including collaborative learning, cooperative learning, interactive learning, and heterogeneous groups. Collaborative learning involves students learning together by sharing skills and experiences. Cooperative learning structures positive interdependence among students working in groups toward academic goals. Interactive learning incorporates social networking and technology into course design. Heterogeneous groups include students with a variety of instructional levels working together to help each other reach learning goals.
Cooperative learning is an instructional approach where students work in groups to complete tasks and learn academically and socially from one another. Key elements for effective cooperative learning include positive interdependence among group members, individual accountability, interpersonal skills to work well in a group, and group processing to assess the effectiveness of the group. Research shows cooperative learning can improve academic performance, race relations, personal and social development when implemented properly with the right group structures and dynamics.
1. Collaborative learning involves students working together in groups to actively engage with course material rather than passively receiving information from lectures. It promotes learning through discussion, problem-solving, and diverse perspectives.
2. Key assumptions of collaborative learning are that learning is an active process of constructing meaning, learning depends on rich contexts like problem-solving, and learning is inherently social and occurs through discussion.
3. Collaborative learning approaches can vary in structure from loosely guided discussions to carefully structured activities like cooperative learning, case studies, simulations, and peer teaching models.
The Jigsaw Classroom Is A Cooperative Learning TeachingBrenda Zerr
The document discusses the jigsaw classroom cooperative learning method. It explains that the jigsaw classroom works similarly to a puzzle by connecting students and having each student complete an important piece of the learning process. Each student's contribution is essential to the final product. This makes each student feel important and responsible for completing their task on time to avoid disappointing their group members. The document then provides more context about how the jigsaw classroom method was developed by Professor Aronson to reduce competition and tensions between students in a school by having them cooperate in mixed groups on lesson portions.
1. Teaching oral skills is challenging as it requires integrating many subsystems simultaneously.
2. Effective methods focus on developing grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence through activities like discussions, speeches, role-plays and interviews.
3. Teachers should balance accuracy and fluency, encourage student responsibility, and assess classroom performance and large-scale exam preparation.
Collaborative learning involves students working together in small groups to solve problems or complete tasks. It emphasizes social interaction and discussion as part of the learning process. The key principles of collaborative learning are positive interdependence among group members, individual accountability, interpersonal skills like communication, and group processing. Benefits include developing higher-order thinking, improved communication skills, increased student engagement and satisfaction, and better retention of information.
This document discusses various methods for teaching English, including content-based instruction, theme-based teaching, experiential learning, task-based teaching, teaching listening comprehension, and teaching oral communication skills. It provides details on each method, including definitions, examples, advantages, and considerations for implementation. Theme-based teaching links curriculum around topics of interest to engage students, while experiential learning involves acquiring skills through doing and learning from experiences. Task-based teaching focuses on having students complete meaningful tasks and use language as a means to solve problems. Teaching listening comprehension involves developing students' ability to understand spoken English through discriminating sounds and comprehending meanings. Teaching oral skills stresses controlled speech production and provides examples of activities like discussions
This document discusses and compares cooperative and collaborative learning. It begins by providing background on learning and the development of participatory learning approaches. It then defines cooperative learning as working in small groups toward a fixed target, with interdependence and individual accountability. Collaborative learning is similar but emphasizes social interaction, teamwork over individuals, and knowledge construction. Both aim for active student participation and task completion. While cooperative learning focuses on cognitive development, collaborative learning is based on social constructivism. The teacher plays a more directive role in cooperative learning versus non-directive in collaborative learning. Overall, the key similarities and differences between the two approaches are examined.
Similar to Student student interaction-writeup (20)
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1. Student-student interaction
Student-student interaction includes all learning situations where students work in groups
to accomplish particular learning objectives and are interdependent for successful completion of
the objective. There will be a lot of pair and group work in the classroom, as well as genuine
language input from the "real world" for meaningful communication.
Learning English is better when the students use it for what it was designed for:
communication. Peer interaction may facilitate acquisition through fostering learner production,
feedback, and noticing of form. Thus far, much of our attention has focused on understanding
classroom communication by looking at the interaction occurs between teachers and students.
However, by doing so we have ignored another important dimension of classroom interaction,
that is, the interaction that occurs between students themselves, and the impact that student-
student interaction has on the patterns of communication, classroom learning, and opportunities
for second language acquisition.
Many studies (e.g. Barnard, 2002; Pica, 1998; Swain, Brooks & Toralli-Beller, 2002) are
done on peer cooperation learning and peer tutoring. Drawing results from these studies, many
scholars hold the position that students can obtain benefits from their peers by negotiating
meanings or receiving scaffolding information. Such interactions among students do facilitate
students‘ second language acquisition because while negotiating with or scaffold to peers,
students experience the input enhancement and output production by reformulating their
linguistic forms.
Reciprocal scaffolding, a method first coined by Holton and Thomas, is a method that
involves a group of two or more collaboratively working together. In this situation, the group can
2. learn from each other's experiences and knowledge. The scaffolding is shared by each member
and changes constantly as the group work on a task (Holton and Clarke, 2006). According to
Vygotsky, students develop higher-level thinking skills when scaffolding occurs with an adult
expert or with a peer of higher capabilities (Stone, 1998). Conversely, Piaget believes that
students discard their ideas when paired with an adult or student of more expertise (Piaget,
1928). Instead, students should be paired with others who have different perspectives. Conflicts
would then take place between students allowing them to think constructively at a higher level.
Empirical research with second language supports the contention that engaging in
language interactions facilitates second language development. Findings from a study to
determine how conversational interaction affects the acquisition of question formation indicate
that interaction can increase the pace of acquisition (Mackey, 1999).
Task-based learning
Researchers have used tasks to understand both the second language learning and teaching
processes. Task-based teaching provides learners with opportunities for learner-to-learner
interactions that encourage authentic use of language and meaningful communication. The goal
of a task is to ―exchange meaning rather than to learn the second language‖ (Ellis, 1999, p. 193).
Research suggests that learners produce longer sentences and negotiate meaning more often in
pair and group work than in teacher-fronted instruction. Interactive tasks may be most
successful when they contain elements that
Are new or unfamiliar to the participants;
Require learners to exchange information with their partners or group members;
Have a specific outcome;
3. Involve details;
Center on a problem, especially an ethical one, such as deciding in a small group who
should take the last spot in a lifeboat, a nuclear physicist or a pregnant woman;
Involve the use of naturally occurring conversation and narrative discourse. (Ellis, 2000)
Student-student interaction strategies
Leaner-centered learning: This kind of instruction involves the giving over of some "power" in
the language learning process to the learners themselves. It also strives to allow for personal
creativity and input from the students, as well as taking into account their learning needs and
objectives. Cooperative Learning: This concept stresses the "team" like nature of the classroom
and emphasizes cooperation as opposed to competition. Students share information and help,
and achieve their learning goals as a group.
Let‘s talk is one of the 6 proposals to promote language learning in the classroom.
a. When learners talk to each other… by Micheal Long and Patricia Porter (1985)
learners can offer each other genuine communicative practice
b. learner language and proficiency level by George Yule and Doris Macdonald (1990)
‗sender‘ – low-proficiency learners, interactions were longer
‗receiver‘ – low-proficiency learners, almost forced to play a very passive role and said
very little
c. when pair work comes in by Naomi Storch (2002)
When pair work functions collaboratively and learners are in an expert-novice
relationship, they can successfully engage in the co-construction of knowledge
d. interaction and second language development by Alison Mackey (1999)
produced more advanced question forms with native speakers
4. The potential advantages of group activities in language instruction (based on Jacobs 1998)
Advantage Comment
In the teacher-fronted classroom, the teacher typically
1. The quantity of learner speech can
speaks 80% of the time; in group work more students
increase.
talk for more of the time.
In teacher-fronted classrooms, students are cast in a
2. The variety of speech acts can responsive role, but in group work they can perform a
increase. wide range of roles, including those involved in the
negotiation of meaning.
In teacher-fronted lessons teachers shape their
3. There can be more individualization instruction to the needs of the average student but in
of instruction. group work the needs of individual students can be
attended to.
Students feel less nervous speaking in an L2 in front of
4. Anxiety can be reduced.
their peers than in front of the whole class.
Students will be less competitive when working with
5. Motivation can increase.
groups and are more likely to encourage each other.
Students are ‗social animals‘ and thus enjoy interacting
6. Enjoyment can increase. with others in groups; in teacher-fronted classrooms
student-student interaction is often proscribed.
Group activities help students to become independent
7. Independence can increase.
learners.
Group activities enable students to get to know each
8. Social integration can increase.
other.
In typical teacher-fronted classrooms students are
9. Students can learn how to work
discouraged from helping each other; group work helps
together with others.
students to learn collaborative skills.
Learning is enhanced by group work because students
10. Learning can increase. are willing to take risks and can scaffold each other‘s
effort.
5. From these it seems reasonable to conclude that group work can provide the interactional
conditions which have been hypothesized to facilitate acquisition more readily than can
interaction involving teachers.
When we compare adult and children interaction (Kowal & Swain, 1994)
Interaction gives opportunities for children to learn language from each other and to
practice what they have learned elsewhere. This process of learning affects all levels of
language; prosody and sound, vocabulary, syntax, the verb system, social markers and stylistic
features, and organized routines. The process of learning through interaction with other children
probably is similar in first language to observations in second-language contexts. Children
imitate their models, receive corrections, copy predictable routines, figure out meanings from
context, and then permute and recombine what they have learned. The opportunity to practice
new forms is particularly available in interaction, because in peer contexts children are required
to negotiate what they want, to argue for their positions, and to explain ideas. In doing
interaction, they have the chance to acquire and practice strategic language used in social
relations where adults or more powerful partners do not control them.
Unlike children—who are fascinated with learning and willing to engage with learning
purely because it‘s fun, new and different—adults like to learn when it makes a difference in
their lives. Adults learn languages for many intrinsic reasons (and this may be a reason why they
can be so good at learning languages, all things considered). Their self-directedness, life
experiences, independence as learners, and motivation to learn provide them with advantages in
language learning. Peer interaction has shown that adult learners are able to give each other
second language input and opportunities for interaction. It also can provide each other with
6. feedback, in the form of clarification requests and negotiation for meaning. Kowal and Swain
(1994) have found that adolescents are able to benefit from pair work activities in which students
work together to reconstruct dictated texts. Adult learners usually make word errors, factual
errors, syntactic errors and discourse errors in order in the student-student interaction. Then, they
give their partners such feedback as repetition, clarification requests, recast and explicit
corrections. They are using repetition as feedback, and then perceive their errors while
interacting with their partners. According to the types of errors, factual errors usually invite
clarification request and word errors usually invite repetition. Adult learners usually do self-
repair (self-correction).
Self-correction: After the students recognize what is incorrect in his/her response, s/he should be
able to correct him/herself. This is the best technique, because the student will remember it better
Peer correction: Sometimes the student cannot self-correct (although they should always be
given the opportunity). In this case teacher can prompt another student to provide the correction.
After doing this, teacher needs to return to the original student to get the self-correction.
Teacher needs to be aware of allowing two or three students in the class to become the ones who
always provide peer correction. Correction of mistakes should be a task shared by all the students
in the class. Sometimes it is a good idea just to let students speak and not worry about mistakes –
help them develop some degree of fluency.
7. Incidental focus on form in student-student interaction
Conducted by Morris and Taone (2003), first study reveals that incidental focus on form does
occur among students‘ interaction, especially between NS (native speaker) students and NNS
(nonnative speaker) students. However‘ the results show that NNS students sometimes do not
regard their NS peers‘ feedback as helpful input enhancement, but as criticism and even
mockery. It seems that in some cases the social dynamics of the language classroom may
dramatically alter the way cognitive processes of attention or noticing are deployed on
cooperative learning activities in which feedback occurred, and this in turn appears to affect
acquisition.
While the findings of another research conducted by ZHAO (2005) show that incidental
FFREs occur very frequently in student-student interactions and frequency of immediate uptake
of these FFEs are very high, which may be indirectly effective for L2 learning? Thus, learners
are able to work as knowledge sources to each other in their L2 learning. Therefore, ZHAO
suggests that spoken interactions should be encouraged between students themselves.
What is FFI?
is an umbrella term for ―any planned or incidental instructional activity that is intended to
induce language learners to pay attention to linguistic form‖ (Ellis, 2001)
FFI has been seen as consisting of two broad types: focus on forms and focus on form
(Long, 1991, 1996)
Focus on forms is characterized by ―division of the language according to lexis, structures,
notions or functions, which are selected and sequenced for students to learn in a uniform and
incremental way‖ (Klapper & Rees, 2003), and by the general absence of a communicative
8. context. Focus on form in contrast, constitutes attention to linguistic structures within the context
of meaning-focused, communicative activities (Ellis, 2001; Long, 1991, 1996). It may involve
the negotiation of meaning, as well as the planned or incidental targeting of problematic
linguistic items, often in the form of some type of error correction. Although there is still
considerable debate regarding the most effective type(s) of FFI, there is some consensus that it is
beneficial, and even necessary, for L2 learners (Russell & Spada, 2006). Incidental and planned,
whatever shape it takes, focus on form:
Does not interrupt the natural flow of a communicative task
Is closely linked to students‘ needs to carry out the task
Is not done in an isolated fashion
Draws the student‘s attention to structures in situations where primary focus is
meaningful communication
Planned focus on form
In light of the teacher‘s past experience and students‘ needs in carrying out a given task, the
teacher carefully plans a communicative task that includes some form-focused activities. This
type of activity is integrated into the flow of the task. Planned form-focused interventions
include:
1. Providing access to resources: Teacher can plan student access to resources such as word and
expression banks, posters, and models for speaking and writing tasks. Providing essential
language in the form of posters or word banks will help students speak sooner and more
accurately. Modeling of speaking activities and functional language will diminish the number of
9. errors. The teacher can model the targeted language alone or with a student or have two students
act out the language.
2. Consciousness-raising: Teacher can point out certain structural features. For instance, a
teacher uses a story as a lead up to a speaking activity in which students share their daily
routines. The teacher highlights the third person singular of the present tense in a story about a
pre-teen‘s unusual day by writing on the board a few verbs that correspond to the character‘s
actions: gets up, has, goes, travels… The students then reinvest their understanding by
exchanging their daily routines. Each student the reports his partner‘s daily routine to the other
members of the group.
Student: Kevin gets up at 7:00.
He has breakfast at 7:30.
At 8:00, he takes the bus to school…
3. Monitoring the writing process: Teachers can improve writing accuracy by monitoring their
students as they perform the writing process. Students can refer to a writing checklist that
outlines the steps before, during, and after the actual writing. Also, throughout the writing
process, students should have access the resources: model, word banks, peers and the teacher.
4. Presenting brief explanations or mini-lessons Teachers can plan for very short explanations or
mini-lessons when the task requires such an intervention. If possible, these presentations should
be visual. Avoid lengthy explanations of rules and complicated exceptions.
5. Interactive grammar activities: Interactive grammar activities allow students to participate in
communicative-type activities while practicing grammatical structures. The main focus is on the
interaction (production and understanding) of meaning with an eye on the structure being
10. manipulated. These activities are not meant to be used in isolation; rather they should be part of
the task. They allow for personalization and student input.
Incidental focus on form
Incidental focus on form takes place during a communicative task with no prior planning.
Teachers decide to intervene when some structural problem arises and has to be attended to in
order to carry out the task at hand efficiently. This type of intervention is brief and to the point;
the natural progression of the task is not impeded. Incidental form-focused interventions include:
1. Brief impromptu explanations and mini-lessons: Sometimes a brief explanation is needed
when a particular aspect of grammar is giving many students problems or impeding their
understanding of the message. The teacher can intervene quickly to point out the problem.
2. Answering questions: Student questions on structural signal an emerging awareness and
interest on how the English language works. Answer should be short. For instance:
Student: Why two feet and not two foot?
Teacher: Foot is different; it is an exception. One foot, but two feet.
3. Corrective feedback: Corrective feedback is any indication to learners by teachers, native
speakers, or non-native speaker interlocutors that their use of the target language is incorrect
(Lighbown and Spada 1999). A teacher´s role in the language classroom is to give feedback on
errors, but different corrective feedback has different rates of language uptake.
Language learners will benefit from corrective feedback that makes them retrieve the target
11. language form (rather than immediately supplying the correct form). The retrieval and
subsequent production stimulates the development of connections in the learner‘s memory.
These are the various ways of supplying the students with corrective feedback:
Explicit correction: The teacher supplies the correct form to the student and clearly
indicates that what was said was incorrect. This is common corrective feedback in large
groups of students where the teacher‘s time is limited. Explicit correction has a very low
rate of uptake since the student doesn‘t have to self-correct and the mistake could be
easily forgotten.
Recasts: Often used for grammatical and phonological errors. The teacher implicitly
reformulates all or part of the student‘s output. Recasts result in the lowest rate of uptake
since they don‘t lead to any self-repair.
(Neither recasts nor explicit correction lead to any peer or self-repair because they already
provide correct forms to learners).
Elicitation: Teacher asks for a reformulation, ‗How do you say that in Spanish?‘ or
pausing to allow student to complete teacher‘s utterance. ‘I went on a holiday and...‘
Metalinguistic clues: Teacher provides comments, information, or questions related to
student output. For instance, ‗You need past tense‘
Clarification: Teacher uses phrases such as, ‗I don‘t understand‘, or ‗What do you mean?‘
Repetition: Teacher repeats the mistake adjusting intonation to highlight the error. For instance,
‗You buyed the car?‘, ‗You goed yesterday?‘
12. Study Participants Target structure Design Tests Results
Carroll and Swain 100 Spanish adult Dative verbs Five groups: Recall production All the treatment
(1993) ESL learners (low (A) direct tasks following each groups performed
intermediate) metalinguistic feedback session better than the control
feedback. (B) explicit group on both recall
rejection. (C) recast. tasks. Group A (direct
(D) indirect metalinguistic
metalinguistic feedback)
feedback. (E) control, outperformed the
treatment consisted of other groups.
two feedback
sessions, each
followed by recall
(i.e. production
without feedback)
Kim and Mathes 20 Korean adult ESL Dative verb One group receive Controlled production Differences between
(2001) learners (high explicit metalinguistic tasks (as in the performance on first
beginners and feedback; the other treatment) without and second production
intermediate) recasts; feedback was feedback tasks not significant;
presented in two differences between
sessions one week groups for gains in
apart each followed production not
by production with no significant. Learners
feedback expressed preference
for explicit feedback.
13. Leeman (2003) 74 first-year Spanish noun- Four groups Post and delayed post Only groups A and C
university learners of adjective agreement performing picture description outperformed the
Spanish communicative task tasks control group on any
one-on-one with post-test measure. No
researcher difference between A
(A) recast group and C
(B) negative evidence
group (source or
problem indicated but
not corrected)
(C) enhanced salience
with no feedback
(D) control group
Lyster (2004) 148 (Grade 5) 10-11 French grammatical Group 1 received Four test FFI-prompt group
year-olds in a French gender (articles + form-focused 1. binary choice was only group to
immersion nouns) instruction (FFI) + test outperform control
programme recasts; Group 2 FFI + 2. text completion group on all 8
1. prompts (including test, (oral measures (PT1 and
explicit feedback; production PT2).
Group 3 FFI only. tasks) FFI-recast group
Control group 3. object outperformed control
identification group on 5 out of 8
test measures
4. picture FFI-only group
description test outperformed control
Two post-tests (PT) group on 4 out of 8
with PT2 measures
administered 8 weeks Statically significant
after PT1 differences between
FFI-recast and FFI-
prompt
14. Ellis, Loewen, and 34 intermediate-level Regular past tense –ed Classroom-based 1. oral imitation tests No effect evident for
Erlam (2006) adult ESL students in exposure to either – OIT (designed to CF on the immediate
private language recasts or measure implicit post-test but the group
college metalingustic knowledge) receiving
feedback (without 2. untimed metalinguistic
correction of the grammatically feedback
error) judgment test – outperformed both the
UGJT (to measure recast and control
explicit knowledge) group on both the
3. metalinguistic delayed OIT and
knowledge test (to UGJT.
measure explicit
knowledge)
Sheen (2006b) Low-intermediate Indefinite and definite Classroom-based 1. dictation test Whereas the
ESL learners in a articles exposure to recasts 2. written narrative metalinguistic
community college in and correction – test correction resulted in
the USA metalinguistic 3. error corrections significant gains in
explanation in the test learning in both
context of performing immediate and post-
an oral narrative task tests, the recasts did
not
Ammar and Spada 64 mixed-proficiency Third-person Classroom-based 1. written passage high-proficiency
(2006) learners in three possessive corrective feedback correction task learners benefited
Grade 6 intensive determiners (‗his‘ and consisting of recast 2. oral picture equally from recasts
ESL classes ‗her‘) and prompts description task and prompts; Low-
proficiency learners
benefited more from
prompts
15. A frequently cited study of corrective feedback is doughty and Varela (1998). A number
of other studies have compared the effect of different types of corrective feedback on acquisition.
Cathcart and Olsen (1976) found that the ESL learners they investigated liked to be corrected
and wanted more correction. Chenoweth et al. (1983) found that learners liked to be corrected
not during form-focused activities, but also when they were conversing with NS. This liking for
correction contrasts with the warnings of Krashen (1982) that correction is both useless for
ACQUISITION, may lead to a negative affective response. Krashen may be partly right, though,
as Cathcart and Olsen also reported that when a teacher attempted to provide the kind of
correction the learners in their studies said they liked it, it led to communication which the class
found undesirable.
Other studies have investigated which type of corrective feedback students prefer. Kim
and Mathes (2001) and Nagata (1993) reported a clear preference for more EXPLICIT
FEEDBACK. Learners, however, are likely to differ in how much, when, and in what way they
want to be corrected in specific instructional activities; to date, the studies investigating learners‘
viewpoints about error correction have failed to explore this variation in any depth. There is also
a considerable variation among teachers regarding how frequently error treatment takes place.
Edmondson (1985) pointed out teachers sometimes correct ‗errors‘ that have not in fact been
made! In general, it is teachers (rather than students) who correct errors. Studies of repair in
naturally-occurring conversations have shown a preference for self-initiated and self-completed
repair. However, in classroom contexts, where, as we have seen, discourse rights are unevenly
invested in the teacher, other-initiated and other-completed repair are predominant. Other pattern
of repair can also occur; Kasper (1985) found that the trouble sources were identified by the
16. teacher but repair by learners or by other learners. In the content phase of the same lesson; self-
initiated and self-completed repair was evident, although the learners were inclined to appeal for
assistance from the teacher. However, as with corrective feedback strategies, variation in the rate
and nature of uptake has been found.
Types of uptake following corrective feedback (from Lyster and Ranta 1997)
A Repair
1 Repetition (i.e. the student repeats the teacher‘s feedback).
2 Incorporation (i.e. the student incorporates repetition of the correct form in a longer utterance).
3 Self-repair (i.e. the student corrects the error in response to teacher feedback that did not
supply the correct form).
4 Peer-repair (i.e. a student other than the student who produced the error corrects it in response
to teacher feedback).
B Needs repair
1 Acknowledgement (e.g. a student says ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘).
2 Same error (i.e. the student produces the same error again).
3 Different error (i.e. the student fails to correct the original error and in addition produces a
different error).
4 Off target (i.e. the student responds by circumventing the teacher‘s linguistic focus).
5 Hesitation (i.e. the student hesitates in response to the teacher feedback).
6 Partial repair (i.e. the student partly corrects the initial error).
17. Less important < focus on form > more important
Learner variables
Age Children Adolescents Adults
Proficiency level Beginning Intermediate Advanced
Semiliterate, some formal
Educational background Preliterate, no formal education Literate, well-educated
education
Instructional variables
Skill Listening, reading Speaking Writing
Need/use Survival Vocational Professional
18. The characteristics of L2 learners
Eight to twelve years old will benefit from some grammatical focus only if their age, proficiency
level, and characteristics are taken into account. The following grid is helpful for judging the
importance of grammar for a given group. Young learners are clearly identified on the left side
of the grid, showing that focus on form is less important for them that it is for adolescents and
adults. They are just starting out. Taking risks and making errors are part of their learning
process. Teachers must be tolerant and not try to correct all errors. An overly strong focus on
form will inhibit risk-taking. Children tend to view language in a holistic manner, getting the big
picture, rather than analytically like adults. Adults usually attempt to break up language into little
bits. Little explicit grammar instruction is need for children. Long grammar presentation and
explanations or complicated grammar rules are boring.
Several studies have shown that implicit corrective feedback in pair-work situations is beneficial.
Nicholas, Lightbrown, and Spada 2001 stated that recasts are more salient in pair work,
particularly if only one form is recast consistently. But recast may not always be perceived by
the learners as an attempt to correct their language form but rather as just another way of saying
the same thing. So, as a teacher… we need to make an appropriate method of teaching for
different group of age and also the task that teacher can focus on….