Structure,Function and properties of T cell,B cell,Dendritic cell,stem cell,Macrophages,NK cell,Mast cell ,Basophil,Eosinophil & Neutrophil

1. STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF STEM CELL
Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can develop into different types of cells in the body. They have two
key properties:
Self-renewal: Stem cells can divide and produce new stem cells, which allows them to maintain a
population of stem cells in the body.
Differentiation: Stem cells can differentiate into specialized cells, such as muscle cells, nerve cells, or
blood cells.
Stem cells are found in all multicellular organisms, including humans. They play an important role in
development, growth, and repair.
Structure
Stem cells have a simple structure, similar to other undifferentiated cells. They have a large nucleus with
prominent nucleoli and a cytoplasm that is relatively sparse in organelles. Stem cells also have a high
nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio.
Function
Stem cells have a variety of functions in the body, including:
Development: Stem cells are essential for embryonic development. They give rise to all of the different
cell types in the body.
Growth: Stem cells are also involved in postnatal growth and development. They help to repair damaged
tissues and replace cells that are lost due to wear and tear.
Repair: Stem cells are also involved in repairing damaged tissues. For example, hematopoietic stem cells
in the bone marrow produce new blood cells to replace those that are lost due to injury or disease.
Properties
Stem cells have three key properties:
Self-renewal: Stem cells can divide and produce new stem cells, which allows them to maintain a
population of stem cells in the body.
Differentiation: Stem cells can differentiate into specialized cells, such as muscle cells, nerve cells, or
blood cells.
Potency: Stem cells are classified according to their potency, which is their ability to differentiate into
different cell types. Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into any type of cell in the body, while
multipotent stem cells can only differentiate into a limited number of cell types.
Types of stem cells
There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
Embryonic stem cells: Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, which is
an early stage embryo. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning that they can differentiate into any
type of cell in the body.
Adult stem cells: Adult stem cells are found in various tissues throughout the body. They are multipotent,
meaning that they can only differentiate into a limited number of cell types.
Stem cell research is a rapidly growing field with the potential to revolutionize medicine. Stem cells are
being studied as potential treatments for a variety of diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and
Alzheimer's disease.

2. STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF T CELL
T cells are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the adaptive immune system. They are
responsible for recognizing and destroying infected cells and cancer cells. T cells are also involved in
regulating the immune system and preventing autoimmune diseases.
Structure
T cells are small, round cells with a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. They have a variety of surface
proteins that are involved in their function, including:
T cell receptor (TCR): The TCR is responsible for recognizing antigens, which are foreign substances that
trigger an immune response.
CD3: CD3 is a protein complex that is essential for TCR signaling.
CD4 and CD8: CD4 and CD8 are proteins that help T cells to interact with other immune cells.
Function
T cells have a variety of functions in the body, including:
Recognizing and destroying infected cells: T cells recognize infected cells by binding to antigens that are
presented on the surface of the infected cells. Once a T cell binds to an antigen, it is activated and begins
to release cytotoxic granules, which kill the infected cell.
Regulating the immune system: T cells help to regulate the immune system by producing cytokines,
which are signaling molecules that communicate with other immune cells. Cytokines can help to activate
or suppress the immune response, depending on the type of cytokine.
Preventing autoimmune diseases: T cells play a role in preventing autoimmune diseases, which are
diseases in which the immune system attacks the body's own tissues. T cells can help to suppress
autoimmune responses by killing autoreactive T cells, which are T cells that recognize the body's own
tissues as antigens.
Properties
T cells have a number of unique properties, including:
Antigen specificity: T cells are specific for a single antigen. This means that a particular T cell can only
recognize and bind to one specific antigen.
Clonal expansion: When a T cell is activated, it divides and produces a clone of T cells that are all
specific for the same antigen. This process allows the immune system to rapidly expand the number of T
cells that are specific for a particular pathogen.
Memory: T cells can develop memory, which means that they can remember the antigens that they have
encountered in the past. This allows the immune system to respond more quickly and effectively to
reinfection with the same pathogen.
Types of T cells
There are three main types of T cells:
Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T cells): Cytotoxic T cells are responsible for killing infected cells and cancer
cells.
Helper T cells (CD4+ T cells): Helper T cells help to activate other immune cells, including cytotoxic T
cells and B cells.
Regulatory T cells (Tregs): Regulatory T cells help to suppress the immune system and prevent
autoimmune diseases.
T cells are essential for the adaptive immune system to function properly. They play a critical role in
protecting the body from infection and cancer
Structure

3. STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OFB CELL
B cells are small, round cells with a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. They have a variety of surface
proteins that are involved in their function, including:
B cell receptor (BCR): The BCR is responsible for recognizing antigens, which are foreign substances
that trigger an immune response.
IgD: IgD is an immunoglobulin that is found on the surface of B cells. It is thought to play a role in B cell
activation.
CD19, CD20, and CD22: CD19, CD20, and CD22 are proteins that are involved in B cell signaling and
activation.
Function
B cells have a variety of functions in the body, including:
Producing antibodies: Antibodies are proteins that bind to antigens and help to neutralize them or mark
them for destruction by other immune cells. B cells produce antibodies that are specific for the antigens
that they recognize.
Presenting antigens: B cells can also present antigens to T cells. This process is essential for T cell
activation.
Regulating the immune system: B cells produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that
communicate with other immune cells. Cytokines can help to activate or suppress the immune response,
depending on the type of cytokine.
Properties
B cells have a number of unique properties, including:
Antigen specificity: B cells are specific for a single antigen. This means that a particular B cell can only
recognize and bind to one specific antigen.
Clonal expansion: When a B cell is activated, it divides and produces a clone of B cells that are all
specific for the same antigen. This process allows the immune system to rapidly expand the number of B
cells that are specific for a particular pathogen.
Memory: B cells can develop memory, which means that they can remember the antigens that they have
encountered in the past. This allows the immune system to respond more quickly and effectively to
reinfection with the same pathogen.
Types of B cells
There are two main types of B cells:
Naive B cells: Naive B cells are immature B cells that have not yet encountered an antigen.
Activated B cells: Activated B cells are B cells that have encountered an antigen and are producing
antibodies or presenting the antigen to T cells.
Activated B cells can further differentiate into different subtypes of B cells, including:
Plasma cells: Plasma cells are specialized B cells that produce antibodies.
Memory B cells: Memory B cells are B cells that remember the antigens that they have encountered in the
past. They can quickly differentiate into plasma cells if the same pathogen is encountered again.
B cells are essential for the adaptive immune system to function properly. They play a critical role in
protecting the body from infection.

4. In addition to the properties listed above, B cells also have a number of other important properties,
including:
B cells can be activated in two ways: T cell-dependent activation and T cell-independent activation.
B cells can produce a variety of different types of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each type of
antibody has a different function.
B cells can interact with other immune cells, such as T cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages, to
coordinate the immune response.
B cells are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in protecting the body from infection.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF NK CELL
Structure
Natural killer (NK) cells are large granular lymphocytes that are a part of the innate immune system. They
have a large nucleus with prominent nucleoli and a cytoplasm that is abundant in lytic granules. NK cells
also have a variety of surface proteins that are involved in their function, including:
Activating receptors: Activating receptors bind to ligands on target cells and trigger NK cell activation.
Inhibitory receptors: Inhibitory receptors bind to ligands on healthy cells and prevent NK cell activation.
Adhesion molecules: Adhesion molecules help NK cells to bind to target cells.
Function
NK cells have a variety of functions in the body, including:
Killing infected cells and cancer cells: NK cells can kill infected cells and cancer cells by releasing
cytotoxic granules, which contain proteins that can damage or kill the target cell.
Regulating the immune system: NK cells produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that
communicate with other immune cells. Cytokines can help to activate or suppress the immune response,
depending on the type of cytokine.
Promoting wound healing: NK cells can help to promote wound healing by releasing growth factors and
other signaling molecules.
Properties
NK cells have a number of unique properties, including:
Antigen-independent activation: NK cells can be activated without the need for antigen recognition.
Rapid response: NK cells can respond to infection and cancer quickly, without the need for prior exposure
to the pathogen or cancer cell.
Cytotoxicity: NK cells can kill infected cells and cancer cells by releasing cytotoxic granules.
Types of NK cells
There are two main types of NK cells:
Mature NK cells: Mature NK cells are the most common type of NK cell. They are found in the
peripheral blood and spleen.
Immature NK cells: Immature NK cells are found in the bone marrow. They develop into mature NK cells
over time.
NK cells are essential for the innate immune system to function properly. They play a critical role in
protecting the body from infection and cancer.

5. Additional properties of NK cells
In addition to the properties listed above, NK cells also have a number of other important properties,
including:
NK cells can interact with other immune cells, such as T cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages, to
coordinate the immune response.
NK cells can be activated by a variety of different stimuli, including stress, inflammation, and cytokines.
NK cells can be educated by other immune cells to become more specific in their targeting of infected
cells and cancer cells.
NK cells are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in protecting the body from infection and
cancer.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF MACROPHAGES
Structure
Macrophages are large, round cells with a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. They have a variety of
surface proteins that are involved in their function, including:
Phagocytic receptors: Phagocytic receptors bind to particles on target cells and trigger macrophage
engulfment of the particle.
Tolling-like receptors (TLRs): TLRs bind to molecules on pathogens and trigger macrophage activation.
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules: MHC molecules present antigens to T cells, which
helps to activate the adaptive immune response.
Function
Macrophages have a variety of functions in the body, including:
Phagocytosis: Macrophages can engulf and destroy foreign particles, such as bacteria, viruses, and dead
cells.
Antigen presentation: Macrophages can present antigens to T cells, which helps to activate the adaptive
immune response.
Cytokine production: Macrophages produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that communicate
with other immune cells. Cytokines can help to activate or suppress the immune response, depending on
the type of cytokine.
Wound healing: Macrophages play a role in wound healing by promoting tissue repair and remodeling.
Properties
Macrophages have a number of unique properties, including:
Plasticity: Macrophages are plastic cells, meaning that they can change their function in response to their
environment. For example, macrophages can differentiate into different subtypes of macrophages that are
specialized for different tasks, such as phagocytosis, antigen presentation, or cytokine production.
Heterogeneity: There is a great deal of heterogeneity among macrophages, even within the same tissue.
This heterogeneity is thought to reflect the different roles that macrophages play in different tissues.
Longevity: Macrophages are relatively long-lived cells. They can survive for months or even years in the
body.

6. Types of macrophages
There are a variety of different types of macrophages, each with its own specialized function. Some
examples of macrophage subtypes include:
Alveolar macrophages: Alveolar macrophages are found in the lungs. They are specialized for
phagocytosis of inhaled particles, such as dust and pollen.
Kupffer cells: Kupffer cells are found in the liver. They are specialized for phagocytosis of damaged liver
cells and bacteria.
Microglia: Microglia are found in the brain and spinal cord. They are specialized for phagocytosis of
damaged neurons and other cells in the central nervous system.
Macrophages are essential for the innate and adaptive immune systems to function properly. They play a
critical role in protecting the body from infection and injury.
Additional properties of macrophages
In addition to the properties listed above, macrophages also have a number of other important properties,
including:
Macrophages can interact with other immune cells, such as T cells, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, to
coordinate the immune response.
Macrophages can be activated by a variety of different stimuli, including pathogens, cytokines, and stress.
Macrophages can produce a variety of different molecules, including nitric oxide, reactive oxygen
species, and proteases, to help them carry out their functions.
Macrophages are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in protecting the body from infection
and injury.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF MAST CELL
Structure
Mast cells are large, round cells with a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. They are found in
connective tissues throughout the body, especially near blood vessels and nerves. Mast cells are packed
with granules that contain histamine, heparin, and other inflammatory mediators.
Function
Mast cells play a central role in allergic reactions and inflammation. When mast cells are activated, they
release their granules, which trigger a variety of responses, including:
Vasodilation (widening of blood vessels)
Increased vascular permeability (leakiness of blood vessels)
Smooth muscle contraction
Recruitment of other immune cells
Mast cells can be activated by a variety of stimuli, including:
Allergens (such as pollen, dust mites, and pet dander)
Infections
Physical trauma
Stress

7. Properties
Mast cells have a number of unique properties, including:
Tissue residency: Mast cells are resident cells, meaning that they remain in the tissues where they are
produced.
Rapid response: Mast cells can respond to stimuli very quickly, within seconds to minutes.
Pleiotropy: Mast cells can release a variety of different mediators, which allows them to have a wide
range of effects on the immune system and other tissues.
Types of mast cells
There are two main types of mast cells:
Mucosal mast cells: Mucosal mast cells are found in the lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts.
They are thought to play a role in defending the body against infection and parasites.
Connective tissue mast cells: Connective tissue mast cells are found in connective tissues throughout the
body. They are thought to play a role in wound healing and allergic reactions.
Role in disease
Mast cells play a role in a variety of diseases, including:
Allergic diseases (such as asthma, hay fever, and eczema)
Autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus)
Mastocytosis (a rare cancer of the mast cells)
Mast cells are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in the immune system. They are also
involved in a variety of diseases, making them an important target for research and drug development.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF DENDRITIC CELL
Structure
Dendritic cells (DCs) are large, irregular cells with a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. They are
characterized by their long, branching dendrites, which give them a tree-like appearance. DCs also have a
variety of surface proteins that are involved in their function, including:
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules: MHC molecules present antigens to T cells, which
helps to activate the adaptive immune response.
C-type lectin receptors: C-type lectin receptors bind to carbohydrates on pathogens and trigger DC
activation.
Toll-like receptors (TLRs): TLRs bind to molecules on pathogens and trigger DC activation.
Function
DCs are professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs). They are responsible for capturing, processing, and
presenting antigens to T cells. This process is essential for the activation of the adaptive immune
response.
DCs also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that communicate with other immune cells.
Cytokines can help to activate or suppress the immune response, depending on the type of cytokine.

8. Properties
DCs have a number of unique properties, including:
Immaturity: DCs are immature when they leave the bone marrow. They mature as they migrate to the
tissues, where they are exposed to antigens.
Migratory capacity: DCs are highly migratory cells. They can migrate from the tissues to the lymphoid
organs, where they present antigens to T cells.
Potency: DCs are the most potent APCs. They are able to activate naive T cells, which are T cells that
have never encountered an antigen before.
Types of DCs
There are three main types of DCs:
Conventional DCs (cDCs): cDCs are the most common type of DC. They are found in the tissues and
lymph nodes.
Plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs): pDCs are found in the blood and lymph nodes. They are specialized for the
production of type I interferons, which are antiviral cytokines.
Monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs): moDCs are derived from monocytes, which are a type of white blood
cell. They are found in the tissues and blood.
DCs are essential for the adaptive immune system to function properly. They play a critical role in
protecting the body from infection and cancer.
Additional properties of DCs
In addition to the properties listed above, DCs also have a number of other important properties,
including:
DCs can interact with other immune cells, such as T cells, B cells, and NK cells, to coordinate the
immune response.
DCs can be activated by a variety of different stimuli, including pathogens, cytokines, and stress.
DCs can be educated by other immune cells to become more specific in their targeting of antigens.
DCs are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in protecting the body from infection and
cancer. They are also being investigated as potential targets for immunotherapy, which is a type of cancer
treatment that uses the body's own immune system to fight cancer

9. All three cell types are granulocytes, meaning that they have granules in their cytoplasm. They are also all
involved in the innate immune system, which is the body's first line of defense against infection.
Basophils are involved in allergic reactions and inflammation. When basophils are activated, they release
their granules, which trigger a variety of responses, including vasodilation, increased vascular
permeability, and smooth muscle contraction.
Eosinophils are involved in parasitic infections and allergic reactions. They can kill parasites by releasing
their granules and by phagocytosis. Eosinophils also play a role in wound healing.
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of granulocyte. They are the first responders to infection and play
a vital role in protecting the body from bacteria and other pathogens. Neutrophils can kill pathogens by
phagocytosis and by releasing their granules.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF BASOPHIL
Structure
Basophils are the least abundant type of granulocyte, making up less than 1% of all white blood cells.
They are large, round cells with a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. Their granules contain
histamine, heparin, and other inflammatory mediators.
Function
Basophils are involved in allergic reactions and inflammation. When basophils are activated, they release
their granules, which trigger a variety of responses, including:
Vasodilation (widening of blood vessels)
Increased vascular permeability (leakiness of blood vessels)
Smooth muscle contraction
Recruitment of other immune cells
Basophils can be activated by a variety of stimuli, including:
Allergens (such as pollen, dust mites, and pet dander)
Infections
Physical trauma
Stress
Properties
Basophils have a number of unique properties, including:
Tissue residency: Basophils are resident cells, meaning that they remain in the tissues where they are
produced.
Rapid response: Basophils can respond to stimuli very quickly, within seconds to minutes.
Pleiotropy: Basophils can release a variety of different mediators, which allows them to have a wide range
of effects on the immune system and other tissues.
Additional properties
Basophils can interact with other immune cells, such as T cells, dendritic cells, and mast cells, to
coordinate the immune response.
Basophils can be activated by a variety of different stimuli, including pathogens, cytokines, and stress.

10. Basophils can produce a variety of different molecules, including nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species,
and proteases, to help them carry out their functions.
Role in disease
Basophils play a role in a variety of diseases, including:
Allergic diseases (such as asthma, hay fever, and eczema)
Autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus)
Mastocytosis (a rare cancer of the mast cells)
Basophils are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in the immune system. They are also
involved in a variety of diseases, making them an important target for research and drug development
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF NEUTROPHIL
Structure
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell, making up about 60% of all white blood cells.
They are large, multilobed nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. Their granules contain myeloperoxidase,
lysozyme, and other proteins.
Function
Neutrophils are the first responders to infection. They are phagocytic cells, meaning that they can engulf
and destroy bacteria and other pathogens. Neutrophils also release a variety of antimicrobial substances,
such as myeloperoxidase and reactive oxygen species, to kill pathogens.
Properties
Neutrophils have a number of unique properties, including:
Rapid response: Neutrophils can be recruited to the site of infection within minutes of exposure to a
pathogen.
Phagocytosis: Neutrophils can engulf and destroy bacteria and other pathogens.
Killing of pathogens: Neutrophils release a variety of antimicrobial substances to kill pathogens.
Additional properties
Neutrophils can interact with other immune cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, to coordinate
the immune response.
Neutrophils can be activated by a variety of different stimuli, including pathogens, cytokines, and stress.
Neutrophils can produce a variety of different molecules, including nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species,
and proteases, to help them carry out their functions.
Role in disease
Neutrophils play a role in a variety of diseases, including:
Infections: Neutrophils are essential for fighting infections. However, excessive neutrophil activation can
lead to tissue damage and inflammation.
Autoimmune diseases: Neutrophils can also play a role in autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid
arthritis and lupus.
Cancer: Neutrophils can also be involved in cancer development and progression.

11. Neutrophils are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in the immune system. They help to
protect the body from a variety of infections and other diseases. However, excessive neutrophil activation
can also lead to tissue damage and disease
STRUCTURE FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF EOSINOPHIL
Structure
Eosinophils are large, round cells with a bilobed nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. Their granules contain
eosinophil peroxidase, major basic protein, and other proteins.
Function
Eosinophils are involved in parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
In parasitic infections, eosinophils can kill parasites by releasing their granules and by phagocytosis.
In allergic reactions, eosinophils release histamine and other inflammatory mediators, which can
contribute to the symptoms of allergies.
Properties
Eosinophils have a number of unique properties, including:
Tissue residency: Eosinophils are resident cells, meaning that they remain in the tissues where they are
produced. This allows them to quickly respond to infections and allergic reactions in the tissues.
Rapid response: Eosinophils can be recruited to the site of infection or inflammation within minutes of
exposure to a stimulus.
Pleiotropy: Eosinophils can release a variety of different mediators, which allows them to have a wide
range of effects on the immune system and other tissues.
Additional properties
Eosinophils can interact with other immune cells, such as T cells, dendritic cells, and mast cells, to
coordinate the immune response.
Eosinophils can be activated by a variety of different stimuli, including parasites, allergens, and cytokines.
Eosinophils can produce a variety of different molecules, including nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species,
and proteases, to help them carry out their functions.
Role in disease
Eosinophils play a role in a variety of diseases, including:
Parasitic infections: Eosinophils are essential for fighting parasitic infections. However, excessive
eosinophil activation can lead to tissue damage and inflammation.
Allergic diseases: Eosinophils are also involved in allergic diseases, such as asthma, hay fever, and
eczema.
Autoimmune diseases: Eosinophils can also play a role in autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid
arthritis and lupus.
Eosinophilic disorders: Eosinophilic disorders are a group of rare diseases that are characterized by
excessive eosinophil activation and infiltration of tissues.
Eosinophils are fascinating and complex cells that play a vital role in the immune system. They help to
protect the body from a variety of infections and allergic reactions. However, excessive eosinophil
activation can also lead to tissue damage and disease.