SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE - MooreLIVING WITH THE EARTHCH.docx

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE - Moore
LIVING WITH THE EARTH
CHAPTER 11
SOLID & HAZARDOUS WASTE
Objectives for this Chapter
A student reading this chapter will be able to:
1. Discuss and explain the consequences of improper solid
waste disposal.
2. List and characterize the typical municipal waste stream.
3. Describe and discuss the methods of reducing the solid waste
stream through reuse and recycling efforts.
4. Describe the methods of collection and disposal of municipal
solid wastes including the benefits and problems associated

with landfills and incinerators.
5. Differentiate the types of hazardous waste, and discuss
reasons for proper disposal, giving some case examples.
6. List and describe the various methods of hazardous waste
control emphasizing waste reduction, volume or hazard
reduction, and long-term storage and disposal options.
7. Discuss the positive and negative aspects of clean-up efforts
under “Superfund” and some of the major concerns regarding its
future operation.

SOLID & HAZARDOUS WASTE
INTRODUCTION
Cities have historically been centers for filth and disease, and
many have degraded because of overpopulation.
Trash on the Yangtze river in China
Nairobi “The Stinking City in the Sun”
Western Europe up until the 19th Century
Solid and Hazardous Waste
Much of the world continues to inappropriately dispose of
refuse which:
(1) invites the proliferation of rodents and insects;
(2) becomes a source of contamination to groundwater;
(3) pollutes ambient air when combusted;
Much of the world continues to inappropriately dispose of
refuse which:
(4) facilitates the spread of debris around the dumping site;
(5) lowers property values about the site; and
(6) encourages the spread of disease from microorganisms and

toxic chemicals.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976
forbade open dumping and introduced the concept of the
sanitary landfill.
Land fill siting and “NIMBY”
The USEPA endorsed several different practices to Reduce
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) that include:
(1) source reduction (including reuse of products and backyard
composting of yard trimmings);
(2) recycling of materials (including composting); and
(3) waste combustion (preferably with energy recovery) and
landfilling.

DEFINITION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MSW
Definition of MSW
Materials in MSW include paper and paperboard, yard
trimmings, food wastes, plastics, glass, metal, and wood wastes.
Examples of the types of MSW in each of these categories is
listed in Table 11-1.
Table 11-1
Characterization of MSW
MSW does not include everything that is landfilled in Subtitle
D landfills (RCRA Subtitle D), but excludes municipal sludge,
industrial non-hazardous waste, construction and demolition
waste, agricultural waste, oil and gas waste, and mining wastes
(Fig 11-1).

Fig. 11-1
The total amount of MSW materials generated (thousands of
tons) from 1960 to 1996 are shown in Figure 11-2.
Fig. 11-2

Paper and paperboard materials represented the largest
component at 13 percent, followed by food wastes (10.4%), and
plastics (9.4%) (Fig. 11-3).
The amount of MSW generated in 1996 and categorized as
products is shown as Figure 11-4.
Fig. 11-3
Fig. 11-4

COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
Collection of MSW
The removal of solid waste is the responsibility of government
which must develop and enforce regulations that protect the
public health by proper collection and disposal of municipal
waste.
Collection of MSW
Collection vehicles often include manually loaded compacting
bodies which increases the weight (capacity) of the load that
can be carried, and facilitates emptying at the disposal site (Fig
11-5, 6).
Fig. 11-5

Fig. 11-6
Collection of MSW
A transfer station is a site where solid waste is concentrated
before taken to a processing facility or a sanitary landfill (Fig.
11-7).
Fig. 11-7

Collection of MSW
The concentration most often involves compaction by placing
the waste into a metal channel where a ram compresses the
waste into a roll-off collection container (Fig. 11-8).
Fig. 11-8
Collection of MSW
Some transfer stations also feature recycling bins where
separated items such as metal cans, plastic milk bottles (HDPE),
paper and cardboard, and glass containers may be collected and
periodically removed for further processing and resale (Fig 11-
9).

Fig. 11-9
Management of MSW
Nationally, more than half (55 percent) of the total MSW
collected is landfilled about 27.3 percent is recovered for
recycling (or composted) and 17.2 percent is combusted with
most combustion systems employing energy recovery (Fig. 11-
10).
Fig. 11-10

Management of MSW
Landfill Design
Historically landfills have been sources of pollution, producers
of methane gas and odors, and breeding sites for pests.
The standards for landfill construction mandated under RCRA
Subtitle D should prevent the above problems (Fig. 11-11).
Fig. 11-11
Management of MSW
Landfill Design
The bottom liners may be composed of one or more layers of
clay or a synthetic flexible membrane(s) (or some combination
of both) (Fig. 11-12).

Fig. 11-12
Landfills are not secure
Landfill caps or covers are meant to be impermeable but can be
disturbed by:
burrowing and soil-dwelling animals; roots of vegetation;
precipitation; freeze-thaw cycles; wind;
uneven settling; migration of chemicals of objects;
exposure to sunlight.
Landfills are not secure
There are less than 2,400 municipal solid waste landfills today
although the total landfill capacity has not declined
considerably.
The Northeast United States has the fewest landfills (208) and
the fewest remaining years of landfill capacity (Fig. 11-13).

Fig. 11-13
Number of landfills by region
Typical landfill operation
Source Reduction
Activities that reduce the amount of the toxicity of wastes prior
to entering the waste stream are referred to as source reduction.
Products package reuse
Package or product redesign that reduces material or toxicity
Reducing use by modifying practices (Fig. 11-14)
Fig. 11-14

Recovery for Recycling (Including Composting)
The act of removing materials from MSW for a productive use
is referred to as recycling or resource recovery.
Recycling is perceived to:
(1) conserve resources by reducing the need for virgin and
nonrenewable materials;
(2) reduce the amount of pollution by using secondary materials
that require less energy to process; and
(3) save energy by using recycled materials, since less is
required for processing.

The Northeast serves more than 43 million people or over 80
percent of its population with a curbside recyclables program
(Fig. 11-15).
Fig. 11-15
Materials recycling facilities (MRFs) prepare recyclables for
marketing (Fig. 11-16).
A magnet removes steel objects and recyclables are separated
manually (Fig. 11-17).

Fig. 11-16
.
Fig. 11-17
Separating trash in an MRF
Glass bottles are separated into clear, brown, and green glass,
and ground into small smooth pellets called cullet.
An example of green glass cullet is shown in Fig. 11-18.

Fig. 11-18
Green glass cullet
Trends in Resource Recovery
Recovery rates increased significantly from the mid-1980s to
the present national level of over 27 percent (Fig. 11-19).
Fig. 11-19
Trends in Resource Recovery

Most of the recovery appears to be in paper and paperboard,
accounting for nearly 57 percent of the material recovered.
This is followed by yard trimmings and food wastes which are
composted (19.7 percent), and metals at 11.1 percent (Fig. 11-
20).
Fig. 11-20
Composting
Composting is a controlled process of degrading organic matter
by microorganisms into a humus-like material.
The composted material is often low in plant nutrients but is
useful for conditioning soil by improving soil porosity and
aeration, and increasing water retention.

Composting
In some sophisticated operations, the entire process from
shredding to aeration, curing, and finishing are performed in an
in-vessel composting system (Fig. 11-21a, b).
Fig. 11-21a
Fig. 11-21b

Composting
Most composting uses a windrow process in which rows of
material are placed next to each other outdoors and periodically
mixed to incorporate air into the mix (Fig. 11-22).
Fig. 11-22
Compost
Compost is being used for wetlands mitigation, land
reclamation, storm filtrates, soil amendments, mulches, and
low-grade fertilizers.
The market penetration of compost is likely to increase when
combined with education on the benefits of compost use (Fig.
11-23).

Fig.11-23
Combustion
MSW can also be treated by combustion
Generally, combustion with the production of energy is called
waste-to-energy (WTE), while combustion of MSW without
energy recovery is called incineration.
Combustion
WTE plants are generally mass burn, although many incorporate
recycling activities that remove noncombustible items such as
metals and glass prior to burning.
The facility is designed in stages to minimize emissions (Fig.
11-24).

Fig. 11-24
HAZARDOUS WASTES
Background
Love Canal
Times Beach, MO.
Woburn, MA.
Environmental Justice
What is Hazardous Waste?
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976.
The definition of hazardous waste in RCRA includes any
discarded material that may pose a substantial threat or
potential danger to human health or the environment when
improperly handled.

RCRA
This process is called the “cradle-to-grave” system and is meant
to protect public health by:
(1) defining what wastes are hazardous;
(2) tracking wastes to the point of disposal;
(3) assuring that treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD)
facilities meet minimum national standards;
RCRA
This process is called the “cradle-to-grave” system and is meant
to protect public health by:
(4) and making certain TSDs are properly maintained after
closure, and that facility owner/operators are financially
responsible for hazardous waste releases that may occur at their
facility.

Hazardous Waste Regulations
Amendments were made to RCRA in 1984 that significantly
expanded its regulatory powers.
The amendments are known as the Hazardous and Solid Waste
Amendments (HSWA).
The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA)
The HSWA focuses on protecting groundwater by:
(1) restricting the treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous
wastes in land management facilities;
(2) mandating stricter requirements for landfills accepting
hazardous waste;
(3) requiring a schedule for determining if the landfilling of
untreated hazardous waste should be phased out;
(4) increasing the numbers of people who fall under RCRA
regulations by including small quantity generators; and

(5) creating a new program for the detection, control, and
management of hazardous liquids (primarily petroleum) in
underground storage tanks.
Hazardous Waste Regulations
Other efforts to control hazardous waste are:
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
Waste Minimization National Plan
The Management of Hazardous Wastes
The three major options for managing hazardous waste include:
(1) reducing the production of waste by reducing the amount
generated or recycling/reusing the hazardous material after its
generation;

The Management of Hazardous Wastes
The three major options for managing hazardous waste include:
(2) reducing the volume and/or hazard off the waste; and
(3) long-term storage or disposal (Fig. 11-25).
Fig. 11-25
Reduction of Generation of Hazardous Waste
The generation of hazardous waste can be minimized by:
(1) eliminating or substituting raw materials for less hazardous
ones;
(2) changing the manufacturing process to reduce or eliminate
hazardous waste; and

(3) separating or segregating waste at the source to prevent the
contamination of non-hazardous waste.
Technologies for Hazardous Waste Treatment
Biological
Chemical
Physical
Solidification/Stabilization
Thermal Treatment
Hazardous Waste Disposal
Landfills
Deep-well Injection
Surface Impoundments
Figure 11-26

Fig.
11-26
Cleaning Up
Before the 1980s, it was common practice for industries and
municipalities to haul the wastes to a depression in the ground,
dump them, and cover them over.
In many cases, drums of toxic wastes were simply stored in
piles on-site (Fig. 11-27).
Fig. 11-27

Cleaning Up
In December of 1980, congress passed the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA).
This Act, also known as “Superfund”, authorized the federal
government to spend $1.6 billion over a five year period for
emergency clean-up activities.
CERCLA
The term “Superfund” is attributed to the fact that the bill
created a trust fund financed primarily by excise taxes on
chemicals and oil, and an environment tax on corporations.
CERCLA
The USEPA identifies Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs).
The liability rules applied include: retroactive liability, joint
and several liability, and strict liability (Fig. 11-28).

Fig. 11-28
Superfund
The USEPA established a hazard-ranking system (HRS) based
on the estimated hazard potential of the hazardous waste site.
The factors used to make this estimate include the waste
characteristics; the distance to the local population, surface
water, groundwater, and drinking water supplies.
Superfund
Environmental groups and concerned citizens charged that
RCRA was not being vigorously enforced.
Congress responded by passing the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), which increased the
program’s funding and provided new and stricter standards.

Superfund
There are nearly 33,000 hazardous waste sites that have come
under Superfund authority.
More than 1300 of these sites are on the USEPA’s National
Priority List (NPL).
Superfund
In 1997, nearly 500 of the 1,405 sites listed were in the stage of
construction completion with nearly 55 sites where remedial
assessment had not yet started (Fig. 11-29).
Fig. 11-29

Superfund
The most recent listing (February 10, 1998) shows there are
1,191 sites on the NPL, reflecting the removal of cleanup
completions.
CHAPTER 8
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
FOODBORNE ILLNESS

1. Recognize, list, and explain the major reasons for food
protection programs.
2. List and describe the major categories and subcategories of
agents causing foodborne illness.
3. Describe the major foodborne pathogens including
parasitic,viral, and bacterial diseases.
4. Explain the mechanisms by which these pathogens cause
foodborne illness, and describe how the life cycles of these
organisms are important in this transmission of disease.
5. List and describe the major disease symptoms in humans for
these foodborne pathogens.
6. Describe and explain the HACCP system in protecting against
foodborne disease.
7. Discuss recent regulatory efforts in the area of food
potection.

FOODBORNE ILLNESS
Worldwide Distribution of Foodborne Pathogens
1.5 billion children under the age of five suffer from diarrhea,
and tragically, over 3 million die as a consequence.
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
Reasons for varying prevalence among geographic regions
Climate
Population demographics
Nutritional status
Cultural aspects
Reason for Food Protection Programs
The implementation of programs to minimize foodborne
diseases is important because of the problems associated with
morbidity, mortality, and economic loss.
Morbidity and Mortality Due to Foodborne Disease

In the United States there are as many as 33 million cases of
foodborne illness which are responsible for an estimated 9
thousand deaths annually.
Morbidity and Mortality Due to Foodborne Disease
The causative agents and modes of transmission (means through
which an causative agent is spread) are known in less than 1%
of the severe gastroenteritis cases.
Economic Consequences of Foodborne Illness
Medical Costs
Loss of Wages
Recall
Investigation
Litigation (Fig. 8-1)
Fig. 8-1

CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF FOODBORNE DISEASE
Foodborne illness is defined as any illness incurred from the
consumption of contaminated food.
CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF FOODBORNE DISEASE
Radionuclides
Chemicals
Food Additives
Poisonous Plants and Animals
Pathogens (Table 8-1)
Table 1a
Table 1b

Radionuclides
Radiation is introduced into the food chain naturally from
mineral deposits beneath the earth’s surface or from the
atmosphere in the form of ultraviolet and cosmic rays.
Radionuclides
Radionuclides, which are deposited in the environment
accidentally, or intentionally, as a direct result of human
activity are of much greater concern.
Chernobyl
India vs. Pakistan
Chemicals
Ironically, man is responsible for many chemical contaminants
presently found in food.
Between 80%-90% of our exposure to potentially harmful
chemicals is from food consumption.

Chemicals
Chemicals enter the food from packaging materials, agricultural
applications of pesticides and fertilizers, by adding
preservatives or colorings to foods, or by the release of
industrial chemicals into the environment (Table 8-2).
Table 8-2
Packaging Materials
Acidic conditions will leach these chemicals from damaged
packaging containers
Antimony
Cadmium
Lead
Symptoms
Antimony
Complications of the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and
hepatic systems

Cadmium
Kidney damage
Lead
Neurological, kidney failure, bone integrity
Industrial Processes
Mercury
Methyl mercury is an acute toxin which causes tremors,
neurological complications, kidney failure, and birth defects.
Fungicides and animal feed
Minamata Bay, Japan
Industrial Processes
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Widely used in industry, they are extremely stable compounds
that do not degrade easily, they are resistant to heat, and they
are also highly toxic.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Rice oil-Japan, 1968
1000 with Symptoms

Swelling of the eyes, rash, and gastrointestinal illness, five
deaths.
Pesticides
Organochlorine compounds such as DDT and chlordane,
organophosphates such as parathion and malathion, and
inorganic compounds such as arsenics, have been have all been
applied to food in the form of a pesticide.
Pesticides
Many of the chemicals banned from use in the United States are
sold to developing nations who use them extensively in
producing crops for export to the American market.
Pesticides
The EPA has banned DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, hepaclor, and
kepone, yet traces of these compounds and their metabolites
continue to be found in our food.
DDT and other chemicals of it’s class accumulate in the
environment.

Food Additives
Food additives are intentionally added to food to alter taste,
color, texture, nutritive value, appearance, and resistance to
deterioration.
Food Additives
Food additives are considered to be the least hazardous source
of foodborne illness, ranking behind pesticides, environmental
contaminants, natural toxins, and microbial toxins.
Food Additives
Food and Drug Act of 1906
In 1958, the Food Additive Amendment to the Food Drug and
Cosmetic Act required FDA approval before use.
Color Additive Amendment of 1950

Food Additives
Saccharin
Causes bladder cancer in lab animals
Not covered under the Delaney clause
Food Additives
Monosodium Glutamate
Chinese Restaurant Syndrome (headaches and possible nausea),
and lesions of the retina.
An allowable daily intake (ADI) of 120mg/kg has been
established for individuals over one year of age.
Food Additives
Nitrates and Nitrites
Prevent the growth of Clostridium spores.
In the body, nitrates can be reduced to nitrites which in turn
oxidize hemoglobin and cause anoxia.
In food, nitrites react with amines, to form nitrosamines.
Have caused cancer of the liver, kidney, bladder, stomach, and
pancreas of laboratory animals.

Food Additives
GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe)
GRAS substances are chemicals that had a history of safe use
before the 1958 Food Additive Amendment passed.
There are approximately 700 GRAS substances.
Currently, the FDA is reviewing their safety and reclassifying if
necessary.
By the process of trial and error, humans have identified plants
that were either harmful to man, or possessed little nutritional
value, and excluded them from our diet.
Some plants and animals known to be harmful to man have a
significant nutritional value and are still part of our diet.
Plant Sources
Alkaloids
Herbs -the pyrrolizidine group
Potatoes- Solanum alkaloids
Caffeine, teas- Xanthine alkaloids

Plant Sources
Lectins
Lectins are plant proteins(the Leguminosae family) that
agglutinate red blood cells.
Saponins
Saponins are glycosides that hemolyze red blood cells.
As we are experiencing dietary shift to healthier foods such as
alfalfa and soy based products, we can also expect an increase
of saponin intoxications.
Animal Sources
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Shellfish become toxic to humans when they feed on
dinoflagellates such as Gonyaulax catenella in numbers greater
than 200/ml of water.
Symptoms include a tingling or burning sensation of the lips
and gums, ataxia, and paralysis of the diaphragm.
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
More than 40 potential foodborne pathogens have been listed by
CAST (Table 8-3).

Table 8-3
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Listed below are reasons for the surfacing of new and old
pathogens.
Decrease in lactic acid bacteria
Contaminated water applied to food
Abuse of Antibiotics
Dietary shift
Longer shelf-life, ready-to-eat
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Parasitic Infections
The Nematodes
Trichinella spiralis (Fig. 8-2)
Taenia solium (Fig. 8-3)
Taenia saginata (Fig. 8-4)

Fig. 8-2
Trichinosis life cycle
Fig.
8-3a
Taenia solium
life cycle
Fig. 8-3b
Taenia solium
life cycle
Fig. 8-4a
Taenia saginata
life cycle

Fig. 8-4b
Taenia saginata
life cycle
The Protozoans
Entamoeba histolytica (Fig. 8-5a-b)
Affects about 10% of the worlds population.
Outbreaks occur where sanitation is poor, risky sexual habits
are practiced, and in institutional facilities.
Symptoms Range from mild diarrhea to amoebic dysentery.
Fig. 8-5a
Entamoeba histolytica
life cycle

Fig. 8-5b
Entamoeba histolytica
life cycle
The Protozoans
Giardia lamblia
Giardia lamblia is a protozoan flagellate found in areas with
poor sanitation, and in unfiltered surface water supplies (Fig. 8-
6).
Giardiasis is most common among those who travel to endemic
areas, in homosexuals, and in child day care settings.
Fig. 8-6
Giardia lamblia
Cysts reach the surface water supplies through the fecal
deposits of beaver and muskrats
Symptoms consist of nausea, explosive diarrhea (up to ten

movements per day), and fatigue.
The Protozoans
Cryptosporidium
Primarily a waterborne pathogen, Cryptosporidium is
transmitted via water contaminated with feces from human and
agricultural origins.
Milwaukee, 1993
Cryptosporidium
Foodborne transmission of Cryptosporidium occurs via the
fecal-oral route, usually from careless food handlers shedding
the hardy oocysts (see life cycle, Fig. 8-7) of the organism.
Fig. 8-7
Cryptosporidium
life cycle

Cryptosporidium
In healthy individuals, symptoms present as mild diarrhea,
nausea, cramps, and a low grade fever.
Immunocompromised patients such as those with AIDS,
experience high volume diarrhea, weight loss, and severe
abdominal cramps.
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Viruses
microscopic particles that usually contain a single strand of
RNA
Require a host cell for replication to occur.
The two most prominent foodborne viruses of present day are
Hepatitis A and Norwalk-like virus.
Viruses
Hepatitis A
Transmitted via the fecal-oral route, and causes liver infection
occasionally accompanied by jaundice.
Contamination occur by infected food workers handling
foodstuffs, or from food products that have come in contact
with water polluted with fecal matter.

Viruses
Norwalk-like Virus
In 1982, Norwalk-like viruses were the leading cause of
reported foodborne illness in the United States, responsible for
5000 cases from two different outbreaks.
Viruses
Norwalk-like Virus
Food products such as creams, cream fillings, and salads, are
efficient vehicles for viruses because they do not undergo any
extensive heating before being served.
Symptoms include diarrhea and nausea
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Fungi
Fungi, such as molds and yeasts are single and multi-celled
plant-like organisms that grow on cereals, breads, fruits,
vegetables, and cheeses (Fig. 8-8).

Fig. 8-8
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Fungi
The majority of molds are aerobes.
Yeasts are facultative anaerobes.
Mycotoxins are mold metabolites produced on food, which
cause illness or death when ingested by man or animals.
Fungi
Aspergillus flavus (Fig. 8-9)
Turkey X Disease
Four primary aflatoxins, B1, B2, G1, and G2, which are found
in peanuts, corn, and cotton seed.
Causes hemorrhaging, anemia, ataxia, hematosis, cirrhosis of
the liver, and is a very potent carcinogen.

Penicillium spp. (Fig. 8-9)
Rubratoxin, patulin, and yellow rice toxins are produced by
members of the genus Penicillium.
Symptoms include vomiting, difficulty breathing, low blood
pressure and respiratory arrest.
Mucor and Rhizopus spp. (Fig. 8-9)
Mucormycosis is the disease caused by fungi in the order
Mucorales.
common spoilage organisms of bread and fruit.
Symptoms include the invasion of blood vessels, causing
embolisms and tissue necrosis.
Fig. 8-9
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Bacteria
Bacteria are the single-celled organisms which are responsible
for more than 80% of foodborne illness.
Two broad groups of bacteria classification are:

gram-positive
gram-negative.
FOODBORNE PATHOGENS
Bacteria
Bacteria exist in the form of coccus, rods, spirillium,
spirochete, and appendaged (Fig. 8-10).
Fig. 8-10
Bacteria
Another characteristic useful in identifying bacteria is the
ability to grow in the presence or the absence of oxygen (Fig. 8-
11).
Aerobic bacteria
Anaerobic
Facultative anaerobe
Microaerophilic

Fig. 8-11
Bacteria
If the anaerobe Clostridium botulinum is suspected, the
investigator might search for endospores, which are structures
produced during the life cycle of certain bacteria (Fig. 8-12).
Fig. 8-12
Bacteria
Salmonella spp.
Gram-negative, facultative anaerobes.
Estimated 2-4 million cases a year in the U.S.
Three syndromes are caused by Salmonella species, typhoid
fever, enteric fever, and gastroenteritis.

Bacteria
Salmonella spp.
The disease is transmitted via food, water, and the fecal-oral
route
These organisms colonize in the small intestine, causing
intestinal inflammation, resulting in diarrhea, abdominal
cramps, chills, fever, and vomiting, which last 1-4 days.
Bacteria
Staphylococcus spp
Staphylococcus food poisoning, caused by the gram-positive
cocci, Staphylococcus aureus.
Sickness is due to the consumption of the heat stable
enterotoxin, and includes nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Staphylococcus aureus
Contamination occurs through the preparation of foods by
infected food handlers. Foods such as creams, cream pies,
potato salad, and ham have all been implicated in in outbreaks
of Staphylococci food poisoning.

Bacteria
Clostridium spp.
Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium botulinum are
sporeforming anaerobic bacteria found in soils throughout the
world.
Clostridium botulinum
Botulism is the illness that results when C. botulinum spores
germinate and produce a toxin in the food to be ingested.
By destroying the spores in foods before canning or storing
products, risk of botulism can be eliminated.
There are seven types of C. botulinum, A-G, which are
identified by the toxin they produce.
The A toxin is the most common in the United States, and has
been isolated in fruits, vegetables, fish, condiments, beef, pork,
and poultry.

Symptoms
At the onset, symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhea,
are present, then as the condition develops, fatigue, blurred
vision, difficulty speaking and swallowing are experienced.
Bacteria
Campylobacter
Campylobacter species are part of the normal flora of the
gastrointestinal tract of warm blooded animals.
During food processing, the intestinal tract is lacerated,
allowing feces to contaminate the food.
Campylobacter
Symptoms are usually mild including nausea, vomiting, and
bloody diarrhea, but in severe infections, Gullian Barre
Syndrome develops, which causes neuromuscular paralysis.

Bacteria
Escherichia coli
Gram negative
E. coli organisms which are important to foodborne illness can
be divided into four groups, enteroinvasive, enterotoxigenic,
enteropathogenic, and enterohemorrhagic.
Escherichia coli
Enteroinvasive E. coli invade the epithelial cells of the
intestine, resulting in fever, chills, and bloody diarrhea.
Enterotoxigenic E. coli are responsible for traveler’s diarrhea,
produce a toxin, and exhibit cholera like symptoms.
Escherichia coli
Enteropathogenic E. coli are most commonly found among
infant nurseries in developing countries.
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli, also known as E. coli O157:H7 is
the result of consuming improperly cooked ground beef, raw
milk, or unpasteurized apple cider.

Escherichia coli
E. coli O157:H7
Symptoms generally include, abdominal cramps, watery to
bloody diarrhea, vomiting, and possibly a fever and;
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which is the primary cause
of renal failure in children.
Vibrio cholerae
Gram negative vibrio
Responsible for the disease cholera which is common among
LDCs and international travelers.
In Peru, in 1991, an outbreak of cholera spread to 322,562
Peruvians.
Vibrio cholerae
Vibrio cholerae colonizes on the lining of the intestine and
produces the toxin choleragen.
Symptoms present as abdominal pains, dehydration, and a
characteristic diarrhea, which has been termed “rice water
stool.”

Factors Frequently Cited in Foodborne Illness
1. Improperly refrigerated food.
2. Improperly heated or cooked food.
3. Food handlers who practice poor hygiene.
4. Lapse of a day or more between preparing and
serving food.
5. Introducing raw or contaminated materials to a
food that will not undergo further cooking.
6. Improper storage of foods at temperatures
ideal for bacterial growth.
7. Failure to properly heat previously cooked foods to
temperatures that will kill bacteria.
8. Cross contamination of ready to serve foods with raw
foods, contaminated utensils or machinery, or through the
mishandling of foods

Figure 8-13 illustrates some useful procedures for reducing food
contamination.
Fig. 8-13
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
In response to this present threat, the federal government has
mandated the implementation of hazard analysis critical control
points (HACCP) strategies in the seafood, poultry, and meat
industries.
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
There are seven key principles to the HACCP system (Table 8-
4).

Table 8-4
United States Regulatory Efforts with Regard to Food
Protection
On December 18, 1997, the FDA required that all seafood
processors, domestic and those importing to the United States,
carry out a hazard analysis of their products and processes.
United States Regulatory Efforts with Regard to Food
Protection
On January 27, 1997, the USDA required meat and poultry
slaughterers and processing facilities have sanitation SOPs in
place, and that they also conduct generic E. coli testing.
Surveillance efforts
The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network
(FoodNet)

Since January 1, 1996, it has identified outbreaks of
Campylobacter in California, Salmonella in Oregon, and two
outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 in Connecticut.
WATER and WASTEWATER - Moore
CHAPTER 9
WATER AND WASTEWATER
1. List and describe the different stages of the hydrological
cycle and the relative amounts of freshwater on the planet.
2. List the three main consumers of water, noting each
consumer’s major use of water.

3.Discuss water scarcity, pointing out the areas of the world at
risk of water shortage and potential associated conflict.
Describe some methods of water management.
4. List and describe several sources of freshwater, and describe
the types of wells used to pump groundwater.
5. Describe groundwater formation, including a discussion of
contamination, recharge, water mining, fossil water and some
problems associated with overuse.
6.List the various sources and types of pollution threatening
water supplies, noting the difference between point and
nonpoint sources.

7. Briefly outline the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking
Water Act, explaining the purpose of each.
8.Describe the process and purpose of wastewater treatment.
List the components of a septic system, and the components of a
typical wastewater treatment plant. Define and describe BOD
and sag curve.
WATER and WASTEWATER
Introduction
Water is cheap, accessible, plentiful, and relatively safe to
drink.
Differences in beliefs about the importance of water quality,
water scarcity, and water use can cause conflict and hinder a
joint effort to protect the world’s water supplies.
The Properties of Water
Water is a unique compound (Fig. 9-1)
Water exerts a major influence on the earth’s environments.
Water carries partial negative charge and partial positive
charge, and easily dissolves most polar molecules. It is critical
to life.
Water exists as a solid, a liquid, and a vapor. Water is essential

in maintaining temperature of planet.
Fig. 9-1
Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle is a process involving the sun, the
atmosphere, the earth and water (Fig. 9-2).
This cycle consists of evaporation, condensation, transportation,
transpiration, precipitation, and runoff.
Fig. 9-2

Water Resources
Water covers 71% of the earth’s surface. The approximate
amount of water on the earth is 1.3 billion cubic kilometers.
Humans and animals require freshwater for consumption, which
makes up only 3% of the total amount of water.
Water and Health
Access to clean water is critical to human well-being and
survival.
Over 1.7 billion people in the world lack access to clean
drinking water.
Water Shortage and Scarcity
A 1995 World Bank report indicated that 40% of the world’s
population live in countries facing water shortages.

Globally, the demand for water has been increasing at about
2.3% annually, with a doubling of demand occurring every 21
years.
Water Shortage and Scarcity
One out of every five people on this planet lacks a clean water
supply.
At some point in the future, worldwide water use will be limited
by physical, economic and environmental limitations.
Water Rights and Conflicts
Many major water sources cross national boundaries, ensuring
disputes between countries staking their claim to this valuable
resource.
Bangladesh, India, Pakistan
NYC

Water Consumption and Management
Many factors impact the amount and the way a country uses
water, including the economy, available technology, level of
industry, and agriculture, culture, and climate.
Water Consumption and Management
Effective water management would improve water efficiency,
decrease consumption, and help preserve remaining resources.
Sustainable water use implies that current needs are met without
diminishing the resource for future generations use and at no
expense to environmental need.
Water Use
Overview
The three major water consumers in the world are agriculture,
industry, and households or individual use.
In the United States, the average daily per capita water use from
public supplies is approximately 180 gallons per day.

Water Use
Agriculture
Agriculture consumes the largest portion of the freshwater
supply, with over two-thirds of the world’s water demand used
for irrigation.
Sixty percent of this water is lost to evaporation or runoff.
Water Use
Industry
The industrial sector also uses large quantities of water for
numerous purposes, including manufacturing, cooling and
condensation by power plants, and waste disposal.
Approximate industrial water use in the United States is over
200 billion gallons per day.
Water Use

Domestic
Per capita domestic use in the United States ranges between 75-
135 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) (Fig. 9-3).
The bulk of domestic water use serves for flushing toilets,
showering, and watering lawns.
Fig. 9-3
Sources of Drinking Water
Surface Water
The United States has vast amounts of surface water, with 3.5
million miles of rivers and streams and 41 million acres of
lakes.
Due to its exposed state, surface water is prone to
contamination from a number of sources, including diffuse
pollution such as agricultural runoff.

Surface Water
Surface water sources and water sheds require protection and
management to limit or prevent contamination.
Watershed fencing, limited recreational access, and public
education can help protect surface waters against pollution.
Ground Water
Groundwater volume worldwide is estimated to be 8.5 million
km3 or 0.62% of the total water volume.
Groundwater sources supply drinking water to 50% of the
people living in the United States and to 90% of people living
in U.S. rural areas.
Ground Water
When rain falls on the earth, some of the water percolates
downward through the spaces in the soil, pulled by gravity.
At a certain point, the water reaches an impermeable layer of
rock. At this layer, the water stops moving (Fig. 9-4).

Fig 9-4
Wells
Several types of wells exist, ranging from the crude to the
sophisticated. Some wells are dug (Fig. 9-5) or bored; others
are driven or drilled (Fig. 9-6).
Fig. 9-5
dug well

Fig. 9-6
drilled
well
Groundwater Contamination
Potential pollution sources in the United States include:
(1) over 23 million septic systems;
(2) between five and six million underground storage tanks;
(3) millions of tons of pesticides and fertilizers; and
(4) municipal landfills, and abandoned hazardous waste sites.
Groundwater Contamination
Point Source
Refers to pollutants entering the environment from a specific
point such as a pipe or a specific source such as a factory or
treatment plant.
Non-point source

Refers to pollutants entering the environment from a broad area
and may include scattered sources (Table 9-1).
Table
9-1
Recharge and Water Mining
Recharge is the replacement of groundwater by natural
processes.
Water stress is an actual term defined as the ratio of water
withdrawal to water availability.
Water systems such as the Ogallala aquifer are stressed from the

large quantities of water being pumped out of these
underground sources (Fig. 9-7).
Fig. 9-7
Certain sources of groundwater are considered nonrenewable
resources, like coal or oil.
The overuse of these “fossil” waters is called water mining,
because the resource is being permanently depleted.
Subsidence and Salination
Subsidence
Involves a settling of the soil as the water is pumped out.

Salination
As water is pumped out of the aquifer, the zone of saturation
decreases at both the upper and lower levels. Saltwater can seep
into the aquifer at the lower level, polluting the freshwater.
The Following Laws Protect the Waters of the U.S.
RCRA
CERCLA
SDWA
FIFRA
TSCA
Water Pollution
Much of the pollution that threatens our water supply today is
anthropogenic in that it is generated by humans, and not part of
a natural process.
Industry, agriculture, and overpopulation have all contributed to
pollution of the world’s water supply.

Water Pollution
Some strategies to protect water supplies include protection of
areas near sources of drinking water, limitations on pollutant
discharges into our waterways, and the processes of
chlorination and filtration.
Water Pollution
Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972
Clean Water Act of 1977
The EPA estimates that public and private costs for water
pollution treatment is $64 million/year.
Water Quality
Water quality encompasses various characteristics of water,
from taste, and color to temperature and purity.
Water quality can vary, depending on its intended use: high
quality is needed for drinking water; lower quality is sometimes
acceptable for irrigation purposes, as in wastewater reuse.

Water Quality
Different types of pollutants may contaminate a water supply,
these can be categorized as:
physical,
chemical,
biological and
radioactive contaminants.
Types of Pollution
Inorganic compounds
Of particular concern are lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and
copper.
These substances can cause serious acute and chronic health
problems.

Types of Pollution
Synthetic Organic Chemicals
Synthetic organic compounds can be classified as volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) or synthetic organic chemicals
(SOCs).
Sources of synthetic organic compounds include industry,
agriculture, even households.
Synthetic Organic Chemicals
VOCs present a threat to groundwater, where they are less able
to vaporize and can accumulate.
SOCs threaten surface waters, through both accidental and
purposeful discharges into water ways.
Types of Pollution
Radiation
The most common radioactive substances in water are radium,
uranium, radon and certain man-made radionuclides.
While naturally occurring radionuclides appear mainly in
groundwater, surface waters are more likely to contain artificial
radionuclides from atmospheric fallout.

Sources of Pollution
Point Source
Underground Injection Wells
Industrial Discharges
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
Nonpoint Source
Agriculture
Pesticides
Fertilizer
Eutrophication

Nonpoint Source
Stormwater
Acid Mine Discharge
Waterborne Disease
Over 900 deaths annually in the U.S.
Water Treatment
Municipal Water Treatment
In the United States, most of the drinking water comes from
200,000 community water supply systems.
These systems include approximately 140,000 small scale
suppliers and 60,000 municipal supply systems, and supply
water to 241 million Americans.
Water Treatment
The main steps of treatment are:
Sedimentation
coagulation-flocculation,
filtration, and
disinfection.

Disinfection
The most critical step in water treatment, disinfection, should
destroy all organisms in the water supply.
Chlorine is the major disinfectant used in United States’ water
systems today.
Trihalomethanes
Regulations
Safe Water Drinking Act
Allows the United States EPA to set Maximum Contaminant
Levels (MCLs) for water pollutants to protect the public health.
Enforcement of the SDWA is left to the individual states, with
oversight provided by the Office of Groundwater and Drinking
Water, a division of the USEPA.
Water Disposal and Treatment

Sewage
In many developing countries around the world, human waste
pollutes the land and the water.
This organic material can serve as food for organisms living in
the water.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
As microorganisms decompose organic material in surface
water, they use oxygen dissolved in the water.
If a waterway is overloaded with biodegradable organic
pollutants, this decomposition process can deplete the supply of
dissolved oxygen.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The deoxygenation and reaeration of water can be presented
graphically as a Sag Curve.
A Sag Curve demonstrates the level of dissolved oxygen over
time, showing the critical level where aquatic life dies (Fig. 9-
8).

Fig. 9-8
Types of Disposal
Pit privies (Fig. 9-9)
Septic Systems (9-10, 9-11)
Municipal Sewage Treatment
Fig. 9-9

Fig. 9-10
Fig 9-11 Failed septic system
Fig 9-12a
Fig 9-12b

Sewage treatment speeds up water’s natural process of
purification, through biooxidation, filtration and settling.
Several stages of treatment include; primary; secondary; and
tertiary treatments; and sludge disposal ( Fig. 9-13).
Fig.
9-13a
Fig.
9-13b

Primary Treatment
Primary treatment is largely a mechanical process, concerned
with the removal of solids.
Sewage first passes through a bar screen, then a grinder or
Comminuter (Figs. 9-14a & 9-14b)
Clarification or solids separation (Fig. 9-15a & 9-15b))
Fig. 9-14a
Fig 9-14b

Fig. 9-15a
Fig 9-15b
Secondary Treatment
Trickling filters and activated sludge treatment employ bacteria
to breakdown and digest organic material in the sewage (Figs.
9-16a & 9-16b)
Sludge form primary or secondary treatment is dried (Fig 9-17a)
and then disposed of in landfill or composted (Fig 9-17b)

Fig. 9-16a
Fig 9-16b
Fig. 9-17a
Fig. 9-17b

Tertiary Treatment
A number of tertiary treatments or advanced wastewater
treatment methods, including air stripping by ammonia and
rapid granular filtration, reduce the BOD even more.
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Sludge refers to the solids and liquids separated out of
wastewater during sewage treatment.
Sludge disinfection is a crucial step, as it destroys pathogens in
the sludge to prevent the spread of disease. Digested sludge may
be air dried.
Water Pollution and Health

Increased risks of cancer and uncertainty about the future are
just two issues the consumers of polluted water are faced with.
Consumers armed with information about their water sources
can protect themselves from exposure to polluted water.
Future Outlook
On a planet covered with water, yet plagued by waterborne
disease, drought, and water mismanagement, we must promote
conservation, efficiency, and frugality.
Every drop counts.

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE - MooreLIVING WITH THE EARTHCH.docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE - MooreLIVING WITH THE EARTHCH.docx

Similar to SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE - MooreLIVING WITH THE EARTHCH.docx (20)

More from rosemariebrayshaw

More from rosemariebrayshaw (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE - MooreLIVING WITH THE EARTHCH.docx