Describes a four-quadrant framework for managing social interactions: sharing, collaboration, negotiation, and competition. The framework extends knowledge management beyond the domain of compatible goals to include conflicting goals.
For the last two years, our colleagues from different countries have come to Barcelona for our DesignThinkers Group annual global meeting. It is a great feeling to get together with very talented people that share your values, ideas and dreams and who are also are willing to share their experiences during the year to bring to life new collaborations and projects.
This document summarizes research on what motivates knowledge sharing among lawyers at law firms. The research found that:
1) Knowledge sharing is important for law firms to gain competitive advantages but can be difficult due to barriers like lack of trust and incentives for billable work over sharing.
2) Intrinsic motivations like enjoyment in helping others and satisfaction from sharing knowledge may encourage sharing more than extrinsic rewards like bonuses.
3) High trust within law firms and among colleagues can improve knowledge sharing by reducing fears of losing competitive advantages and increasing perceptions of personal benefits from sharing.
1) Trust develops in virtual communities through impersonal forms that rely on social categories and expectations of reciprocity, which allows for the development of "thin trust" or swift trust.
2) Over time, as interactions are repeated, trust can evolve into more interpersonal forms based on direct knowledge of other community members, their self-disclosure, and shared experiences.
3) However, the development of trust in a virtual community depends on factors like the community's purpose and the nature of interactions, which may allow trust to be based more on impersonal forms like trust in the community itself rather than interpersonal trust between members.
What is a negotiation?
It is a process between two or more parties seeking to discover a common ground and reach an agreement to settle a matter of mutual concern or resolve a conflict.
The document discusses four theoretical perspectives for analyzing collaborative governance: 1) Institutional analysis framework, which argues collaboratives generated locally tend to be more effective than external ones and trust is needed for long-term viability. 2) Transaction cost theory, where collaboratives replace bureaucracy if probity concerns are addressed and misaligned structures encourage opportunism. 3) Structural choice politics, noting collaboratives must be compatible with dominant coalitions and externally imposed constraints limit effectiveness. 4) Network analysis, where network structures affect information sharing and influence depends on strong/weak ties in the network.
The art of building a winning team - Construction Manager ArticleDonnie MacNicol
Donnie MacNicol and Keith Robinson explain how management models can help build productive relationships and manage conflicts effectively. The article can be viewed at the CM magazine site at http://www.constructionmanagermagazine.com/construction-professional/cpd-art-building-winning-team/
Also quoted in an article on Project Leadership development programmes at http://www.constructionmanagermagazine.com/agenda/cm-drops-vincis-empower-training-programme/
The document describes a conflict that has arisen between two departments within the same government entity. The security officers are under instructions to close all offices at 5:00 PM and not release keys to non-security officers. However, other government officers need to work past 5:00 PM to complete tasks. As a result, the security officers have begun shutting down computers and evicting officers from their offices at 5:00 PM sharp. A management consultant has recommended negotiation between the parties to resolve the misunderstanding.
For the last two years, our colleagues from different countries have come to Barcelona for our DesignThinkers Group annual global meeting. It is a great feeling to get together with very talented people that share your values, ideas and dreams and who are also are willing to share their experiences during the year to bring to life new collaborations and projects.
This document summarizes research on what motivates knowledge sharing among lawyers at law firms. The research found that:
1) Knowledge sharing is important for law firms to gain competitive advantages but can be difficult due to barriers like lack of trust and incentives for billable work over sharing.
2) Intrinsic motivations like enjoyment in helping others and satisfaction from sharing knowledge may encourage sharing more than extrinsic rewards like bonuses.
3) High trust within law firms and among colleagues can improve knowledge sharing by reducing fears of losing competitive advantages and increasing perceptions of personal benefits from sharing.
1) Trust develops in virtual communities through impersonal forms that rely on social categories and expectations of reciprocity, which allows for the development of "thin trust" or swift trust.
2) Over time, as interactions are repeated, trust can evolve into more interpersonal forms based on direct knowledge of other community members, their self-disclosure, and shared experiences.
3) However, the development of trust in a virtual community depends on factors like the community's purpose and the nature of interactions, which may allow trust to be based more on impersonal forms like trust in the community itself rather than interpersonal trust between members.
What is a negotiation?
It is a process between two or more parties seeking to discover a common ground and reach an agreement to settle a matter of mutual concern or resolve a conflict.
The document discusses four theoretical perspectives for analyzing collaborative governance: 1) Institutional analysis framework, which argues collaboratives generated locally tend to be more effective than external ones and trust is needed for long-term viability. 2) Transaction cost theory, where collaboratives replace bureaucracy if probity concerns are addressed and misaligned structures encourage opportunism. 3) Structural choice politics, noting collaboratives must be compatible with dominant coalitions and externally imposed constraints limit effectiveness. 4) Network analysis, where network structures affect information sharing and influence depends on strong/weak ties in the network.
The art of building a winning team - Construction Manager ArticleDonnie MacNicol
Donnie MacNicol and Keith Robinson explain how management models can help build productive relationships and manage conflicts effectively. The article can be viewed at the CM magazine site at http://www.constructionmanagermagazine.com/construction-professional/cpd-art-building-winning-team/
Also quoted in an article on Project Leadership development programmes at http://www.constructionmanagermagazine.com/agenda/cm-drops-vincis-empower-training-programme/
The document describes a conflict that has arisen between two departments within the same government entity. The security officers are under instructions to close all offices at 5:00 PM and not release keys to non-security officers. However, other government officers need to work past 5:00 PM to complete tasks. As a result, the security officers have begun shutting down computers and evicting officers from their offices at 5:00 PM sharp. A management consultant has recommended negotiation between the parties to resolve the misunderstanding.
Knowledge Collaboration: Working with Data and Web SpecialistsOlivier Serrat
Organizing helps achieve—and even amplify—common purpose but often succumbs in time to organizational silos, teaming for the sake of teaming, and the obstacle course of organizational learning. In libraries as elsewhere, the three Ss of Strategy—Structure—Systems must give way to the three Ps of Purpose—Process—People. Thence, with entrepreneurship and knowledge behaviors, data and web specialists can synergize in mutually supportive relationships of shared destiny.
The document discusses the "Six Rs of Association Thrivability" that are critical for associations to thrive in the current environment. The six Rs are: 1) Realism for action to honestly confront challenges, 2) Responsibility for stewardship by taking intelligent risks, 3) Readiness for learning through strategy as a learning process, 4) Resources for investment by treating profitability as a priority, 5) Relationships for collaboration by building networks beyond members, and 6) Resilience for growth by increasing resilience at all levels to enable smart decisions during disruption. Following these imperatives will help associations build 21st century organizations capable of flourishing in the current volatile environment.
Mgt 175 how would you as a customer recognize/tutorialoutletMcferran
FOR MORE CLASSES VISIT
tutorialoutletdotcom
• Conflict in the Organization
AAA000 Course Title Course Home Lessons Print This PagePrint Introduction: Connecting Your Learning
Have you ever worked in an organization or participated in a group that experienced conflict?
Conflict is often the result of change, differing perspectives, or failure to communicate within a
group.
This document summarizes research on a large Finnish virtual community called BAP (Baby and Pregnancy community) and discusses factors that attract people to virtual communities and how hostility affects them. The researchers conducted a case study of BAP using narratives, interviews and observation. They found that BAP meets members' needs for interest, relationships, fantasy and transactions. It attracts a large member base by meeting multiple needs simultaneously. The researchers also suggest that occasional hostility among members may be natural and acceptable in emotionally-oriented interactions like BAP. From the organizers' perspective, some level of hostility may increase the community's "street credibility" and perceived genuineness.
This document discusses strategies for saving struggling quality teams. It defines a quality team and identifies common reasons they may struggle, such as lack of clear objectives or interpersonal conflicts. The document emphasizes that conflict is inevitable but can be addressed constructively through training teams and facilitators in conflict resolution. It provides an example of a successful labor union that adopted a cooperative "consensus bargaining" approach to reduce conflicts compared to their previous adversarial approach.
This paper aims to examine how political conversations take place on the digital
discursive tools offered as part of the Digital Participatory Budget (OPD) in Belo Horizonte (Brazil). The authors propose an analytical model based on deliberative theories in order to investigate the discussions over this participatory program. The main sample consists of the messages posted by the users (n=375) on the commentaries section. The results show that reciprocity and reflexivity among interlocutors are rare; however, the respect among the participants and the justification levels in several arguments were high during the discussion. The authors conclude that, even in a
situation in which there is no empowerment of the digital tools, the internet can effectively provide environments to enhance a qualified discursive exchange. In spite of low levels of deliberativeness, the case study shows that there are important gains concerning social learning among the participants.
This document provides a framework for evaluating the organizational capacity of advocacy organizations. It begins with an introduction noting the increased importance and prevalence of advocacy work in the nonprofit sector. It then outlines the core capacities that effective advocacy organizations possess: leadership capacity, adaptive capacity, management capacity, and technical capacity.
The document analyzes each of these core capacities in more detail, identifying specific elements that contribute to an organization's effectiveness in advocacy. These include leadership skills, strategic planning, relationship building, communication abilities, and more. Finally, it proposes that evaluating an advocacy organization's capacities can help improve its performance and advocacy success. The overall framework is intended to be a useful tool for both advocacy groups and foundations that support them.
This document provides an introduction to social franchising. It defines social franchising as applying commercial franchising methods and concepts to achieve social goals. The key elements of a social franchise include a codified business model, franchise agreement, common brand, training and support from the central organization, demand for replication, quality assurance, and clear fee structure. Social franchising combines social objectives of sharing learning with financial objectives of generating revenue. It can be an effective strategy for organizations seeking to grow their social impact while maintaining control and ensuring sustainability. Readiness for social franchising depends on factors like a proven impact, transferable model, and financial stability.
The document discusses the importance of foresight for association boards to successfully lead their organizations through constant change. It argues that boards must embrace their "duty of foresight" and look continuously toward the future. This requires boards to strategically plan for plausible impacts of transformation, nurture responsible stewardship focused on long-term growth, and make ongoing learning a priority. The document provides recommendations for boards to develop a stewardship statement, regularly practice foresight techniques, and establish principles to guide decision-making focused on thriving in future conditions. Embracing the duty of foresight will help boards harness change to create value for stakeholders and ensure their associations remain viable.
This document discusses improving workplace communication in 3 parts:
1. It analyzes how communication functions in hierarchical organizations and how distance from decision-making can impact satisfaction.
2. It outlines 11 steps for improving workplace communications, such as identifying changes that have impacted the organization and leadership.
3. It examines how effective communication can create opportunities for personal connections in the workplace, but that distance due to roles, locations, or lack of understanding can still occur. Building trust requires acknowledging personal and group limitations in the communication process.
Bi ipresentationon organisationalstructure18thaugust2011Brian Andrews
The document discusses organizational design approaches and loose versus strong organizational structures. It presents the six facets of Org2 design - purpose, principles, practices, participants, processes, and pieces. Examples are given for how a loose and strong structure could work in practice for an innovation organization. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats are listed for each structure type. The document aims to analyze different organizational design models and considerations for structure.
The document discusses secrets to success in choosing strategic alliances for publishers. It provides definitions of strategic alliances and related terms, noting they are cooperative business relationships formed between two or more organizations for mutual long-term gain. The document outlines different types of publisher relationships, including those related to content acquisition, production, distribution, technology, and customers. Finally, it quotes Confucius stating that good judgment comes from experience, but experience comes from bad judgment.
- The document discusses reputation management and crisis communications. It provides guidance on effectively managing corporate reputation and crises.
- Key points include establishing formal reputation monitoring and management, aligning employee communications with organizational interests through consistent messaging, and the importance of quickly responding to crises following best practices like being transparent and addressing issues head on rather than denying problems or assigning blame.
- Crisis response within the first 45 minutes is critical to influencing outcomes, as delays compromise success and reputational damage increases significantly after initial coverage and if issues remain unresolved for over two weeks.
Organisations exist to facilitate purposeful cooperation between individuals and groups. They establish shared structures, rules, interests and values to allow people to work together towards common goals and survival. The quality of cooperation within an organization ultimately determines its success or failure, as cooperation is needed to produce goods and services while achieving economic viability. Successful cooperation requires open communication of interests, transparency to establish trust, and a willingness by all partners to find compromises and invest in the shared endeavor. A culture of cooperation enables networks and communities to develop from simply working together into high performing groups that achieve meaningful objectives.
Artikel ilmiah ini adalah pengembangan dari tugas individual penulis saat S2 di The Hague Univ. Fokus tulisan ini adalah pada metode praktis untuk mengaplikasikan keterampilan komunikasi pada level organisasi atau perusahaan, terutama strategi pelaksanaan dialog dengan stakeholder.
Artikel ini sebelumnya telah dipublikasikan pada jurnal ilmiah inspirasi. Univ. Muhammadiyah Bengkulu. ISSN 0854-4808.
2013 wp evidence-creation-through-knowledge-integration_hoWenny Ho
This document outlines a theory-based process of knowledge integration to create robust evidence. It discusses merging two helixes - an organizational learning helix based on single and double loop learning, and an organizational change helix based on freeze, rebalance, unfreeze sequences. By intentionally sequencing phases that alternate between learning/action and reflection/theory through these helixes, a knowledge integration process can strengthen organizational practice and theory bases while connecting learning, sense-making and change for stakeholders. This approach aims to produce evidence that can withstand scrutiny from multiple perspectives.
I apologize, upon further reflection I do not feel comfortable providing a case study analysis or response without the full context and details of the original document(s). Summarizing and responding to part of a document could lead to misunderstandings or making claims without proper evidence.
Mediation is an effective way to resolve interstate water disputes for several reasons:
1) Mediation can address the underlying interests of states in a dispute rather than just legal rights, which litigation cannot do as effectively.
2) Mediation can fit within the existing legal framework that states use to resolve water disputes.
3) Mediation is an adaptable process that states can customize to meet their specific needs and interests in a dispute.
4) Both states and third parties like courts involved in disputes should encourage the use of mediation to resolve interstate water issues.
Knowledge sharing in coopetitive alliancesMiia Kosonen
This document discusses knowledge sharing and organizational learning in alliances between competitors. It defines key concepts such as coopetition, knowledge sharing, and organizational learning. It discusses how competing firms can benefit from knowledge sharing but there are also risks, so trust must be carefully managed. It identifies three types of alliance-related knowledge - alliance-specific, alliance-generic, and alliance-external - which have different levels of risk, trust, and control requirements. The role of these different knowledge types is important to understand for managing coopetitive relationships effectively.
This document discusses emergency coordination in Nigeria. It defines coordination as the intelligent sharing of information and discussion of issues among independent organizations with a common purpose. The key points are:
1) Nigeria's coordination system is called NEMANEMA and involves coordination at the federal, state, and local levels between government agencies, NGOs, and community groups.
2) Effective coordination requires clear communication, transparency, establishing mandates with the government, and recognizing different capacities and competencies.
3) Challenges to coordination include fragmentation, lack of understanding between groups, and competitiveness over funds. Trust, shared vision, and ground rules can help support effective collaboration.
This document provides a research proposal on the franchise market situation in Germany. The proposal has the following objectives:
1. To understand the synergy between major franchises like KFC, Starbucks, and Pizza Hut and their work councils in Germany.
2. To learn more about the risks faced by these franchises and their work councils.
3. To analyze the strategic networks between franchises and their franchisees in Germany and how resources are leveraged through these networks.
The proposal discusses strategic networking theory and different types of strategic networks like alliances, joint ventures, and franchising. It aims to adopt dimensions for analyzing strategic networks between franchises and franchisees in Germany.
Knowledge Collaboration: Working with Data and Web SpecialistsOlivier Serrat
Organizing helps achieve—and even amplify—common purpose but often succumbs in time to organizational silos, teaming for the sake of teaming, and the obstacle course of organizational learning. In libraries as elsewhere, the three Ss of Strategy—Structure—Systems must give way to the three Ps of Purpose—Process—People. Thence, with entrepreneurship and knowledge behaviors, data and web specialists can synergize in mutually supportive relationships of shared destiny.
The document discusses the "Six Rs of Association Thrivability" that are critical for associations to thrive in the current environment. The six Rs are: 1) Realism for action to honestly confront challenges, 2) Responsibility for stewardship by taking intelligent risks, 3) Readiness for learning through strategy as a learning process, 4) Resources for investment by treating profitability as a priority, 5) Relationships for collaboration by building networks beyond members, and 6) Resilience for growth by increasing resilience at all levels to enable smart decisions during disruption. Following these imperatives will help associations build 21st century organizations capable of flourishing in the current volatile environment.
Mgt 175 how would you as a customer recognize/tutorialoutletMcferran
FOR MORE CLASSES VISIT
tutorialoutletdotcom
• Conflict in the Organization
AAA000 Course Title Course Home Lessons Print This PagePrint Introduction: Connecting Your Learning
Have you ever worked in an organization or participated in a group that experienced conflict?
Conflict is often the result of change, differing perspectives, or failure to communicate within a
group.
This document summarizes research on a large Finnish virtual community called BAP (Baby and Pregnancy community) and discusses factors that attract people to virtual communities and how hostility affects them. The researchers conducted a case study of BAP using narratives, interviews and observation. They found that BAP meets members' needs for interest, relationships, fantasy and transactions. It attracts a large member base by meeting multiple needs simultaneously. The researchers also suggest that occasional hostility among members may be natural and acceptable in emotionally-oriented interactions like BAP. From the organizers' perspective, some level of hostility may increase the community's "street credibility" and perceived genuineness.
This document discusses strategies for saving struggling quality teams. It defines a quality team and identifies common reasons they may struggle, such as lack of clear objectives or interpersonal conflicts. The document emphasizes that conflict is inevitable but can be addressed constructively through training teams and facilitators in conflict resolution. It provides an example of a successful labor union that adopted a cooperative "consensus bargaining" approach to reduce conflicts compared to their previous adversarial approach.
This paper aims to examine how political conversations take place on the digital
discursive tools offered as part of the Digital Participatory Budget (OPD) in Belo Horizonte (Brazil). The authors propose an analytical model based on deliberative theories in order to investigate the discussions over this participatory program. The main sample consists of the messages posted by the users (n=375) on the commentaries section. The results show that reciprocity and reflexivity among interlocutors are rare; however, the respect among the participants and the justification levels in several arguments were high during the discussion. The authors conclude that, even in a
situation in which there is no empowerment of the digital tools, the internet can effectively provide environments to enhance a qualified discursive exchange. In spite of low levels of deliberativeness, the case study shows that there are important gains concerning social learning among the participants.
This document provides a framework for evaluating the organizational capacity of advocacy organizations. It begins with an introduction noting the increased importance and prevalence of advocacy work in the nonprofit sector. It then outlines the core capacities that effective advocacy organizations possess: leadership capacity, adaptive capacity, management capacity, and technical capacity.
The document analyzes each of these core capacities in more detail, identifying specific elements that contribute to an organization's effectiveness in advocacy. These include leadership skills, strategic planning, relationship building, communication abilities, and more. Finally, it proposes that evaluating an advocacy organization's capacities can help improve its performance and advocacy success. The overall framework is intended to be a useful tool for both advocacy groups and foundations that support them.
This document provides an introduction to social franchising. It defines social franchising as applying commercial franchising methods and concepts to achieve social goals. The key elements of a social franchise include a codified business model, franchise agreement, common brand, training and support from the central organization, demand for replication, quality assurance, and clear fee structure. Social franchising combines social objectives of sharing learning with financial objectives of generating revenue. It can be an effective strategy for organizations seeking to grow their social impact while maintaining control and ensuring sustainability. Readiness for social franchising depends on factors like a proven impact, transferable model, and financial stability.
The document discusses the importance of foresight for association boards to successfully lead their organizations through constant change. It argues that boards must embrace their "duty of foresight" and look continuously toward the future. This requires boards to strategically plan for plausible impacts of transformation, nurture responsible stewardship focused on long-term growth, and make ongoing learning a priority. The document provides recommendations for boards to develop a stewardship statement, regularly practice foresight techniques, and establish principles to guide decision-making focused on thriving in future conditions. Embracing the duty of foresight will help boards harness change to create value for stakeholders and ensure their associations remain viable.
This document discusses improving workplace communication in 3 parts:
1. It analyzes how communication functions in hierarchical organizations and how distance from decision-making can impact satisfaction.
2. It outlines 11 steps for improving workplace communications, such as identifying changes that have impacted the organization and leadership.
3. It examines how effective communication can create opportunities for personal connections in the workplace, but that distance due to roles, locations, or lack of understanding can still occur. Building trust requires acknowledging personal and group limitations in the communication process.
Bi ipresentationon organisationalstructure18thaugust2011Brian Andrews
The document discusses organizational design approaches and loose versus strong organizational structures. It presents the six facets of Org2 design - purpose, principles, practices, participants, processes, and pieces. Examples are given for how a loose and strong structure could work in practice for an innovation organization. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats are listed for each structure type. The document aims to analyze different organizational design models and considerations for structure.
The document discusses secrets to success in choosing strategic alliances for publishers. It provides definitions of strategic alliances and related terms, noting they are cooperative business relationships formed between two or more organizations for mutual long-term gain. The document outlines different types of publisher relationships, including those related to content acquisition, production, distribution, technology, and customers. Finally, it quotes Confucius stating that good judgment comes from experience, but experience comes from bad judgment.
- The document discusses reputation management and crisis communications. It provides guidance on effectively managing corporate reputation and crises.
- Key points include establishing formal reputation monitoring and management, aligning employee communications with organizational interests through consistent messaging, and the importance of quickly responding to crises following best practices like being transparent and addressing issues head on rather than denying problems or assigning blame.
- Crisis response within the first 45 minutes is critical to influencing outcomes, as delays compromise success and reputational damage increases significantly after initial coverage and if issues remain unresolved for over two weeks.
Organisations exist to facilitate purposeful cooperation between individuals and groups. They establish shared structures, rules, interests and values to allow people to work together towards common goals and survival. The quality of cooperation within an organization ultimately determines its success or failure, as cooperation is needed to produce goods and services while achieving economic viability. Successful cooperation requires open communication of interests, transparency to establish trust, and a willingness by all partners to find compromises and invest in the shared endeavor. A culture of cooperation enables networks and communities to develop from simply working together into high performing groups that achieve meaningful objectives.
Artikel ilmiah ini adalah pengembangan dari tugas individual penulis saat S2 di The Hague Univ. Fokus tulisan ini adalah pada metode praktis untuk mengaplikasikan keterampilan komunikasi pada level organisasi atau perusahaan, terutama strategi pelaksanaan dialog dengan stakeholder.
Artikel ini sebelumnya telah dipublikasikan pada jurnal ilmiah inspirasi. Univ. Muhammadiyah Bengkulu. ISSN 0854-4808.
2013 wp evidence-creation-through-knowledge-integration_hoWenny Ho
This document outlines a theory-based process of knowledge integration to create robust evidence. It discusses merging two helixes - an organizational learning helix based on single and double loop learning, and an organizational change helix based on freeze, rebalance, unfreeze sequences. By intentionally sequencing phases that alternate between learning/action and reflection/theory through these helixes, a knowledge integration process can strengthen organizational practice and theory bases while connecting learning, sense-making and change for stakeholders. This approach aims to produce evidence that can withstand scrutiny from multiple perspectives.
I apologize, upon further reflection I do not feel comfortable providing a case study analysis or response without the full context and details of the original document(s). Summarizing and responding to part of a document could lead to misunderstandings or making claims without proper evidence.
Mediation is an effective way to resolve interstate water disputes for several reasons:
1) Mediation can address the underlying interests of states in a dispute rather than just legal rights, which litigation cannot do as effectively.
2) Mediation can fit within the existing legal framework that states use to resolve water disputes.
3) Mediation is an adaptable process that states can customize to meet their specific needs and interests in a dispute.
4) Both states and third parties like courts involved in disputes should encourage the use of mediation to resolve interstate water issues.
Knowledge sharing in coopetitive alliancesMiia Kosonen
This document discusses knowledge sharing and organizational learning in alliances between competitors. It defines key concepts such as coopetition, knowledge sharing, and organizational learning. It discusses how competing firms can benefit from knowledge sharing but there are also risks, so trust must be carefully managed. It identifies three types of alliance-related knowledge - alliance-specific, alliance-generic, and alliance-external - which have different levels of risk, trust, and control requirements. The role of these different knowledge types is important to understand for managing coopetitive relationships effectively.
This document discusses emergency coordination in Nigeria. It defines coordination as the intelligent sharing of information and discussion of issues among independent organizations with a common purpose. The key points are:
1) Nigeria's coordination system is called NEMANEMA and involves coordination at the federal, state, and local levels between government agencies, NGOs, and community groups.
2) Effective coordination requires clear communication, transparency, establishing mandates with the government, and recognizing different capacities and competencies.
3) Challenges to coordination include fragmentation, lack of understanding between groups, and competitiveness over funds. Trust, shared vision, and ground rules can help support effective collaboration.
This document provides a research proposal on the franchise market situation in Germany. The proposal has the following objectives:
1. To understand the synergy between major franchises like KFC, Starbucks, and Pizza Hut and their work councils in Germany.
2. To learn more about the risks faced by these franchises and their work councils.
3. To analyze the strategic networks between franchises and their franchisees in Germany and how resources are leveraged through these networks.
The proposal discusses strategic networking theory and different types of strategic networks like alliances, joint ventures, and franchising. It aims to adopt dimensions for analyzing strategic networks between franchises and franchisees in Germany.
A Critical Essay On Nonprofit Organizations (Working Paper)Tracy Drey
Nonprofit organizations sometimes need to collaborate to address problems that transcend boundaries or that single organizations cannot solve alone. There are several theories that attempt to explain why nonprofits collaborate, such as resource dependency theory, which posits that nonprofits collaborate to gain access to needed resources. Effective collaboration requires elements such as shared goals, resources, leadership, and commitment between partners. While collaboration provides benefits, it also carries risks such as loss of autonomy or specialized services. The type of network formed should depend on the goals being pursued.
This document discusses conflict management and provides details on various types of conflict. It begins by defining conflict management and its goals of limiting negative aspects of conflict while increasing positive ones. It describes factors that can cause conflict and different types of organizational and interpersonal conflict. The document also distinguishes between conflict resolution and conflict management, noting the latter aims to minimize negative impacts rather than necessarily resolve conflict. It provides an overview of Rahim's model of conflict management styles and makes suggestions for effective conflict management. The document concludes by discussing considerations for international conflict management and the potential role of counseling in addressing personal conflicts affecting work.
Organizational conflict arises from opposing needs, values, and interests between people working together. There are disputes over work responsibilities, revenues, and work expectations. Conflicts can be functional if they increase awareness and problem-solving or dysfunctional if they decrease performance. There are four types of conflicts: interpersonal, intrapersonal, intergroup, and interorganizational. The conflict process has five stages - potential opposition, cognition and personalization, intentions, behaviors, and outcomes. Negotiation is used to resolve conflicts through distributive or integrative approaches. Leadership styles that guide conflict include autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and charismatic approaches.
This document provides definitions and guidance for different levels of collaboration between organizations - networking, coordinating, cooperating, and collaborating. It defines each level based on the degree of commitment in terms of time, trust, and shared resources/turf. Collaborating requires the most extensive commitments in all areas and is defined as organizations enhancing each other's capacities for mutual benefit. The document also discusses power dynamics in collaborations, distinguishing between "collaborative betterment", which is initiated by larger institutions, and "collaborative empowerment", which begins within communities. Finally, it outlines common roles organizations play in collaborative processes.
The document discusses two social networking technologies that a university could use to improve learning objects. It evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of each technology and how they would impact the existing software development lifecycle and IT investments of the university. Social media and networking technologies can contribute significantly to education by enabling student autonomy, mastery of learning programs, and a sense of purpose through electronic scaffolding and knowledge sharing.
The document discusses key considerations for designing and implementing effective multi-stakeholder processes for conflict prevention and peacebuilding. It addresses the importance of legitimacy, power dynamics, and collective ownership. It also outlines 6 main stakeholder groups that should be considered: 1) Civil Society, 2) State Actors, 3) Intergovernmental and International Organizations, 4) The Media, 5) The Security Sector, and 6) The Private Sector. Finally, it provides a 6-step process for establishing a multi-stakeholder process, including initiating the process, designing it, getting stakeholders acquainted, agreeing to go forward, implementing action plans, and establishing exit strategies.
This document discusses multi-actor partnerships for innovation. It argues that partnerships between public, private and community partners have the potential to generate innovative solutions to complex problems through collaboration. The document outlines seven cross-cutting themes for successful partnerships: 1) leveraging diverse perspectives, 2) balancing innovation with accountability, 3) establishing shared language, 4) inclusive engagement, 5) professionalizing partnership brokers, 6) integrating innovations, and 7) improving knowledge management. It provides questions to guide reflection on how partnerships can promote innovation and how to address challenges in collaborative working.
Building a Stronger Nonprofit Community: The Impact of CollaborationiConnectXSolutions
oin this presentation to explore the profound impact of collaboration on the nonprofit community. Learn how shared goals, collective knowledge, and resource pooling can strengthen organizations and amplify their influence. Discover innovative ways to foster a culture of collaboration and forge meaningful partnerships.
This document discusses organizational culture and conflict. It defines organizational culture as the shared assumptions that guide behavior in organizations. It identifies several key characteristics of organizational culture, including individual autonomy, structure, management support, and performance reward systems.
The document also defines conflict as a state of discord caused by opposing needs, values, or interests. It describes the five stages of the conflict process: potential opposition, cognition and personalization, intentions, behavior, and outcomes. It identifies several methods for resolving conflicts, including competing, collaborating, avoiding, accommodating, and compromising. These methods represent different levels of cooperativeness and assertiveness in satisfying one's own and others' concerns.
The document discusses the concept of organizational justice and its three forms: procedural, interactional, and distributive justice. It explains that procedural justice refers to the fairness of processes used to resolve disputes or distribute outcomes. Interactional justice focuses on treating people with dignity and respect. Distributive justice relates to the perceived fairness of the outcomes themselves and the information provided about how the outcomes were determined. The document emphasizes that organizational leaders must understand these concepts of justice to minimize feelings of injustice among employees.
IGF 2016 Workshop #153 Let's break down silosWout de Natris
- The workshop brought together organizations working in cybersecurity and cybercrime to discuss best practices for cooperation. Key factors for successful cooperation included having a shared challenge to address, building trust between individuals over multiple meetings, establishing transparency and commitment to a common goal.
- Participants described how neutral venues, establishing shared expectations, and voluntary cooperation were important. Government assistance can help initially but regulation should be a last resort.
- Moving forward, the IGF could help distribute these lessons and bring more stakeholders together. Further discussion could strengthen understanding and cooperation between organizations.
The Australian Regional Export and Investment Group (REICG) case study demonstrated effective public-private sector dialogue through their meetings. Key aspects included:
1) Meetings held semi-regularly with over 100 participants from government and private sector to discuss trade opportunities.
2) Meetings had a collaborative atmosphere where all could provide input and receive answers to questions from officials in a direct, non-bureaucratic manner.
3) Outcomes included increased business and interaction between sectors, as well as learning from others' experiences. However, some government departments still operated independently, causing confusion.
This document discusses frameworks for understanding organizational social structure and knowledge sharing. It presents a framework with four components of social interaction - situation, scale, interaction, and trust. Each component contains multiple criteria for understanding things like sharing environment, motivation, and management. The frameworks aim to provide a holistic yet structured way to analyze social context and identify priority issues. Workshops are suggested to apply the frameworks and select key actions for knowledge sharing initiatives. While more work is needed, the frameworks offer a starting point for structuring the often complex and diverse area of organizational social context.
Describes a 3-dimensional framework that structures 1200 relevant terms found in a review of the social science literature. Includes a process for prioritizing social context criteria.
Categorizes the organizational social context into six criteria: organizational culture, controlling culture, enabling culture, culture change, employee practices, and cultural leadership. Provides attributes, indicators, and manageability for each criteria
Categorizes 190 terms found in the social science literature into five group social context criteria: positive and negative dynamics, formal and informal structure, and social networks.
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Social interaction 17
1. Social Interaction: Beyond Compatible Goals
Albert J. Simard
Knowledge Manager
Defence Research & Development Canada
Abstract
Understanding the context within which social interactions take place is central to successful knowledge
management. This chapter describes a four-quadrant social interaction framework: sharing, collaboration,
negotiation, and competition that is compatible with the Cynefin sense-making framework. The four
quadrants are based on participant interests (mutual or autonomous) and participant goals (compatible or
conflicting).
Knowledge management traditionally assumes an ideal world of compatible goals with a primary task of
encouraging sharing and collaboration. This framework considers how knowledge management can
support knowledge work in an environment of conflicting goals which is the norm rather than the
exception for most organizations. For example, the classic struggle between the needs of information
technology and those of business managers are best resolved through negotiation while increasing market
share is clearly a competitive process. The framework applies equally to individuals, groups, or
organizations, although the underlying methods of influencing each social level are different.
Social interactions must be classified in the proper quadrant because the goals of each quadrant are
different, the work processes vary considerably, as do the knowledge services needed to support them.
In addition to sharing and collaboration, knowledge services can support the development of negotiating
positions and the production of competitive intelligence. The social interaction framework expands the
domain of compatible goals - the foundation of traditional knowledge management – to incompatible
goals which underlie a majority of real-world organizational activity.
1. Introduction
The flow of information and knowledge across internal and external organizational boundaries depends,
to a large extent, on trust among individuals, groups, and organizations. Trust, in turn, depends on the
social context (attitudes, behavior, relationships, and culture). As the social context becomes more
conducive to sharing and collaboration, knowledge flows more readily. Ideally, organizations should
manage their social context to promote creativity, engage people, and facilitate trust. Without mutual
values, such as trust, openness, equality of participation, and encouragement of diversity, knowledge
work cannot achieve its full potential.
In the real world, trust ranges from high, through unknown, to mistrust. Similarly, the social context
ranges from conducive, through neutral, to hostile. Yet organizations have to accomplish their objectives
regardless of the level of trust or the social context. For example, Simard and Jourdeuil (2012) showed
that the classic struggle between the needs of information technology and those of business managers are
best resolved through negotiation.
The diversity of social contexts underlies a four-quadrant social interaction framework comprising:
sharing, collaboration, negotiation, and competition (Figure 1). The quadrants are based on participant
interests (mutual or autonomous) and participant goals (compatible or conflicting).
Knowledge
1
2. management normally assumes an ideal world of compatible goals and a primary task of encouraging
sharing and collaboration. The quadrant boundaries are deliberately curved to indicate that they are not
hard and fast, but rather are subject to interpretation. The social interaction framework significantly
expands knowledge management by considering knowledge work involving conflicting goals. The
framework applies equally to individuals, groups, or organizations, although the underlying methods of
influencing each social level are different. This chapter provides an overview of the social interaction
framework. It identifies work processes and knowledge services that are described in detail by Simard.1
Interactions must be properly classified because the processes used in each quadrant vary considerably, as
do the corresponding knowledge services needed to support them. Thinking that one is collaborating
when, in fact, the other party is looking to acquire internal knowledge can lead to inadvertently sharing
important proprietary or classified information. Thinking that the opposite party is negotiating when, in
fact, they are attempting to gain market share or intelligence about internal processes can negatively
impact competitiveness or security.
Sharing leverages the value of existing knowledge. Management is relatively passive in that sharing can
be encouraged, facilitated, and supported but it cannot be effectively mandated. Examples of sharing
include conversations, posting a document on a web site, and publication. Although compliance may be
required, it generally results in minimal sharing - just enough to avoid negative consequences. Moderate
trust is needed by providers that they will receive credit for their work and recipients won’t use their
material inappropriately. The environment is relatively benign in that knowledge workers are encouraged
to both provide content for use by others and use content provided by others. It is also supportive in that
technology and systems are provided to facilitate sharing.
1
Detailed work-flow diagrams, descriptions, and service frameworks are described by Simard, Albert J.
Defence Research and Development Canada: Knowledge Services Reference Architecture, unpublished paper,
August 20, 2013, 158 p + illus.
2
3. Collaboration involves joint or peer production or use of knowledge. Management is through
partnerships, in which participants are voluntarily engaged. Collaboration is used by work groups,
communities of practice, and social networks. This quadrant requires a high degree of trust among
participants. The environment is typically diverse and synergistic in that many minds with a diverse
range of knowledge and expertise leads to synergy and the possibility of emergent knowledge. This
quadrant maximizes knowledge creation.
Negotiation emphasizes reaching an agreement that is acceptable to all parties. Generally, some
compromise will be necessary by both sides. Negotiation is used for purchasing, contracting, and
mergers. This involves an adversarial approach in which each party tries to extract as much compromise
as possible from the other. A nominal degree of trust is needed that both parties are not substantially
misrepresenting their situation, and that an agreement, once reached, will be honored. Verification of
statements made by opposing parties, to the extent possible, is essential. Negotiation normally takes
place within a structured, formal environment.
Competition results in one party winning and the other losing. The primary objective is to defeat or
defend against a competitor. Competition can take many forms, ranging from sports (rules predominate),
through business (rules are important), to combat (rules are minimal), with an increasingly aggressive
approach being used when moving across this range. This quadrant is predominantly characterized by
mistrust. Further, participants do their best to hide information or mislead the other party. The
competitive environment is generally hostile and secretive.
Unclear, in the center of the framework, is a region in which the level of trust and/or purpose of the
interaction are indeterminate. For example, a humanitarian NGO might want or need to work with other
organizations that they do not know to provide relief for victims of a natural disaster. Because trust takes
time to develop, the most appropriate approach to social interaction during the emergency is unclear. In
such cases, it may be best to start with negotiation, in which only nominal trust is assumed and, as trust is
developed over time, move to collaboration and sharing. Another advantage of such an approach is that
negotiation incorporates processes that attempt to elicit the level of trust that can be expected.
The social interaction framework is a mirror image of Cynefin sense-making framework (Kurtz and
Snowden (2003). Sharing is a well-understood, simple, linear process that is managed with a structured,
sense-categorize-respond approach. Collaboration is a complicated process, involving networked
interactions among multiple participants that are managed using an interpretive, sense-analyze-respond
approach. Negotiation is a complex process between two or more parties involving multiple uncertainties
that are managed with a discovery, probe-sense-respond approach. Finally, competition tends to be
chaotic in that actions of the opposite party are not knowable until they are taken, leading to a muddling,
act-sense-respond approach to interaction.
The interaction framework is actually a continuum. For example, negotiations that use a win/win strategy
are approaching the collaboration quadrant whereas those that use a win/loose strategy are approaching
the competition quadrant. Sharing organizational knowledge usually provides inputs to collaboration. As
Kurtz and Snowden point out, however, it is difficult for people to manage a continuum so that
classification is used here.
It is not unusual to move across quadrant boundaries in the framework. Competitors may decide that they
are better off by negotiating a settlement rather than continuing to compete. Alternatively, two
organizations may negotiate an agreement to collaborate on a project. Even competitive situations
normally involve a limited amount of sharing, such as names and positions of players starting a game,
annual and quarterly financial reports, or lists of dead, wounded, or captured combatants.
3
4. 2. Sharing
Sharing involves social interactions between two or more parties - a provider who makes content
available and one or more recipients who access it. Sharing is disseminating, making available, or
providing access to content or knowledge without an expectation of reciprocity, fee, or consideration from
the recipient or user. The term “exchange” is used here when some form of reciprocity is expected.
Sharing bridges the three generations of knowledge management (Dixon, 2010) in that it begins with
explicit knowledge, continues with tacit knowledge, and reaches into community knowledge. The
benefits of knowledge sharing in terms of leveraging the value of organizational knowledge are wellrecognized (Saint-Onge and Armstrong, 2004). Conversely, Holmes (2001) identifies a number of
challenges, such as hoarding, mistrust, and the effort involved. Finally, the social nature of sharing was
described by Tiwana (2000) in that sharing requires incentives in additional to technological enablers.
There are two types of sharing that occur in parallel processes – explicit content (data, information, or
knowledge) and tacit knowledge (Figure 2).
2.1 Sharing Explicit Content
Sharing explicit content focuses on providing a
place, such as a filing system, a content
repository, or a library for providers to store,
organize, and provide access to content and for
recipients to access it. Sharing explicit content
involves five steps.
Providing
incentives
involves
engagement (most effective), motivation
(average effectiveness), or compliance
(least effective) to encourage or require
people to share their content. It might
also involve an agreement of reciprocity.
Incentives are provided through culture,
leadership and management.
Providing content makes content
available to recipients either in response
to a one-on-one request or by one-tomany transfer.
Enabling access permits recipients to search for and find content. It involves granting access
permission, interoperability standards, and creating awareness of the content.
Retrieving content involves recipients moving or downloading content from a remote location to
their site, computer, or repository.
Provider-user interaction enables recipients to contact providers to obtain additional information
about the content to increase their understanding and capacity to use it.
2.2 Sharing Tacit Knowledge
Sharing tacit knowledge focuses on providing a place, such as meeting spaces, workshops, or symposia
and technical support, such as a directory of expertise, on-line forums, or social networking to facilitate
interactions among people. Sharing tacit knowledge is about conversations, dialogue, and interactions
4
5. among colleagues and peers. Sharing tacit knowledge involves four steps.
Providing incentives involves engagement (most effective), motivation (average effectiveness),
or compliance (least effective) to encourage people to voluntarily share what they know.
Incentives are provided through culture, leadership and management.
Providing a place involves spaces or venues, such as a meeting room, workshop, conference, site
visit, or classroom where people can interact with each other.
Supporting interaction is primarily a technological process involving physical or digital
connectivity, such as: on-line forums, e-mail, a directory of expertise, a collaboration site, or
social networking.
Interaction among people is the heart of sharing tacit knowledge. Many interaction processes
can be used (e.g., conversation, advising, presenting), depending on the nature of what is being
shared and the relationship between the participants.
3. Collaboration
Wenger et.al (2002) emphasizes that increasing complexity requires greater collaboration and that
communities are needed to keep pace with rapid change. Collaboration involves working with others in a
primarily intellectual endeavor involving mutual interests and compatible goals. Whereas sharing
provides access to existing content and knowledge, collaboration involves joint creation of new
knowledge. The key distinction between collaboration and negotiation is that, although both involve
mutual interests, collaboration involves little or no conflict between participant goals whereas negotiation
usually involves conflicting goals that require mutual compromise. Collaboration approaches the
agreement process as a partnership.
Collaboration involves four interrelated components: the social context, knowledge transformation,
technical support, and organizational work (Figure 3).
3.1 Social Context
As pointed out by Allee (1997) a
workplace is a social structure involving
behavior, relationships, and culture that
influence
organizational
actions.
Similarly Dalkir (2005) observed that trust
is essential and that knowledge providers
are credible.
Collaboration depends
primarily on the individual, community,
and cultural social context. Desirable
attributes include: candor, openness,
voluntarism, trust, and diversity, in pursuit
of joint creativity. The social context is
divided into four levels: individual
attitudes,
individual
behavior,
relationships, and cultural norms.
Attitudes involve personal feelings, emotions, or mental positions with regard to a fact, state, or purpose.
They also involve a readiness, preparedness, and willingness, to become involved in and commit to
collaborative work. Attitudes are based on personal values and intrinsic motivators. Although attitudes
cannot be known, they strongly affect individual behavior which is observable. Positive attitudes include:
5
6. enjoyment, candor, honesty, openness, altruism, and ethics. Negative attitudes include: hostility,
arrogance, selfishness, deception, and closed mindedness. Attitudes cannot be “managed,” but they can
be influenced through engagement, counseling, and positive interaction (e.g., feedback, listening, mutual
agreement). They are also influenced through human resource activities such as hiring engageable
people, interesting job assignments, and positive feedback.
Behavior relates to observable conduct, action, or response of an individual to stimulation or their
environment. Positive behavior is manifested through good sharing, participation, and collaboration
practices of an individual. Behavior can be affected through incentives based on compliance (e.g.,
policies, performance review, job security); motivation (e.g., bonuses, awards, recognition); and
engagement (e.g., sense of ownership, self-satisfaction, enjoyment). Compliance is least effective for
affecting behavior and engagement is most effective.
Relationships refer to promoting desired interactions within a group or community. Positive
relationships include: dialogue, trust, safety, equality of participants, and meritocracy of ideas. Negative
relationships include: debating, arguing, promoting an agenda, assuming superiority, majority voting, and
group think. Community dynamics can be guided through mutually agreed rules of conduct, group
norms, and fostering positive relationships.
Culture focuses on shared attitudes and beliefs, values and social norms, and goals and practices that
characterize an organization. Organizational culture is shaped by the organizational environment, the
nature of the domain, the size and nature of the organization, organizational history, and leadership.
Kotter (2002) identified eight steps that were necessary for changing an organization’s culture: sense of
urgency, guiding team, uplifting vision, communications, empowerment, short-term wins, persistence,
and nurturing. Desirable cultural attributes from a collaboration perspective include: diversity, flexibility,
freedom of expression, transparency, and learning.
3.2 Knowledge Transformation
Knowledge transformation changes knowledge inputs into knowledge outputs. The innate, tacit, and
explicit knowledge of individual participants is used to jointly create new community knowledge that is
transferred to the formal organization. This process depends on individuals voluntarily sharing what they
know, participating in community dialogues, and harvesting community knowledge. There are four steps
to knowledge transformation.
Voluntarism is participating in an activity from free will, choice, or consent without obligation or
expecting something in return. Ideally, people collaborate not because they are told to or expect to be
rewarded, but because they want to. Successful collaboration depends on candor, openness, honesty, and
ethical behavior among participants. This can be achieved through engagement, counseling, positive
feedback, and matching people to work that they enjoy doing.
Sharing is disseminating, making available, or providing access to content or knowledge. The extent of
sharing depends on motivating those with knowledge to make it available to others with the
understanding that once shared, it becomes community knowledge. Motivation includes: establishing
sharing goals, communicating sharing expectations, rewarding sharing, and discouraging hoarding.
Sharing also requires processes for capturing tacit knowledge by a community.
Dialogue is a conversation or free-flowing exchange of ideas and opinions among two or more people
without an intention of imposing one’s views on another. Dialogue requires trust and safety among
participants. It results in a meritocracy of ideas, equality of participation, a search for outliers, and
6
7. collective synergy. Dialogue requires mutually agreed rules of conduct and norms of behavior,
facilitation and guidance, positive relationships, and community support.
Harvesting is collecting, organizing, and transferring community knowledge into the organization as
validated, explicit knowledge. Harvesting combines activities of community champions (ensure highlevel support), sponsors (bridge between the community and the organization), leaders (subject-matter
expertise), and facilitator (communications, documents) who collectively transfer knowledge from
informal communities to the formal organization. They ensure that community outputs are brought to the
attention of the organization as proposals and recommendations.
3.3 Technological Support
Community dialogue predates civilization and the development of written language. On one hand,
technology can be seen as simply providing a 21st century enhancement that facilitates a quintessentially
human process. On the other hand, the need for speed, complexity of issues, diversity of expertise
required, and wide dispersion of collaborators, has made digital technology and the use of cyberspace an
essential element of collaboration in the knowledge society. There are five technological support
elements for collaboration.
Collaboration site is a web site that is used by members of a group or community to share existing
knowledge, present and discuss ideas, organize and manage work, and jointly create new knowledge.
Typical site functions include a document repository, discussion areas, a work space for jointly creating
content, a directory of expertise, and task management.
Accessibility is the extent to which content on a collaboration site can be acquired, delivered to, or
downloaded by participants. The site must be easily accessible to all members through a web browser
and a user-centric main page. Users may be limited to internal employees via an Intranet, but participants
often include people from outside the organization who access the site via the Internet. Although the
latter poses additional challenges for network and site security, access must remain easy for authorized
external users or they won’t participate. User training, help files, and a help desk facilitate use of the site
by participants.
Network is the communications technology that connects dispersed communities, organizations, or large
numbers of people, with common interdependencies, interests, or purpose. An internal site must be
connected to an intranet or organizational network. A site with external members must be connected to
the Internet.
Site security involves controlling access to a web site and its content; architecture and operating
procedures that minimize the risk of damage or loss of functionality; and redundancy that enables rapid
recovery of the site and its content. Security must balance the need for protection with ease of access and
use. Inadequate security poses a risk for an entire network while a site that is difficult to use won’t be.
Operations are activities, work, or functions associated with installing, running, maintaining, and
upgrading a collaboration site. It also includes life-cycle management of the site as well as planning for
and implementing recovery and business continuity in the event of damage, failure, or loss of content.
3.4 Organizational Work
Organizational work transforms outputs from collaboration into recommendations that inform
organizational decisions that lead to action. Organizational work involves three steps.
7
8.
Documentation adapts collaboration outputs to the organizational structure in preparation for
making recommendations to decision makers.
Storing documents and recommendations in a repository makes them available for sharing and
possible future reuse. As a precursor to decision making, it may also become part of the record of
decision.
Recommendations transfers collaboration outputs to the authoritative hierarchy for decision
making. When recommendations are approved, explicit knowledge becomes organizational
knowledge.
4. Negotiation
Negotiation is discussion or bargaining between two or more persons, groups, or organizations, with
mutual interests but conflicting goals, requiring compromise to reach an understanding, resolve
differences, produce an agreement, or satisfy various interests. A classic example is that of a buyer and
seller who want to do business (mutual interest) but the seller wants the highest price possible while the
buyer wants the lowest price possible. In the case of contracting, both parties benefit from reaching an
agreement but the contractor would like to do the least amount of work for the largest fee possible while
the organization would like just the opposite.
Unlike collaboration which emphasizes a partnership approach to creating knowledge, negotiation
emphasizes an adversarial approach to reaching an agreement. Recognizing the nature of this context at
the outset is critical to ultimate success because the two processes are very different. Voluntary sharing
of tacit knowledge is mostly absent in negotiation. Any information that provides a bargaining advantage
will most likely be withheld. In fact, some negotiating tactics are specifically intended to elicit
information from the opposite side without their being aware that they “let something slip.”
There is a body of literature relating to negotiation,
exemplified by Malhotra and Bazerman (2007), Fisher et.
al (2011) and Roeder and Simard (2013). The role of KM
in supporting negotiation focuses on producing situationspecific intelligence about the opposite party, and helping
to establish a negotiating position. At a strategic scale,
negotiation is a sequential linear process with a feedback
loop (Figure 4). There are three phases of negotiation:
preparation, bargaining, and organizational work.
4.1 Preparation
Like so much of life, the greater the preparation, the
greater the chance that negotiation will reach a good
agreement. The more that is known about the opposite
party, the better a negotiator can present their side of the
case and counter arguments made by the other side. The
less uncertainty there is about a situation and its associated facts the less the risk of being surprised during
negotiations. Preparation involves six steps.
Preliminary analysis determines whether a negotiation is desirable and likely to succeed. Since
significant effort, involving several individuals is likely to be needed to prepare for negotiating, it
is useful at the outset to conduct a preliminary analysis to support a request for approval to
proceed. This step is skipped when the need for negotiation is obvious or the process is likely to
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9.
be straightforward.
Recommendation involves summarizing the situation and the opposite party in a negotiation
along with a recommendation to proceed or not. It may also include recommendations to
collaborate with others in a joint negotiation or identify a potential competitive situation.
Determining goals and strategy establishes an overall approach for the negotiation. The goal
should specify intended outcomes as well as the nature of the agreement (e.g., MOU, contract,
letter). The strategic purpose of the negotiation (e.g., securing an agreement, or building a longterm relationship) is also specified.
Compiling involves finding, acquiring, and assembling content related to the organizational
context of the opposite party and about the situation or issue being negotiated. This typically
employs highly focused acquisition but should include as broad a range of content as feasible.
The latter minimizes the risk of surprise during the negotiation and reduces the level of
uncertainty. Compiling typically also involves conversations with people to elicit as much
information about the opposite party and the situation as possible.
Interpreting is construing or explaining the meaning and implications of content related to the
opposite party and the issue or situation to be negotiated to support a negotiating position. This
involves both analysis of relevant facts and synthesis of scattered bits and pieces of information
to reveal overall patterns.
Establishing a position determines the “Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement” which
identifies the action that could be taken if an agreement cannot be reached. Then, the “Zone of
Potential Agreement” is determined for both parties. The upper limit of the zone identifies the
most that you are willing to concede while the lower limit estimates the most that the opposite
party is likely to concede. The region between these two limits is the “negotiation space.”
4.2 Bargaining
Bargaining involves discussion, debate, and sometimes argument between two or more parties with the
intent of reaching a mutual agreement. Although fairness is desirable, particularly when a long-term
relationship with the opposite party is important, it is not necessary. Unlike sequential processes,
everything impinges on bargaining at the center of a hub-and-spoke set of two-way interactions.
Although there would be a tendency to test assumptions and maximize benefits earlier and counter
deception or emotions after they occur, any process can affect the course of the discussion at any time.
There are three steps to bargaining.
Bargaining is the core of negotiation. It is a quintessential human process of points made and
countered by both parties. Each party explores areas of uncertainty and tests assumptions about
their opposites through carefully-crafted questions. They also search for unknowns in their
understanding of the opposite party’s position. There are techniques intended to positively
influence the opposite party as well as for detecting and dealing with deception and unethical
behavior. There are tactics for countering emotional behavior or differences in the relative power
of the parties. Bargaining should be undertaken by a trained negotiator supported by a subjectmatter expert and a support staff. The negotiator should have immediate access to an analyst who
can quickly compile and interpret new information that is revealed during negotiation.
Revising the position involves returning to the preparation phase and very quickly (e.g., within
hours or overnight) repeating the steps used to develop the original position, using the new
information. This results in either a revised or unchanged negotiating position.
Conclusion involves drafting and signing the negotiated agreement by the negotiators.
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10. 4.3 Organizational Work
Organizational work transforms the negotiated agreement into an organizational decision.
Organizational work involves four stages.
After-Action Review is a structured process for evaluating what occurred during a negotiation,
why it occurred, and how it can be done better in the future. It is undertaken by those involved in
and responsible for the negotiation. The after-action review formalizes organizational learning.
Documentation involves writing and submitting a report of the after-action review of the
negotiation.
Storing negotiation documents, the agreement, and recommendations makes it available
for sharing and possible future reuse. As a precursor to decision making, it may also
become part of the record of decision.
Recommendation transfers the provisional agreement to the authoritative hierarchy for
decision making. When the agreement is approved, the embedded knowledge becomes
organizational knowledge.
5. Competition
Competition is part of life. Plants and animals compete for food, shelter, and survival in biological
ecosystems. Individuals, groups, and organizations compete for attention, resources, and dominance in
social systems. In the private sector, competition is for market share whereas in the public sector, it is for
dominance in the organization and the marketplace of ideas. There is a spectrum of competition, ranging
from sports, through business, to military. In the former, rules of engagement dominate interactions,
while they are important to business and nominal when military force is necessary. Although competition
is antithetical to knowledge management, it is perhaps the dominant reality faced by organizations. At the
same time, organizational learning and adaptation – key aspects of knowledge management – are driven
by the need to compete in markets. Consequently, if
knowledge management is to assume a comprehensive
role in organizations, it must provide organizational
value in competitive environments.
There is a body of literature on competitive intelligence
exemplified by Kahaner (1996), Martin (2002), and
Liebowitz (2006). Kahaner’s intelligence cycle was
adapted to the framework shown in Figure 5.
Competitive situations are often urgent, so that a rapid
response is critical to organizational success.
Competition begins by mobilizing knowledge about a
competitor. It is not normally possible to gather as much
content as necessary once a situation emerges, unless
potential competitors have been previously monitored
and dossiers compiled as is often done by security and
military organizations. However competitive content is
acquired, is essential to understand its limits and what
can be reasonably inferred from it. Transforming
mobilized content into recommended action is typically
accomplished through sports, business, security, or
military intelligence processes.
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11. Competition involves more effort than other forms of interaction for two reasons. First, competitive
action on the part of an organization will be countered by the competitor. Therefore, it is important to
consider possible counter measures and forecast the likely outcome of various actions. Second,
competition is an ongoing process that requires continuous monitoring of outcomes and adaptation of
organizational strategies and tactics. The only way that competition ends is with a victory by one party
and defeat of the other or a negotiated agreement or truce to stop competing. From a KM perspective,
competition is divided into three phases: decision, intelligence, and action.
5.1 Competitive Decisions
Competitive decision making is a parallel process. The path taken depends on how the process started –
management direction or identified need. In the former case, the objectives are determined by
management, followed by a plan, which begins the intelligence phase. In the latter case, the need for
intelligence is first identified, followed by planning to inform management of the proposed resource
requirements, the plan is submitted for approval, and if approved, it is executed
5.1.1 Management direction
Determining objectives is done collaboratively, based on experiences and approved by a person
with the authority to do so.
Planning develops and documents the methods, procedures, resource requirements, and work
schedules that will be used to accomplish the stated objectives.
5.1.2 Identified need
Identifying the need begins with monitoring activities, an event or situation, or a pattern detected
by ongoing intelligence operations.
Planning develops and documents the methods, procedures, resource requirements, and work
schedules that will be used to accomplish the stated objectives.
Recommendation submits a proposed intelligence activity to decision makers.
Approval grants or denies authority to proceed with a recommended intelligence activity.
5.2 Competitive Intelligence
Competitive intelligence acquires, organizes, analyses, and interprets content from external sources to
reveal underlying patterns about a situation, event, or issue. The existence of a competitor requires
greater reliance on “hidden” external content and forecasting outcomes based on anticipated competitor
responses to proposed actions. Further, competitive situations often involve short-term to urgent time
frames.
Thus, an analyst’s ability to correctly interpret incomplete content becomes paramount.
Competitive intelligence involves six steps.
Acquisition is searching for and finding content, accessing it, and transferring it to an
organizational repository.
Organizing involves classifying, categorizing, assigning, or sorting content into systematic
classes, categories, or structure, using standard classification criteria.
Analysis uses quantitative or qualitative methods to estimate the consequences of events or trends
in individual components of large and/or complex issues or systems.
Synthesis uses systems analysis techniques and synthesis applications to integrate individual
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12.
components into a whole and study their combined behavior.
Identifying actions involves selecting a set of possible competitive actions.
Response uses quantitative or qualitative methods to estimate potential competitor responses to
and the likely impacts of each action
5.3 Competitive Action
Competition, whether in sports, business, or combat, involves more than finding an initial solution and
implementing it. Taking action is the first step of an ongoing process that is intended toy end in victory
of one side over the other. Alternatively, competition can end in a tie, stalemate, or truce, in which both
sides agree to stop. Although competition is a primary way of increasing an individual’s stature, growing
a group, or increasing an organizations market share, the decision to do so involves considerable
uncertainty and risk. Each move made by one side will be countered by the other and although
countermoves and their impacts can be anticipated, they cannot be known in advance.
Competition is the primary driver of organizational learning and adaptation – essential precursors to
organizational sustainability. The more dynamic the organizational environment, the more critical it is for
an organization to be able to rapidly learn and adapt. Consequently, the more important it is for KM to
support competitive actions. Competition involves eight steps.
Documentation captures the results of the intelligence analysis, scenarios considered, and
expected responses from competitors.
Storing the intelligence analysis, report, and recommendations makes them available for
sharing and possible future reuse. As a precursor to approval, it may also become part of
the record of decision.
Recommendation submits a proposed competitive action to decision makers.
Authorizing gives authority accountability, responsibility, and resources to proceed with a
competitive action.
Monitoring tracks competitor responses to organizational actions as well as their effects.
Evaluating is assessing criteria and indicators of the effects of competitive action to determine its
relative success.
Learning is increasing awareness, knowledge, or skill through competitive experience.
Adapting is modifying competitive activities based on evaluating and learning from prior
activities.
6. Conclusions
Knowledge management traditionally supports sharing and collaboration – work that takes place within a
domain of compatible goals. A four-quadrant social interaction framework extends knowledge
management to a domain of conflicting goals associated with negotiation and competition. It is proposed
that the latter are equally, if not more, important to organizational success than the former.
Social interactions must be classified in the proper quadrant because the purpose of each quadrant is
different, the work varies considerably, and different configurations of knowledge services are required
for support. Using the social interaction framework should increase the contribution of knowledge
management to the productivity of organizational knowledge work.
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