This document provides information about the geology of the Siwalik region in Bagmati-Gosainkund, Nepal. It describes the general geology, lithostratigraphy, lithofacies, structure, and conclusions. The Siwalik sequence is intensely folded and faulted. It is divided into four formations from oldest to youngest: Rapti Formation, Amlekhgunj Formation, Churia Khola Formation, and Churia Mai Formation. Seven lithofacies are identified, deposited under different fluvial environments including meandering, braided, and sandy river systems. Several thrust faults are also described, including the Kokhajor Thrust and Basan Thrust. In conclusion, the basement
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GeoCongress 2023 - Classifcation of Rooikoppie Gravels: Wouterspan Case StudyRichard Graeme Horn
T
he Wouterspan project property is located along the north bank of the
Middle Orange River, between Douglas and Prieska in the Northern Cape
Province of South Africa (figure 1), which area has been the site of intense
alluvial diamond activity since the 19 th century. The bedrock of the Orange
River valley between the confluence of the Vaal and Orange Rivers at
Douglas and Prieska is dominated by flat lying Dwyka tillite and siltstone of
the Karoo Supergroup. Underlying the Dwyka are lavas of the Ventersdorp
Supergroup, which are overlain (in places) by sediments of the Griqualand
West Supergroup, comprising shales, quartzites and dolomites. The
bedrock is cut by faults and dolerite dykes, which are rarely exposed.
The Wouterspan deposit comprises an extensive flat lying alluvial sequence,
on which a number of terraces have been identified (figure 2). The majority
of the alluvial diamonds found in gravel deposits along all of the middle
Orange River terraces are, typically, found in two distinct gravel horizons.
These comprise an upper, deflation deposit (locally known as Rooikoppie
gravels) overlying fluvial alluvial units, often known as Primary Alluvial
Gravels. Both deposit types have been seen to be developed extensively
on Wouterspan.
W
hile being ubiquitously worked along the both the Vaal and Orange
Rivers for over one hundred years (Marshall et al ., 2009; 2017), the
Rooikoppie Deflation Gravels have received significantly less scientific and
economic investigation than the kimberlites and diamondiferous alluvial
gravels located within the same environs.
A classification tool was created and applied to surface mapping and
exploration pitting on the Wouterspan Diamond Project . The aims of the
classification were to:
1.
Develop an effective tool that can describe and
categorise different types
of deflation gravel based on clast size
2.
Compare and then determine if there is a relationship between the
deflation gravel and the underlying geology
With the geological relationship established, the classification tool, when
used in conjunction with associated geological and geomorphic studies will
provide a better understanding of post depositional events while being
able to be generate targets for bulk sampling.
O
n Wouterspan, both colluvial and eluvial Rooikoppie gravels (figure 3)
were identified. The colluvial variety is a fine gravel lying directly on top of
calcreted tillite. The implication of this is that the gravels have been derived
from terraces higher up the slope. As a result, this Rooikoppie gravel unit
might be expected to have inherited more than one diamond population.
The
top few metres of each of the older channel have been variably
calcretised and are, in turn, covered by thin Rooikoppie gravels. Surface
mapping and pitting indicate that:
•
A coarse (Cobble dominant) Rooikoppie (figure 5) generally overlies the
older channels.
•
Finer (Pebble dominant) Rooikoppie is found to occur over the
younger channel, as
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W
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A classification tool was created and applied to surface mapping and
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Develop an effective tool that can describe and
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With the geological relationship established, the classification tool, when
used in conjunction with associated geological and geomorphic studies will
provide a better understanding of post depositional events while being
able to be generate targets for bulk sampling.
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n Wouterspan, both colluvial and eluvial Rooikoppie gravels (figure 3)
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2. General Geology of the Region
• The Siwalik sequence in the area recurs several times as it is intensely
folded and dislocated by many imbricate thrusts.
• A greater part in covered by Upper Siwaliks and the late Pleistocene-
Holocene alluvial deposits of Narayani and Budhi Rapti rivers.
• Also, Both the Lesser and the Higher Himalayan successions override
the inner Siwalik belt.
4. Lithostratigraphy
• The widely accepted 3-fold classifications is not that much applicable
in this region so, Sah et al. (1994) divided the Siwaliks into Rapti
formation, Amlekhgunj Formation, Churia Khola Formation and
Churia Mai Formation following a coarsening upward sequence.
• Rapti Formation (Lower Siwaliks): Consist of a cyclic interbedding of
variegated mudstone and green gray to brown sandstone. In the inner
belt, the Lower Siwaliks making up the hanging walls of the Kokhajor
Thrust and the Bastipur Thrust are comprised of relatively soft,
medium to fine grained, red-purple mudstone and sandstones.
• Amlekhgunj Formation(Middle Siwaliks): Consist of 20-30 m thick
cyclic alternation of very coarse to coarse-grained pepper-and-salt
colored sandstones passing into gray to dark gary mudstones. In the
Kokhajor Khola, the pepper-and-salt sandstones consist of detrital
muscovite, biotite, feldspar, and quartz. The extremely thick (more
than 25 m) Middle Siwalik sandstones are cross-laminated, frequently
pebbly, and sometimes calcareous.
5. Continued…
• Churia Khola Formation(Upper Siwalik conglomerates): In the inner
belt of the Kohajor Khola, the Upper Siwaliks comprises mainly soft
but sometimes well-cemented and hard (near Bhokteni), pebble,
cooble to boulder-conglomerates interbedded mainly with pebbly
sandstones.North of Bhokteni, there are extremely thick(2-10 m and
more), gray, cobble and pebble-conglomerates, which are strongly
clast-supported and well cemented. The conglomerate cliff on the right
bank of the Kokhajor Khola is about 25 m high and extends for 100 m
along the river course.
• Churia Mai Formation(Upper Siwalik boulderbeds): Exposed at
Devitar contain a 1-7 m thick conglomerate beds, composed
exclusively of subangular to subrounded pebbles derived from red-
purple and brown as well as dark green, fine-to very fine-grained,
quartzose sandstone or quartz arenite.Holocene alluvial deposits are
widespread in the region.
6. Figure 2:Geological map of the Kokhajor Khola depicting the discontinuous Lesser Himalaya Belt between Higher
Himalyan crystallines and Siwaliks; Geology of Nepal Himalaya, Megh Raj Dhital
7. Lithofacies
• Facies 1 :This facies consist of very fine-grained sandstone,pigmented
and bioturbated mudstones,containing calcareous nodules and
paleosols . Deposited by a meandering river.
• Facies 2:This facies consist of medium to coarse grained, light gray
sandstones interstratified with mottled mudstones. The sandstones
contain climbing ripple laminae. Deposited by a flood flow –
dominated meandering river system.
• Facies 3:This facies consist of medium to coarse grained sandstones,
fine-grained muddy sandstones, and gray mudstones. Also some
variegated mudstones. Deposited by a sandy meandering river system.
• Facies 4:This facies consist of coarse to very coarse grained, very
thick(up to 25 m) bedded sandstones with trough cross- stratification.
Frequently pebbly and grade upwards to gray mudstones. Deposited
by a deep sandy braided river system.
8. Continued…
• Facies 5:This facies consist of planar lamination, ripple lamination and
less pronounced fining- upwards cycles. Deposited by a shallow sandy
braided river system.
• Facies 6:This facies consist of well-sorted pebble to cobble-
conglomerates interbedded with yellow-brown sandstone lenses and
gray mudstones beds. Deposited by a gravelly braided river system.
• Facies 7:This facies consist of poorly sorted boulder-conglomerates
and well sorted pebble- conglomerates with a subordinate amount of
gray sandstone and mudstone. Deposited by a braided river system.
9. Photograph no.1:Lower Siwalik beds,exhibiting mottled
colors and bioturbated structures. Source: Geology of
Nepal Himalaya, Megh Raj Dhital
Photograph no.2:Large trough and cross-stratification in
the pepper-and-salt sandstone. Source: Geology of Nepal
Himalaya, Megh Raj Dhital
10. Photograph no.4:Sandballs (calcareous concretion) in the
sandstone of the Middle Siwaliks. Source: Geology of Nepal
Himalaya, Megh Raj Dhital
Photograph no.3:Planar cross-Lamination in the pepper-and-
salt sandstone of the Middle Siwaliks. Source: Geology of
Nepal Himalaya, Megh Raj Dhital
11. Photograph no.5:Granular to pebbly sandstone exposed
towards the upper part of the Middle Siwaliks. Source:
Geology of Nepal Himalaya, Megh Raj Dhital
Photograph no.6:Scoured and cross-Laminated grey
sandstone bedfollowed by channel deposits (conglomerate)
in the Middle Siwaliks. Source: Geology of Nepal Himalaya,
Megh Raj Dhital
12. Structure
• The Kokhajor Thrust has brought the Lower Siwaliks over the Upper
Siwaliks.
• The Basan Thrust passes north of the Chauda Khola, crosses the
Bagmati River, and follows the right bank of the Marin Khola.
• The Marin Thrust enters this region from west of Phaparbari, runs
through the Chauda Khola, goes over the Bagmati River, and then
follows the lower reach of the Marin Khola.
• Many blind thrusts are also detected in the outer Siwalik belt.
• The Bakaiya anticline(Pradhan et al.2002) extends beyond the
Bagmati River, and farther east in the Koshi region.
13. Figure 3:Emergent and blind thrusts in the Siwaliks and Terai of the Hetaunda area. Source Modified from Friedenreich et al. (1
14. Conclusion
• The degree to which basement rock have been faulted, folded, or
flexed in some foreland zone is in mark contrast to more rigid
behavior.
• The eroded core of the frontal anticline is interrupted by a horizontal
alluvial terrace of Bagmati River.
• In the upper reaches of the Kokhajor Khola, the Lesser Himalayan
rocks form a few 100m wide strip where the mainly the Benighat slate
of the Nawakot Complex crop out.
