Signs, advertising and the imageability of buildings

1. Pergamon
HABITAT INTL. Vol.21, No. 2, pp. 255-267, 1997
© 1997ElsevierScience Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
0197-3975/97 $17.00 + 0.00
PII: SO197-3975(96)00031-8
Signs, Advertising and the
Imageability of Buildings: A
Perceptual Selection in the View from
the Street in Amman, Jordan
TAWFIQ M. ABU-GHAZZEH
King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
ABSTRACT
The primary function of signs is to index the environment, i.e. tell people where they
can find what. Their function, therefore, is to serve communication along streets.
Signs on buildings, when left unchecked, have a propensity to move toward visual
pollution of the cityscape. There is a need for research to investigate how to provide
people with information that will foster environmental learning and at the same
time protect the image of the buildings on which signs are mounted.
This paper investigates the use of signs on the facades of buildings in Amman,
the capital of Jordan. Environmental cognition research is compiled into a frame-
work that permits a learning strategy to evolve at a conceptual level and protect the
inherent imageability of buildings.
Signage criteria are suggested with an eye to developing sign displays that aid in
way-finding and that are compatible with existing architectural character, creating
harmony in the built environment. © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
INTRODUCTION
Through the process of perception we create a sense of place, i.e. a relationship
within a specific context. The character of the cityscape along with the design of its
buildings in many ways 'creates' a human experience. Through those experiences
and perceptions we make up, in ourselves, an image of the urban environment. That
image is the mental essence of people, landscape, buildings and open spaces. If a
place is memorable, it is because it carries perceptual attributes such as clarity, dif-
ferentiation, uniqueness, structure and form. Appleyard has called this imageability.
This paper discusses the functional and perceptual characteristics of signs and
how they affect the image of commercial streets in Amman, particularly in the
downtown area. It explores the way in which signs are displayed on facades and how
they change the images of buildings, as well as the potential contribution of signs to
easy and pleasant communication between people and their environment. There are
important perceptual considerations that need to be respected in the use of signs
and the way they are displayed. They need to be legible, expressive and visually
enhancing to the character of the place.
Correspondence to. College of Architecture and Planning, King Saud University, EO. Box 57448, Riyadh 11574,
Saudi Arabia (Note: the proof of this article was proof-read by the editor).
255

2. 256 TawfiqM.Abu-Ghazzeh
By way of definition, a 'sign' is used to designate an activity (name, address, social
reason, brand, symbol, emblem, etc.) which takes place in the building on which it
is installed. An 'advertising sign', on the other hand, is a sign that indicates specific
products or brands available. This includes symbols and letters that appear on signs,
billboards, banners, store fronts, canopies, and all other stationary visual media
placed on building facades. In this paper the term 'signs' is generally used to refer to
both signs and advertising signs, since both are used to index the environment and
both equally affect the cityscape.
Individual shop owners, as well as institutions, require the freedom to express
their personalities and purposes. This needs to happen within a framework of offi-
cial guidelines that will ensure that these expressions are compatible with the sur-
rounding area, appropriate to the activities indicated and clearly readable in the
circumstances in which they are seen.
Critical attention is focused in this research on the findings of various psycholo-
gists. Their arguments provide insights into how humans 'process' visual informa-
tion, what their information limitations are, and the effects of data overload when
too many signs attempt to say too much.
THE CASE STUDY
Perceptual characteristics of signs and buildingfacades
This study was undertaken in the commercial streets of Amman, Jordan, with
emphasis on streets in the central business district (CBD) crowded with pedestrians.
In order to determine the functional and perceptual characteristics of signs in
Amman, the main commercial spine in the downtown area (Fig. 1) was surveyed by
walking and stopping in front of each building on either side of the street and
recording what was found. Also documented was the use of signs along the facades
of two recently developed commercial districts located away from the CBD: one was
the main commercial spine in Jabal A1-Husein; the other was the A1-Gardens com-
mercial spine, Wasfi A1-Tal Street. A separate form was used to record data for each
building along the streets surveyed. Information collected included: the character of
the building; the activities housed inside the building; the location (floor level) of
the sign posted on the building elevation; and the sign's size, height, projection, type
of illumination, colour, type-face and general shape. Some 30 pieces of data were
collected for each building that had commercial signs attached to its elevation. An
analysis of the physical data recorded is given in Table 1.
The figures included in this paper were selected from over 700 photographs taken
by the author over the past year in an ongoing attempt to understand the effects of
signs on the architecture of buildings in Amman and on the perception from the
street. One of this paper's objectives is to encourage cities and towns with similar
conditions to investigate the use of appropriate sign and graphic control systems.
In addition, informal, unstructured, random interviews were conducted by the
author with both men and women of varying ages and backgrounds. People were
stopped on the street and casually questioned about how they go about finding an
unfamiliar place they are looking for. They were also asked about the extent to
which signs in Amman help them to find their way.
Signs and the imageability of buildings
As seen in Table 1, stone is the main building material used in Amman, giving a look
of unity and harmony to the architecture. Designing and detailing the elevations of
stone buildings in Jordan is not only functional; it can also be described as a pur-
poseful act of ornamentation. The art of stone building construction in Amman

3. I
I
i
KingHusseinStreet
Signs and Advertising on Buildings
I
257
THECOMMERCIALCENTRE "
I t-q
King Feisel Street
JABAL AMIAN
KingTalal Street ~
Quraish Street
JABALAL
I
IHRAFIYAH i
PREDOMINANTUSE
m RstJi ~ Wholesale
s,rvl©,s lm z,ti,s ~-c,,
M AI-HussalniMosque
J • Workshops I Offices
Fig. 1. Plan of downtown Amman. Dotted line indicates the main commercial spine. (This plan drawing and all
photographs included in thispaper are by the author).
plays an important role in enhancing the visual efficiency of buildings and articu-
lating their meaning; as such, it fulfils aesthetic and social functions. It is impossible
to draw a clear line between the necessary forms of stone building elevations and
their ornamentation. Table 1 shows that the architectural qualities of a number of
buildings that house goods and service facilities suffer as a result of inappropriate
sign design and chaotic sign display. For example, the configuration of a window, its
proportions, and the articulation of its components and details are essential to the
performance of its primary functions (Figs 2, 3 and 4). In that sense, ornament
underlies all architectural forms of stone buildings in Amman and cannot be over-
looked or isolated.
The nature of stone ornaments in building elevations is especially meaningful
where goods and services are housed, because they are a means of personalising and
identifying a building. These elevations form an expressive system related to social
and cultural codes within which collective and individual communicative art can be
articulated.

4. Table1.AnanalysisofthephysicaldatarecordedinAmman
DatabasedementsCharacteristicPercentageNotes
BuildingappearanceExcellent10--recentlybuilt(<10-yearsold)
Verygood40
Good45
Poor5
•MaterialusedinbuildingconstructionStone90--MainbuildingmaterialinJordan
Marblecladding6
Curtainwalling4
t,o
Signsperbuilding
•Averagenumberattachedtoeachbuilding18
Basicdesignelements
•Flatagainstwalls--58
•Projectingfrombuildingsatanglesofapproximately90°--30
•Onroof:belowpeak--6
abovepeak--3
Size
Height
<1.5m252
0.6-1.0m230
<0.6m26
>1.5m212
<5m30
5mto<7m45
7-15m10
>15m10
DesignPoorcombination13
Toomany4
•UseofcolourWeak6
Toovivid2
•TypefaceToomanycombinations15
NovarietyI
Illegible3
TooboldI
--Rangingfrom12signsonlow-risebuilding(twofloors)to36signsonmedium-rise
buildings(sixfloors)(seeFigs.2and3)
(SeeFig.2)
--Projecting>30cmfromthebuildingonwhichtheyweredisplayed(seeFig.2)
--Thehighpercentageofsignsplacedfiatandprojecting,particularlyindowntown
Amman,isattributabletothefactthatmostofdowntowncommercialactivitiestake
placeinretailspaceslocatedinthegroundfloorofbuildings(Fig.4).
--Inmostcases,signsweretoosmallandtooclutteredwithinformation(sometimes
usingtwolanguages:ArabicandEnglish)tobeeitherattractiveorthoroughly
readableexceptfromaveryclosedistance,about6-8m(seeFig.2).
Heightmeasueredfromthegroundtothetopofthedisplay
--Ineachbuildingsurveyedindividualsignswereevaluatedonthebasisofdesign
defectsandthepercentageofallgraphicsfoundtobesufferingfromthesedefects
Table1--Continuedopposite

5. Table1--Continued
Databaseelements
•Size
•Shape
•Lighting
•Location
•Mechanicalmovement
Illumination
•Notilluminated
•Illuminated
Maintenance
CharacteristicPercentageNotes
Toobig18
Toosmall3
Tooirregular5
Glaring2
Weak4
Toobright1
Toolow6
Toohigh12
Tooclose2
Toodistantfrom1
Inappropriate1
Total100
42
Internalfrom
concealedsources12
--About85%ofallsignssurveyedwerefoundtobeincompatiblewiththearchitecture
characterofthebuildingelevationonwhichtheyweredisplayed
--Acarefuluseofcolourlighting,andmaterialsinsignfabricationwasnoticedto
contributetoquickandeasycommunicationoftheinformationspelledoutbythe
writingandsymbolsonthesign
Neontubing28
UnconcealedfloodI0
Litindirectly5--(Withbacklightingorusedluminouspaint)
Flashingor
movinglights
Wellmaintained
Infaircondition
3
45
30
--OnthewholecommercialsignmaintainanceinAmmanislessthansatisfactoryand
therearemanysignsthatneedtobereplacedorrefurbished
Poorcondition15
Unsightly10
w
c~
I,o

6. 260 Tawfiq M. Abu-Ghazzeh
SIGN DISPLAY AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEEING
According to the psychologist George A. Miller, humans possess a rather small
capacity for making unidimensional judgements about the information they receive
through the operation of human senses. ~ He explains that this capacity does not
vary a great deal from one sensory attribute to another (hearing, sight, etc.). The
number of pieces of information observed by the human being determines what one
can see and remember. This can be quite different for different people given the
same message, depending on the observer's previous experience.
In Amman, information overload typifies sign display. Although it varies with
location, traffic conditions, stress, time of day, weather, legibility and graphic
design, the viewer is constantly confronted with more items than the eye can readily
see and more data than the mind can readily process. The most chaotic and least-
changing aspect of downtown Amman today is the clutter and visual confusion
created by the overuse and poor placement of signs (see Figs 2 and 3). This opinion
was shared by many people in the street, who admitted that they usually found their
way by asking directions verbally. Most found the signs on the buildings to be less
than helpful.
In one spine of central Amman, extending from King Hussein to King Faisal and
to King Talal Streets (see Fig. 1, north to south) there is approximately one item of
information every 0.6 m. Consider that the average person sitting in a chair with a
book can read about 200 words per minute; then imagine that same person walking
or driving in the streets of downtown Amman, fixing his/her eye on various moving
points, focusing, reading, watching the crowd and the street proper. It is very fatigu-
ing and impossible to manage, calling for an effort to read signs only partially or not
at all while attempting to find his/her way.
Streets in downtown Amman are characterised over the course of the day by slow
traffic speeds, narrow rights-of-way and sidewalks and large volumes of pedestrian
traffic. They are lined on both sides with buildings whose articulated stone facades
Fig. 2. Sign display in downtown Amman is characterised by clutter and visual confusion created by overuse and poor
placement.

7. Signs and Advertising on Buildings 261
Fig. 3. Man), signs are incompatible with the architecture ~?fthe buildings on which the), are placed
are loaded down with protruding signboards. The quality of the Amman cityscape
depends on the visibility of buildings. The narrower the sidewalk and street proper,
the more likely it is that the protruding signboard will obscure the building front
elevation (see Fig. 2). Since the pedestrian's viewpoint is very close to a building and
at a position parallel to its front elevation, very little of the building enters the field
of vision.
Research findings have shown that, as the number of different items in the visual
display increases, the effective size of the visual field decreases, and is decreased
even further at moments of stress.2 Likewise, too many signs, traffic control lights,
flashing signals, brake lights, plus vehicular and pedestrian traffic overload drivers'
psychophysiological abilities -- possibly leading to accidents.3
What does all this mean as far as signs are concerned? Without attempting to
extrapolate quantitatively from laboratory to streetside, these studies make clear the
underlying limitations of signs and the uneasy sense of clutter and overload of
unexpected messages mixed with expected messages from signs observed along the
street elevations of commercial spines in Amman.

8. 262 TawfiqM. Abu-Ghazzeh
|
Fig. 4 The visual efficiency of a number of buildings that house goods and service facilities suffers as a result of
chaotic sign display.
A powerful argument for the increased use of symbols in commercial signs and
advertisements comes from another psychologist, Ralph Norman Haber, who
has shown that visual perception is as much concerned with remembering what
one has seen as with the act of seeing itself.4 His findings suggest that there is one
kind of memory for pictorial material and another totally different kind of
memory for linguistic material, and that the capacity to remember images may be
unlimited.
Avoiding overload
Mackworth conducted a study to test the effect of visual pollution on performance
and found that when there is too much information (see Fig. 2), the useful field of
view contracts to prevent overloading the visual system,s Thus, it was concluded
that visual pollution results in temporary tunnel vision. Mackworth's findings seem
to suggest a significant ramification for the signage medium. Environmental psy-
chologists Stephen and Rachel Kaplan have explained: "... humans take in only a
small portion of the stimulation impinging on them at any one time...,.6
Another argument in favour of simplifying the signage system concerns how peo-
ple avoid overload. Lynch and Rivkin contend that "... the individual must per-
ceive his environment as an ordered pattern, and is constantly trying to inject order
into his surroundings". 7 Downs and Stea have explained that one comes to know
the environment through ajarocess of reduction and simplification that cuts, down
the likelihood of overload. ° Rapoport agreed by stating that people strive '... to
reduce information and to make a basically chaotic environment.., manageable".9
The implication is that people simplify their environment by screening out extrane-
ous information. This could be counterproductive, as the purpose of the signage
medium is to provide information and foster understanding of the location of
goods and services.

9. Signs and Advertising on Buildings 263
TOWARDS AN ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING STRATEGY
In keeping with the literature on overload and visual clutter, minimal information
details should be included in any given sign. Visual variables that facilitate environ-
mental learning include identification, differentiation and distinctiveness. These
factors should be emphasised and need to be interrelated conceptually and in terms
of their pattern of occurrence along the building elevation, street elevation, locality
or zone in which they are displayed. By emphasising the perceptual variables of signs,
while respecting the architectural character of the building elevation on which they are
mounted, environmental information can be presented in a manner conducive to envi-
ronmental learning.
Signs represent the most common 'way-finding' aids to the location of goods and
services in urban settings. The rationale for noting sign differentiation in an envi-
ronmental learning strategy stems from the manner in which proprietors organise
information. Dejonge has explained that distinctive parts of the signage informa-
tion system, if properly arranged, serve to evoke a mental image of the locality in
which they are displayed. ~° Carr has noted that one of the ways in which a city
could foster the formulation of an image would be to enhance the commonalities of
city elements, both functional and aesthetic. 11Passini also stated that way-finding is
facilitated if signs are readily and accurately perceived. 12
An environmental learning strategy begins with the use of a proper medium of
identification (i.e. signs and advertising signs) so as to portray the richness of a
building that may later be identified or recognised by the viewer.
Dixon, 13 Grey ~4and Ciolekis have found that, in response to losing their way,
people become angry, hostile and indignant. Such feelings actually hinder way-
finding as they distract from environmental cues that could help resolve the prob-
lem. Way-finding, particularly in crowded pedestrian streets, is facilitated by
visually distinctive signs. People also acquire knowledge concerning the location of
various goods and services as they move through the environment. Education about
the 'whatness' and 'whereness' of goods and services is essential in facilitating spa-
tial orientation. Signs help people to recognise places and objects and to locate them
in space.
The ability of humans to recognise the locations of goods and services is sup-
ported by two components of a mental image: identity and structure. 16 Protecting
the architectural character of buildings is, therefore, important in helping people to
find their way in the city. It has been shown that people are able to find their way
through the physical environment by utilising information concerning identification
and location.
Businessmen, as the primary generators of signs, need to tell people what distinc-
tive goods and services they provide, and where. Citizens with a sensitive eye to the
architectural character of Amman are concerned about the manner in which busi-
nessmen display their signs. Whose interest should prevail? On what basis?
Cross-cultural studies of advertising rules and regulations explain that advertis-
ing should be an expression of good architectural taste and skilled design and
should harmonise with the surroundings. For example, discussed in more detail
later in this paper is a new residential/commercial/business development in the city
of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, where a sign control system has been successful in achiev-
ing just such harmony. And in Zurich, Switzerland, announcements of all kinds
posted on public and private property must, intrinsically and also in relation to their
environment or to the buildings on which they are mounted, possess a satisfactory
aesthetic effect as regards their colour, design and dimensions.
Contrary to this is the present sign-display practice in Amman (see Table 1),
among other cities in Jordan. An advertisement is in keeping with good architec-
tural taste only if it does not offend the observer's aesthetic sense of design, form,
proportion, colour, material, surface treatment and position.

10. 264 rawliq M. Abu-Ghazzeh
There is a need to introduce a system of reasonable design standards for signs in
Jordan that are not arbitrary in their application to any one proprietor or classifica-
tion of commercial facility or service, which will help clear visual pollution from the
street environment. This sign-control system needs to recognise the load of infor-
mation that is poured into the environment as a major contributor to that pollution.
THE NEED FOR SIGNAGE DISPLAY CRITERIA
The city of Amman requires signage criteria that aim to make sign display compat-
ible with quality in architecture and the townscape. Important factors -- building
materials and forms, types of buildings and their use, the character of the neigh-
bourhood and the urban context -- should be recognised. Signs have an obvious
impact on the character and visual quality of their surroundings. As an all-too-
prominent part of the built environment in Amman, signs tend to repel the viewing
public and detract from the aesthetics of buildings where they could be advancing
the cause of harmony. A proposed list of the objectives that need to be addressed in
any suggested signage display criteria would include, but not necessarily be limited
to, the following.
(1) Signage should be restrained in character and of minimum dimensions
required for adequate identification.
(2) Signage should be harmonious with the physical properties (materials, col-
our and texture) of a building.
(3) Signage ought to complement the character of the commercial corridor.
There should be harmony in mounting, lighting and location of signs along
building elevations. Premises which have no direct access (vehicular or
pedestrian) to the main roads may not be permitted to advertise on the main
road. This will decrease the number of signs displayed along the street eleva-
tion and reduce the area of building elevation covered by signs.
(4) Signs along streets located in commercial land-use zones need to be permit-
ted to promote a neighbourhood identity as a marketplace. In other words,
tenants should have an opportunity for self-expression. Signage which cre-
ates an atmosphere conducive to shopping through the use of a variety of
colours, forms and designs should be encouraged. This needs to happen
without creating visual clutter or contradicting the character or design of
individual buildings on which signs are displayed.
(5) Commercial signs displayed along or adjacent to buildings or historic sites
ought to complement the character of the place. There should be stricter
conformity in mounting, lighting and location at such sites.
(6) All signage should be located entirely within property boundaries or
mounted flush to walls, fences, or gates located at lot lines.
(7) All signs ought to be consistent with the highest graphic and construction
standards.
The design of signs and their display ought to be in keeping with the scale and char-
acter of the building and its design components (i.e. openings; exposed structural
elements such as columns; projected elements such as balconies, cornices and awn-
ings; etc.), block of buildings, or development project to which they relate. Signs
need to be co-ordinated within each development with respect to dimensions, pro-
portions, colours and spacing. Freestanding signs should be designed to co-ordinate
with the total landscaping scheme of the project, street or area. ~7 The image of
Amman and the imageability of its buildings will benefit from sign design kept as
simple as possible.

11. Signs and Advertising on Buildings 265
A modelfor signage regulation
In 1988 Saudi Arabia's High Commission for the Development of Ar-Riyadh intro-
duced regulations to control sign display in the capital city's new Diplomatic Quar-
ter (DQ), where diplomatic missions and their living quarters, as well as commercial
and recreational facilities, are located.~a Since the enforcement of these regulations,
sign display has proved to be harmonious with the surroundings.
There is a system of sign categorisation, differentiating between residential and
commercial properties; the sign regulation system defines that the total area of the
sign displayed on a multi-occupant building shall not exceed 5 m2 or 5% of the
building facade, whichever is smaller; and the system allows only one sign per street
frontage per occupant (i.e. business establishment). This has the function of
decreasing the number of signs displayed on each building, which in turn has served
to prevent visual clutter (Fig. 5).
This sign regulation system in the DQ also defines the minimum height (2.4 m) of
signs above grade level. Signage shall not extend below the highest point of any
architectural feature of the building elevation such as a doorway, window or deco-
rative archway. And interference with pedestrian movement is not permitted.
The sign regulation system introduced in the Diplomatic Quarter in Riyadh has
resulted in clear, easy-to-read, directive signage that enhances rather than clutters
the environment. It could serve as an example of controlling sign display in other
areas.
IMPLICATIONS
The basic function of all signs is to communicate a message to the observer for the
puIpose of indexing the environment in such a way that suppliers of goods and
services and their prospective customers can locate one another. When the environ-
ment becomes overloaded with signage, the cumulative effect is negative: the viewer
....ili
Fig. 5. View of signage on a commercial building in the Diplomatic Quarter of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Enforcement of
sign regulations prevents visual clutter and protects imag'eability

12. 266 Ta~fiq M. Abu-Ghazzeh
actually sees less, not more. There is a need to introduce a sign-display system in
Jordan that would organise all means of visual communication seen from a public
right-of-way, aiming at alleviating and avoiding the negative impact and at the same
time reducing the costs of erecting the confused and uneconomical advertising signs
now designed to 'out shout' one another. It is a matter of function, amenity and
aesthetics. 19
Understanding what environmental information is needed to help one to formu-
late a mental image and how to present it has vast implications for the design of sig-
nage systems. It is also necessary to protect the architectural character of the city.
Applying environmental control measures on sign display is expected to modify the
goal of many sign systems from merely leading a patron to a desired location, to
helping one find a location by formulating a mental image. Utilising environmental
learning theories enriches the means by which one wayfinds: it emphasises image
development.
More research is needed to learn how little and what kinds of environmental
information are needed to foster mental-image development; this could have practi-
cal and theoretical significance. Practically, such research could increase the appli-
cation of environmental learning strategies, because they could become easier,
quicker and less expensive to produce. Theoretically, such research could lead to a
better understanding of what environmental information is crucial to quickly and
efficiently developing a mental image. This could, in turn, lead to design involve-
ment in detailing building elevations on which signage information is displayed --
another practical connection.
In closing, one last implication of this body of knowledge concerning the subject
of sign display seems pertinent. An increased awareness of environmental learning
-- why it is important, how it occurs, and how to improve it and foster it --- may
suggest an expanded role for both the architect and the graph.;c designer. Important
as it is, it may not be enough to design buildings that are aesthetically pleasing.
Designers may also need to devise environmental learning packages to help people
discover their environment. Failure to do so is perhaps an unwitting continuation of
the environmental pollution stance so long rejected.
NOTES
I. G.A. Miller, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity lbr Processing
Information". The Psychological Review 63, 2 (March 1956), pp. 81-97.
2. A.S. Gilinski, "Perceived Size and Distance in Visual Space", Psychological Review 58 (1951), pp. 460-482.
N. H. Mackworth, "Visual Noise Causes Tunnel Vision", in R. N. Haber (ed.), Cgntemporary Theory and
Research in Visual Perception (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1968); R. N. Haber, "How We
Remember What We See", Scientific American (May 1970), pp. 104-112; E. E. Lozano, "Visual Needs in the
Urban Environment", Town Planning Review 45, 4 (1974), pp. 351-374: and A. Rapoport, "Culture and the
Subjective Effects of Stress", Urban Ecology 3, 3 (1978), pp. 341-361.
3. P. L. Connolly, "Visual Considerations: Man, the Vehicle and the Highway", Highway Research News 30
(1968), pp. 71-74. E. L. Thomas, "Movement of the Eye", Scientific American, (August 1968), pp. 88-95; S.
Carr, City Signs and Lights." A Policy Study (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1973), and J. Russell and J.
Snodgrass, "Emotion and the Environment", in D. Stokols and I. Altman (eds), Handbook of Environmental
Psychology (Wiley, New York, 1987), pp. 245-280.
4. R.N. Haber (1970), see note 2.
5. N.H. Mackworth (1968), see note 2.
6. S. Kaplan and R. Kaplan, Cognition and Environment: Functioning in an Uncertain l¥orld(Praeger, New York,
1982), p. 42.
7. K. Lynch and M. Rivkin, "A Walk Around the Block", in H. M. Prochansky et aL (eds), Emironmental Psy-
chology (Holt. Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1970), p. 64.
8. R.M. Downs and D. Stea, "Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behavior: Process and Product", in R. M. Downs
and D. Stea (eds), Image and Environment (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1973).
9. A. Rapoport, Human Aspects of Urban Form." Towards a Man-Environment Approach to Urban Form and
Design (Pergamon, New York, 1977), p. 114.
10. D. Dejonge, "Images of Urban Areas", Journal of the American Institute of Planners 29 (1963), pp. 266-276.
I 1. S. Carr, "Some Criteria for Environmental Form", in S. Kaplan and R. Kaplan (eds), Htmlanscape: Environ-
mentsfor People (Duxbury Press, North Scituate, MA, 1978).
12. R. Passini, Wa)finding in Architecture (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1984).

13. Signs and Advertising on Buildings 267
13. J.M. Dixon, "Campus City Revisited", Architectural Forum 129 (1968), pp. 28~,3.
14. A.L. Grey et al., People and Downtown (College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Wash-
ington. Seattle, 1970).
15. T.M. Clolek, "Pedestrian Movement and Stationary Behavior in a Public Setting" (Department of Anthro-
pology, Australia National University, Canberra, 1978), mimeo.
16. K. Lynch, The Image of the City (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1960);G. Allen et al., "The Role of Perceptual
Context in Structuring Spatial Knowledge", Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and
Memory 4 (1978), pp. 617-630; S. Kaplan, "Cognitive Maps, Human Needs and the Designed Environment",
in F. Wolfgang and E. Preiser (eds), Environmental Design Research, Vol. 1 [Dowden. Hutchinson & Ross,
Stroudsburg, PA, 1973); and Kaplan and Kaplan (1982), see note 6.
17. M.A. Caws (ed.) City Image. Perspectives From Literature, Philosophy and Film (Gordon and Breach, New
York, 1991); and J. W R. Whitehand, "The Making of the Urban Landscape", Institute of British Geogra-
phers Special Publication No. 26 (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1992).
18. High Commission lbr the Development of Ar-Riyadh, Control Regulations (Ar-Riyadh Development
Authority, Riyadh, 1988).
19 J.F. Wohlwill, "Environmental Aesthetics: The Environment as a Source of Affect", in 1. Altmatl and J. E
Wohlwill (eds), Humap Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, Vol. I (Plenum Press,
New York, 1976); J. Marguet, The Aesthetic Experience (Yale University, Press, New Haven, 1986); and E.
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