This document discusses a dissertation proposal submitted by Sheila V. Holder to Northern Caribbean University. The proposal examines salient factors that impact expatriate teachers working in Bermuda. The introduction provides background on Bermuda's education system and its reliance on expatriate teachers. It notes challenges such as strict employment guidelines, uncertainty around contract renewals, and a lack of orientation for expatriate teachers upon arrival. The literature review will examine topics like culture shock, cross-cultural adjustment, and factors that impact expatriate teachers' work experiences. The methodology section outlines plans to interview expatriate teachers and their principals to understand their experiences.

1. Salient factorsthat impact expatriateteachers working in Bermuda
By
Sheila V. Holder
Dissertation Proposal submitted to Northern Caribbean University
In partial fulfillment of the doctor of philosophy degree
At
Northern Caribbean University
February 5,2012

2. i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Rationale...................................................................................................................................... 3
The Background to the Problem.................................................................................................. 6
Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 11
Purpose Statement ..................................................................................................................... 12
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 12
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 12
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 14
Delimitations/Limitations of the Study ..................................................................................... 19
Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 20
Ethical Considerations............................................................................................................... 21
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Review of Literature ..................................................................................................................... 23
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 23
Expatriates in Biblical Settings ................................................................................................. 24
Socialization .............................................................................................................................. 27
Culture ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Culture Shock ............................................................................................................................ 30
Intercultural Competence .......................................................................................................... 34
Cross Cultural Adjustment ........................................................................................................ 36

3. ii
Social learning theory. ........................................................................................................... 39
Self-efficacy theory. .............................................................................................................. 41
Transformational learning theory. ......................................................................................... 42
Critical Factors that Impact Expatriate Teachers during their Work Experience ..................... 44
Inadequate preparation for work overseas. ............................................................................ 44
Personality characteristics. .................................................................................................... 45
Stress, tolerance, and coping. ................................................................................................ 46
Homesickness and loneliness. ............................................................................................... 48
Behavior of Students ................................................................................................................. 48
Family Related Situations ......................................................................................................... 50
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 54
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 54
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 54
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 54
Proposed Sample ....................................................................................................................... 56
Criteria for Selection of Teachers ............................................................................................. 57
Principals ................................................................................................................................... 57
Data Gathering .......................................................................................................................... 58
Interviews .................................................................................................................................. 59
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 60
Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................................. 62
References ..................................................................................................................................... 65

4. iii
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 74
Letter of Consent to Principal ................................................................................................... 74
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 76
Interview.................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................... 77
Participant Information ............................................................................................................. 77

5. 1
Chapter 1
Introduction
The island of Bermuda, which has a total land area of 21 square miles and often called
the pearl of the Atlantic, is a self governing colony, located off the east coast of the United
States. It is positioned in the North Atlantic Ocean and lies 640 miles to the southeast of Cape
Hatteras, North Carolina. Bermuda is 853 miles south of Halifax Nova Scotia, and 1,100 miles
northeast of Miami Florida. One of the nine smallest populated places in the world, Bermuda
was discovered in 1505 by Juan de Bermudez, a Spanish navigator. The island lay dormant
without settlers until 1609 when English sailors, shipwrecked by a terrible storm, landed on its
shores. The island was colonized by the English in 1612 and became a crown colony of Britain
in1684.Its status changed to an overseas territory in 2002. Its economy is based on international
business and tourism. Its gross national product per capita is reported to be among the worlds‘
highest.
The island has a hilly terrain and is a mile and a half at its widest point. It has nine
parishes and two municipalities one of which is the capital city of Hamilton. The other
municipality is the town of St. George‘s. The humid sub-tropical climate is warmed by the Gulf
Stream because of the prevailing westerlies that carry winds eastward causing mild winters with
an average temperature of 68 degrees, although the humidity and the wind chill often make the
temperature feel much colder. The average summer temperature is 84 degrees. Prior to 1965, the
Bermuda school system was racially segregated. When the desegregation of schools act was
enacted in 1965, two of the formally maintained ―white‖ schools and both single-sex schools
opted to become private schools. One of the formally single-sex schools is now categorized as
coeducational. The rest became part of the public school system and were either aided or

6. 2
maintained. At present, there are 26 schools in the Bermuda Public School System, 18of which
are primary schools,five are middle schools, two are senior schools, and one special school.
There are two aided primary schools, two aided middle schools, and one aided senior school.
There are six private schools in all with two of them being classified as religious schools.
The educational system in Bermuda is deemed as independent because it is not aligned
with any other country such as Britain, Canada, or the United States. There are no bilingual
schools because the population is mainly English speaking and there has been no real demand for
them even with our growing multi-cultural population.Bermuda‘s educational structure as
outlined by the Education Act of 1996 states that only three categories of schools can operate in
the Bermuda Education System. The categories are as follows:
Aided school- has all or a part of its property vested in a body of trustees or board of
governors and is partially maintained by public funding or, since 1965 and the
desegregation of schools, has received a grant-in-aid out of public funds.
Maintained school- has the whole of its property belonging to the Government and is
fully maintained by public funds.
Private school- not maintained by public funds and has not, since 1965 and the
desegregation of schools, received any capital grant-in-aid out of public funds. The
private school sector consists of sixtraditional private schools; two of which are religious
schools, and the remaining four are secular with one of these being a single gender
school. Within the private sector there are a number of home schools that must be
registered with the government. They receive minimal government regulation.
There are insufficient Bermudian teachers to satisfyall of the teaching vacancies that
occur in the system.At the time this study was conducted the Ministry of Education

7. 3
employed746 teachers. One hundred forty of these teachers are recorded as non-Bermudian. It
should be noted here that the term non-Bermudian encompasses two distinct categories: The
first category being the spouse of a Bermudian whose status will change after 10years if the
person remains married to their Bermudian spouseand the secondcategory being a person who
has been recruited and is employed on the island for a specific skill set with definite time limits
and restrictions.
Many of the expatriate teachers have been recruited mainly from Canada, United States,
United Kingdom, and the Caribbean islands. A fewer number are now arriving from the
Philippines and India. Expatriates teachers are employed at every level of the public school
educational system from pre-primary to secondary.All teachers in Bermuda, Bermudian or
expatriate, must hold a valid license from the Bermuda Educators‘ Council to teach in the public
or private schools.
The Employment Survey of Department of Statistics reports that most of the expatriate
teachers, 40%, are employed at the secondary level of education. This can be contrasted with a
mere two percent teaching at the pre-primary level(Bermuda Government of Annual
Employment Survey 2010).
A brief overview of the education system has been provided here as a backdrop into the
complexities of the country that will be encountered by the expatriate teachers. They will be
referred to as an expat on occasion. By introducing a snapshot of the host culture one can achieve
an understanding not only of the Bermudian populace but an awareness and appreciation of the
perspectives, perceptions,and way of life confronted by expatriate teachers who live in the
country of Bermuda.
Rationale

8. 4
Immigrating from coast to coast and country to country and teaching in a foreign country
can present opportunities and challenges for expatriate teachers as they confront critical issues
that impact their tenure while fulfilling their professional responsibilities and adjusting to an
unfamiliar social-cultural and academic environment. When expats first arrive in a host country
they are thrust into an unfamiliar environment–their senses are bombarded with novelsounds,
smells, sights, and way of life in this new the social environment.
All of these factors have a direct impact on the mind-set, viewpoint,andactivities of the
expatriate teacher. Just trying to understand the culture into which they‘ve entered is a complex
undertaking. They‘ve arrived in the host country with head knowledge, but no practical
knowledge about the socialization of the new society orhow they will adequatelyfit into the new
culture. One expatriate teacher noted, ―Even though I checked the Internet and knew prices were
high, nothing prepared me for the first time I bought groceries. The culture shock I felt when I
was at the checkout counter and the cashier said ‗$252.00‘ and all I had was four bags of
grocerieswas mind boggling.‖Garson (2005) an American educator, writing, about her first
arrival in Cairo commentedthat nothing in her preparation had prepared her for her entrance into
this vibrant,frenetic, and chaotic 24/7 city. Yet expatriates are expected to adjust to a different
culture almost immediately, perform their job responsibilities capably, and be ready for the
nuances that a different culture can bring. Some expatriate teachers stay in the host country for a
relatively short period of time, a year or less, and others extend their stay beyond the expected
initial norm that is the contractedtenure.
My interest in these experiences of expatriate teachers developed from current and past
professional experiences. In 1994, I became the principal of a K-12 private school with a student
population of about 500 students. I had always taught with expatriate teachers on the staff,

9. 5
however,as a principal I was immediately confronted with expatriate teachers on a different
echelon. One of my pressing challenges was locating qualified teachers who would fill vacant
positions in the elementary and secondary sections of the school. I was not only concerned with
the effectiveness of the expatriate teacher‘sstay in the school system, but also their length of stay.
I wanted to ascertain the factors and conditions that would contribute to a long and successful
sojourn.
Because I was unable to secure enough Bermudian teachers at the school, expatriate
teachers had to be hired who could adapt to the Bermudian culture and contribute to the ultimate
academic success of students. I recognized that all students are deserving of a quality education
and as such I wanted teachers in the school who would contribute to that goal. I felt more
accountable for the continuing success of the expatriate teachers. Their success in the classroom
and their acclimation to the island was paramount to the academic success of the students. I
wanted to achieve better success in this aspect of my administration.
I already had firsthand knowledge of expatriate teachers who arrived on the island, settled
in, and accepted the challenges of adapting to a different culture. They interacted successfully
with other faculty members, parents, and students. They acclimated into the school environment
successfully. The students were successful in their relationships with them and in their academic
studies. Alternatively, I had encountered expatriate teachers who just seemed unable to deal with
the nuances of their new environment. There seemed to be too many challenges-culturally,
socially, and academically for them to overcome. The realities of teaching in the host country did
notresonate with their expectations. Their coping competencedid not allow the expatriate
teachers to adequately address, cope with, or deal with the stressors they accounted. Some of
these teachers had difficulty adapting to the school environment or the Bermudian way of life in

10. 6
general. After a year, or two at the most, they decided to leave the island even though they were
contracted for three years or six years and would take a financial loss and possibly lose face
among their colleagues.
The Background to the Problem
There are strict guidelines and conditions that govern the working status of all expatriate
workers in Bermuda. Expatriates initially come to the island on a one, two, or three year contract.
If at the end of the contracted period a qualified Bermudian is available and has applied for the
position then the contract of the expatriate is not renewed. In many cases it does not matter if the
expat has performed with excellence or with mediocrity, the position is awarded to the
Bermudian applicant.This stipulation holds for the public or private sector and for the field of
education there is no exception. One can immediately see that the expatriate worker can view
this matter with concernbecause it can impact their job security. If the expatriate worker is
unsure that their contract will be renewed at the end of the contracted period it can influence
their feelings of security, commitment, and wellbeing. It has to be taken into account that the
expatriate has uprooted himself from his country, sold his car, and if he/she owned a house put it
up or sale or rent; all for a three year contract that may or may not be renewed for another three
years. The contract may be renewed for another three years. After that,special appeal would
have tobe made to the Minister of Immigration for another extended period of three years.
One can immediately see that this situation can cause a quandary when dealing with
expatriate teachers and the school system. An experienced expatriate teacher may not want to
give up job security in their home country and sojourn to a country where time limits are placed
on their employment and their job security is in question.This type of situation is more suited and

11. 7
more appealing to the younger and less experienced teacher who may not have family
responsibilities of marriage and children.
Another dilemma that seriously impacts the stability in the school system is that the
expatriate teachers may have years of teaching experience and the Bermudian teachers may be
just beginning their career and come to the system right out of college or university. There are
however exceptions to this rule. If the employer can make a case that the expatriate teachers
areserving in key positions and their departure could adversely affect the school then the school
may apply for a further extension. In the case of schools there are certain subject areas where
there are difficulties in finding Bermudian teachers for particular subject areas, mainly, those
subject areas of Mathematics and Science. Then an exception may be granted.
A third factor that can impact expatriate teachers (and other foreign workers) is the fact
that they are not allowed to secure a second job without the express permission of the
immigration department. Further they may not even volunteer their services in areas other than
what they were contracted for, if in volunteering they make it possible that byso doing they
prevent a Bermudian from being employed.
Bermuda is in somewhat of a unique position in regards to teacher retention and teacher
turnover when the focus is on the expatriate teacher. On one hand the country must make
allowances for the employment of its own people and yet still provide some job security for
those workers who have come to the island to provide assistance for the country. These are the
background issues that the government education department or a private school system must
face as they grapple with the issues of teacher turnover within the schools. Just when the
expatriate teacher has begun to adapt to the new environment they may have to leave because of

12. 8
governmental regulations. This uncertainty about their future job security not only causesjob
stress but also may reduce commitment to the school system.
One of the privateschools on the island operates a K-12 school. It employs about
50faculty and staff with about 35 of those persons being teachers. About one fourth of the
teachers who are employed in that school are recruited from the United States, Canada, or the
Caribbean. The school relies heavily on recommendations from other superintendents and
telephone interviews in the hiring process. Most recently the personnel committee has begun
using Skype so that the interviewee and interviewers can see each other during the interviewing
process. All expatriate teachersin this school system are hired initially on a three year contract,
without having a face-to-face conversation with the educational superintendent, or personnel
committee. This commitment is made without a visit to the island before accepting
employment.That has been expressed as anexpense that the school feels it cannot afford.The
expatriates have not been introduced or oriented neither to the customs and mores of the people
in the host country; nor have they been oriented to the educational system at the time of hiring.
Most teachers who arrive from overseas come within a week or two of the opening of the new
school year or worse still, after school year has already commenced. In such cases they are
immediately confronted with the normal pressuresthat occur at the beginning of a school year
and the additional socio-cultural challenges. These circumstances often overwhelm the teacher
right from the inception of the process and do not allow for a smooth start. While some
expatriate teachers cope admirably with this problematic start to their Bermudian experience,
others have found it to be a negatively challenging experience.
While the aforementioned scenario is my personal experience at one private, relatively
small school, this scene is similarly played out in the public school system. Every year the

13. 9
Ministry of Education in Bermuda hires scores of teachers from various parts of the world to
work in the school system. Too often, expatriate teachers have a chaotic beginning at the onset of
their experience.Coupled with the challenges that have been already mentioned, these teachers
are without personal transportation because Bermuda does not allow them to obtain avehicle
license immediately upon arrival;therefore they must traverse the public bus system or rely on
being picked upprivately by assigned teachers. These teachers must negotiate andcollaborate
with other teachers to find out where essential services such as grocery stores, postoffices, and
banking facilities are. They must find a way to get from place to place to conduct personal
business, while adjusting to a new school environment.
These educators often come from dissimilar cultures and arrive in Bermuda where they
are confronted by a culture that is in many ways unlike their own.The attitudes and behaviors of
the nationals for the most part, differ from their own experience.In the educational circles in
Bermuda discussions are often centered onthe dishearteningattitudes a sizeablenumber of
Bermudian students display toward their education. Many appear passive and disinterested in
learning.Seemingly, school achievement and academic success are not important factors on the
students‘ horizon. They live in a country that is economically stable and has been rated as
number two in the world, just behind Switzerland when it comes to income per capita. Many
students andtheir parents have not had to work hard for anything. They are given what they want
with few strings attached. Some students do not see the importance or the need of getting a first
class education.Some studentswill cheerfully and gleefully telltheir teachers that one day they
will make more money than they do because of what their family owns. And more
importantly,that it will become theirs (student) one day. This greatly impacts the way in which
students relate to school in general and contributes to the students‘ attitudes towards learning and

14. 10
teachers, both Bermudian and expatriate. However, most often, it is the expatriate teacher who is
confronted with poor behaviors, careless attitudes, and a lack of seriousness toward learning on
the part of students they teach.
A majority of expatriate teachers have managed to successfully adapt to
thepreviouslymentioned conditions but unfortunately too many leave with a rather negative
feeling about Bermuda and their teaching experience on the island. This really becomes an acute
problem when these teachers leave during the school year,or after teaching for only one or two
years.Suitable and qualified replacements are difficult to find. This affects the quality of
education that the student may receive in the short term while the replacement is being
sought.Research has shown that there is a correlation between teacher turnover and student
achievementColgan,(2004).Gaps in student learningexperience emerge which contribute to
instability and lowers students‘ academic performance. Thousands of dollars are spent in
replacing teachers and unfortunately the replacement may not be as qualified in the subject area
as the previousteacher was. When the expatriate teachers leave the island after only teaching for
a year or two acute problems occur for both the teachers and the employer. It is financiallycostly
and emotionallydraining for both parties.The teacher has had to sell their car, rent or sell their
home, and leave behind family and friends. If they are married the spousemay not be able to
secure work immediately, thereby causing financial constraints. The cost of living in Bermuda is
high;all these factors produce stress in the expatriate worker.
The employer has financial costs also. It has been estimated by one of the private schools
that it takes at least three years for the organization to recover the expenses incurred in securing a
teacher from overseas and settling them on the island.When party, the teacher, or the school
administrators‘experience failure, it is at a financial lossto both the teacher and the organization.

15. 11
An additional precipitousfactor that occurs is that parents begin to be
anxiousandapprehensive about their children‘s education. Parents become dissatisfied and the
reputation of the school comes under question when there are numerous teacher turnovers in a
short space of time. This in turn can and does affect the enrolment of the school for subsequent
years. Students do not develop lasting and meaningful relationships that can contribute to the
quality of student learning. The actual motives for the expatriate teachers coming to teaching in
Bermuda falls into question and distrust begins to breed among the nationals and disillusionment
spreads among the expatriate teachers.
Problem Statement
A great deal of research can be obtained concerning the successful socialization of
teachers into the workplace of their own country. However little data can be found that addresses
the expatriate teacher moving from their home country and adjusting to a host country and a
foreign culture while negotiating how to work in the subculture of a new school. The perpetual
practice of expatriate teachers coming to Bermuda for relatively short periods of time and
leaving at the end of one contractual term of three years, or even before the end of that
designated period causes a lack of academic continuity, serious disruptions, and gaps in student
learning. High costs are also associated with the hiring and reparation of expatriate teachers. The
lack of longevity contributes to distrust among the expatriate teachers themselves and among the
Bermudian stakeholders. The parents and students and some administrators have misgivings and
express skepticism about the motives of the foreign teachers and the reasons why they have
come to Bermuda to teach. Many administrators, colleagues,and students often wonder how long
the expatriate teacher will stay. They may openly question, who will benefit more, the students
or the expatriate teacher?

16. 12
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative research study is to examine the perceptions and
experiences of expatriate teachers who teach in Bermuda, in both the public and private school
systems.
Research Questions
Thestudy will be guided by five salient questions:
1. How do the expatriate teachers describe the effect of the Bermuda cultural experiences on
their sojourn in the country?
2. What are the specific factors thatdetermine the success of the expatriate teacher?
3. What are the specific factors that impede the success of the expatriate teachers?
4. What do the expatriate teachers in the study describe as stressors that occurred during
their tenure?
5. What can the Bermuda educational system do to facilitate the longevity and success of
expatriate teachers?
Significance of the Study
It is hoped that this research studywill make a significant contribution to discovering
ways to reduce expatriate teacher attrition whether in public or private education in Bermuda.
While anecdotal information may exist, such information is not formalized into a body of
organized knowledge. The findings could contribute in a very significant way when recruiters
and administrators are seeking to provide overseas teachers to fill the teaching vacancies in their
schools.
The outcomes of the study can give assistance to administrators in understanding the
challenges and measures of success for expatriate teachers. Better success in this area will

17. 13
accomplish better stability in the classroom. An improved retention rate among the expatriate
teachers will be a factor in achieving better success rate among students.An additional beneficial
outcome will be more effective orientation programs forbeginning expatriate teachers. There is a
paucity of information on this topic and no documented studies have been reported in the island
of Bermuda where the focus of this research will be conducted. The research that is available
concerns itself primarily with the student-teacher experience overseas, or with the experience of
teachers in higher education. Very little research has been completedor even explored regarding
expatriate teachers in the elementary or high schools. Further the research has been confined to
larger countries such as Australia, Japan, and Singapore. Thus, the K-12 focus will add to the
body of professional knowledge on the subject.
It is hoped that those who recruit expatriate teachers will have research-based
information that will enable them to be more aware of challenges that such teachers encounter
and reveal how to deal with them in a proactive manner. This information may provide a
resource to identify processes to assist administrators and others who recruit teachers from
countries other than Bermuda.The researchwill providewell-identified processes that will
contribute toa better match between teachers with their new assignment in Bermuda. One
proposed outcome from this study will be to outline and recommend a well organized induction
program and create an orientation handbook thatwill assists schools in developing programs for
this vital segment of expatriate teachers in Bermuda. Additionally recruiters can work to resolve
the troubling cultural situations that plague the expatriate teachers. This will lead to a more
stabilized teaching force;and thereby, provide better learning conditions in the classroom, which
in turn will strengthen the school system and benefit the students.

18. 14
One meansof achieving more appropriate hiring and induction practices is by developing
policies that will assist in reducing the cost of repatriation and disruptions caused by sudden
departures or brief stays of expatriate teachers. The study will also take into account the
resources, time, and effort that is expanded in finding teachers overseas, the financial expenses
occurred by the employers and the employees, and the learning gap that occurs for the students
when teachers are only present with them there for short periods of time.
This study may generate further development and improvement in cross-cultural
socialization and the successful acculturation process. For the expatriate teacher, this program
will provide information about services and resources that are available to them as teachers. An
introduction to the culture, practices, and traditions and customs of the Bermudian people will
also be provided.
Theoretical Framework
My research was guided by researchers such as Deardorff(2009 and Fantini (2000) who
have contributed theoretical models to enhance the knowledge and visual perception of
intercultural competences to the field of cultural intelligence.Deardorff has stated that
intercultural competence can beaptly describedas thecapacity one has to enhance his or her
knowledge, to examine theirattitudes and behaviors so that they are exposedto andare flexible to
other cultures. She contends that for people to survive in today‘s global populaces people need
not only to understand differences but intercultural competence but need to adjust to working and
social environments that are different from their own.
Fantini (2000) further develops this idea of intercultural competence by articulating that
intercultural competence isnot just being aware of the differences that are a part of multicultural
ism but it is the fundamental and ultimate acceptance of people who are different to one‘s self

19. 15
outside of one‘s own culture. It is the ability to interact and interrelate with them in a genuinely
constructive and positive manner that is free from negative and preconceived attitude. He takes
the definition deeper by adding that intercultural competence is the ability to create a synthesis as
it, were, something that is neither ―mine‖(the native) or ―yours: (the expatriate) but something
genuinely new‖.These thoughts of Alvino Fantini and others are summed up in literature used for
training by companies that are involved in cultural awareness studies.
This research is also based on the work of Varhegyi (2008)and Stephanie Nann(2008).
Vera Varhegyi the cofounder of Élan Interculturel, has stated that intercultural transition refers
to a set of concrete phenomena: how we feel, behave, and change when we encounter a new
cultural environment. Out of their field research Varhegyi (2008)and Nann (2008) produced and
submitted a framework model for intercultural competences for the Intercultool Project. Further
their work has defined intercultural competence as having three critical areas:
1. The affective level that deals with ones emotions such as loneliness, stress, and
discomfort and the capacity to observe, interact, and analyze one‘s emotions.
2. The behavioral level that encompasses interaction, communication style, ritual, and
body language. That is the ability to communicate effectively in situations where
communication is carried out in anticipated style and secondly one has the capacity to
develop trust in a novel environment.
3. The cognitive level has a duel focus where the person can make sense of situations by
being aware of biases and stereotypes that may be present and then mobilizing their
former knowledge and relying on what they see. Also on the cognitive level one is aware
of the dynamics of culture and is prepared to decode within a new context regarding
cultural mechanisms.

20. 16
The researchers view knowledge in this model as an integration within thecognitive level.
Knowledge is an awareness one has of the dynamics ofother cultures. Knowledge encompasses
the values and the worldview that the expatriate brings to the unknown culture. The expatriate
teachermust be prepared to develop strategies they can use when encountering conflicting values,
of necessity they must observe and decode what is new asthey rely on their own previous
knowledge to move through the stages of intercultural competence.
Researchers such as Ward (2001)would place ―identity‖ in the cognitive level; but
Varhegyi and Nann(2008) contend that identity should not be placed in the cognitive domain.
Theymaintain that identity is inextricablyinvolvedin all levels of intercultural competence. They
propose that identity is actually at the core of intercultural competence. In their view ones
identity is significantly involvedin how the person negotiates threats to their identity with the
new society in the host country. Identity strategies that can be used to conquer both personal and
group identities can be the answer to tackling threatssuch as racism and discrimination.The
expatriate‘s capacity for self-reflection and awareness of self in relation to the new culture is a
needed progression along the continuum to competence.
The framework model (see Figure 1) is based on the field research done by Varhegyi and
Nann for the Intercultool Project (2008). The aim of the project is to develop an assessment tool
that can give feedback to expatriates and other professionals about their capacity to deal with
cultural diverse situations.
Framework model for intercultural competences
CRITICAL AREAS COMPETENCE DEFINITION THEORETICAL BACK-UPS
A – affective level
EMOTIONS Emotion management: Matsumoto: Intercultural
(discomfort,  capacity to cope with stress, Adjustment Potential Scale

21. 17
confusion, anxiety and other negative Lazarus, Folkman 1984: Coping,
loneliness, stress, emotions Stress, anxiety
frustration, fear,  capacity to relativise from one‘s Ward psychological adjustment
etc.) emotions to become able to Gudykunst Anxiety – uncertainly
observe, analyse, interact in a management theory
more emotionally neutral state
(not acting on the impulse of
emotions)
B – behavioural level
INTERACTION Being able to communicate in a Ruben Communication
Relatedness situation where the expected styles competence 1976
(comm. efficiency, of communications, Fogel Communication in
Comm, Style, codes/rules/rituals of communication creative/rigid frames
Rituals, may differ between interaction
Body language, partners.
Creating new
relations) Capacity to establish social relations
with new people. Developing trust,
creating a new social network in the
new environment.
C – cognitive level
COGNITION Capacity to make sense of the Kruglanski: need for cognitive
(making sense, situation with an awareness of the closure
Dissonance, built-in psychological biases such as Rokeach: open vs. dogmatic
Stereotypes) categorisation, stereotypes etc. thinking
Being able to build up alternative Need for cognitive consistency
explanations to the first evaluation Tolerance of ambiguity
often based on attribution mistakes. Kolb (1984) Learning style
Mobilising previous knowledge and inventory
relying on observation.
KNOWLEDGE Awareness of the manifestations, Cultural anthropology introductory
About worldviews dynamics and varieties of ―cultures.‖ texts
(values) Being prepared to observe and
Context (legal, decode the new context, relying on
technical, previous knowledge and information
historical, econ., on history, geography, politics,
etc.) sociology, cultural anthropology,
Social organization etc.
(gender, hierarchy,
community, family)
Figure 1.Intercultural model Varhegyi and Nann

22. 18
Identity
IDENTYTY Negotiating between different needs Hermans – Theory of diological
(threads to attached to identity: self, dialogicality
collective, personal  recognition of personal identity Camilleri: identity strategies
id, self doubt)  recognition of group identity Cohen-Emerique: identify threats
(Including  handling threats to group in intercultural interaction
PHYSICAL identity (racism, discrimination) Breakwell 1988: identify threats
BASICS)  relational function Pyszczynski, T, Greenberg 2003
 ontological function Terror management theory
Being able to handle unusual Zahama (1988) self shock
physical sensation, exposure to Ting-Toomey: facework in
different foods, smells, climates. intercultural setting
Handling differences in appearance
(one‘s appearance not fitting to the
others‘ etc.)
Figure 1 (cont.).Intercultural model Verheghi and Nann
Varhegyiand Nann(2008) propose that identity is the central element in all intercultural
encounters. A person‘s identity-attitudes, biases, and personality are all components of self
identity. The affective, behavioral,and cognitive levels of the model are critical components that
provide the framework that is needed to successfully maneuver through the process of
interculturalcompetence.
In this sense Deardorff‘s(2009) premise that intercultural competenceoccurs when the
expatriate is open and flexible to change is in keeping with the Varhegyiand Nann‘s
model(2008).The expatriate bringstheir identity–whothey are as a person, their perception of
self,and their knowledge about cultural mechanismsto the intercultural experience.This createsan
interaction between the customs of two varying cultures-the previousexperiences and the new
experiences thatthe expatriate is now acquiring. New skills are created, and as Fantini(2000)
says, a synthesis begins emerging, something that is neither the former nor the present but a
forging of the two cultures, something new has now developed.
This framework shows the critical areas of competence that will be addressed in the study
of expatriates in Bermuda.Each level will be addressed. First there is the affective domain. This

23. 19
area will dealwith the ability of the expatriate teacher to deal with discomfort, stress, sadness,
loneliness, anxiety, and other negative emotions.
On the behavioral level,the expatriate teacher arrives and is unfamiliar with local
customs, common behaviors, and the expected styles of communication. The ability to make
sense of psychological biases, refraining from stereotypes, and mobilizing previous knowledge is
a challenge of cognition and behavior for foreign teachers. The expatriate teachers‘ worldview
and values impact the expatriate‘s adjustment to their new working environment. Internal
conflict occurs while the teacher decodes in this new environment. The ability to communicate
within the expected local vernacular while juggling their knowledge and perceptions of their
developing relationships, and knowledge of the students, challenges the comfort level of the
teacher. The capacity to forge relationships with new people will create new social networks in
the new culture. Lastly, negotiating between threats to one‘s identity, and being aware of
personal biases, being able to handle foods, climate, racial tension, and even threats to group
identity are salient factors in developing intercultural competence.
Delimitations/Limitations of the Study
This study will only focus on expatriate teachers who have come to Bermuda to teach.
While there are literally hundreds of expatriate teachers in Bermuda, only a representative group
will be selected to be a part of the study. It will be a small sampling of about 15persons who
have experienced the stated phenomena. In the context of this study the ability to generalize the
results of the Bermuda experience may not be germane to other jurisdictions.

24. 20
Definition ofTerms
Acculturation.This isdefined as the phenomena of sequential psychological changes as a
result of continuous and direct contact between individuals having different
cultures(Berry,2006).
Assimilation.This is when immigrants become absorbed into the native population
through acquisition of cultural values and personal traits of the national culture (Kim, 2001).
Cross-cultural adjustment.This term has been conceptualized as the degree of
comfort,familiarity, and ease that an individual feels toward a new cultural environment
(Takeuchi, Yun, Seokhwa, & Russell,2002). Cross-cultural adjustment, expatriate adjustment, or
simply adjustment, will be usedinterchangeably throughout the paper.
Cultural intelligence.Cultural intelligence is defined as a person‘s ability to function
effectively in situations that are characterized by cultural diversity which is becoming typical of
today‘s global work settings Ang& Van Dyne, (2008)
Culture shock.The anxiety that results from losing familiar signs and symbols of social
intercourse and reflected in culture based adjustment difficulties in functioning satisfactorily in
the host country is defined as culture shock (Pires, Stanton,& Ostenfeld, 2006).
Cultural transitions.This is a movement from a place where the rules are known and
where things feel right and comfortable, to one where nothing seems to make much sense at first.
Expatriate.A person who has citizenship in at least one country but who is living in
another. Most expatriates only stay in the foreign country for a certain period of time..Business
Dictionary
Host country.The primary culture or country where the expatriate is living and working.

25. 21
Intercultural competence. A fundamental acceptance of people who are different to
one‘s self outside of one‘s own culture.The ability to interact with them ina genuinely
constructive manner that is free of negative attitude (Fantini, 2000).
Identity theory. A theory which considers how group membership affects an individual‘s
identify and sense of belonging in particular groups.
National. For the purpose of this study, a national is referred to as acitizen ofBermuda
who holds a passport and is entitled to its rights and protection of the country.
Stress tolerance. The ability to engage in goal-oriented activities despite the existence of
pressures such as workload or time pressures.
Successful expatriate experience.To complete an expatriate assignment meeting the
professional objectives of that assignment and the ability to adapt to the host culture.
Ethical Considerations
There are several ethical considerations that may influence this research.The researcher
will not reflect discrimination in any of its forms in the study. The study will be characterized by
openness and honesty. An informed consent form will be requiredfor each participant that will be
a part of the research documentation.A copy of the consent form will be placed in the appendix.
Approval where needed will be sought from the Ministry of Education, and governingschool
boards for private schools. These important stakeholders will know what the study will entail, the
methods that will be used, and the purpose for the study.
The benefits of the study are both professional and personal. Those who participate will
receive feedback on the outcome of the study. The information received will be confidential and
the results reported objectively. Confidentiality will be assured by assigning pseudo names to the
participants. Furthermore, the information will be coded.The participants may feel free to

26. 22
withdraw at any time if they feel uncomfortable with the process. There are no known risks or
vulnerable populations that will be asked to participate in the study. While there will be
purposeful sampling no one will be forced to participate and all will have the opportunity to
volunteer.
Organization of the Study
The introductory chapter of this research project will provide a general background of the
study.A statement of the problem and the purpose statement will be included. Research
questions and the significance of the study will be provided. A rationale for conducting the study
has been given.This chapter willdelineatethe delimitations and limitations of the study and
discuss key terms used throughout the research.The ethical considerations and organization of
the study will be outlined.
Chapter 2will present a review of the literature that has influenced the study. A brief
historical perspective will be undertaken. The literature will inform the theories that govern the
study. Models of social-cultural adaptations will be explored. The chapter will present themes
such as acculturation, culture shock, transformational learning, and a lack of orientation of
expatriate teachers thathas emerged from current literature.
Chapter 3will provide the methodology of the study. It will outline how the research
datawill be collected and the research design of the study. A list of participants and their
characteristics will be presented. It will present a section on data analyses.
Chapter 4will present the findings and results of the study.It will also restate research
questions andpresent the findings and the interpretation of the analysis of the data. Issues of
validity and reliability will be included.

27. 23
The fifth and final chapterwill give a summary of the results.Conclusions will be drawn
from the findings and recommendations for further research will be posed. Recommendations to
important stakeholders for best practice will be shared.
Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Introduction
This literature review will examine major theories and provide comparisons and
similarities of previous empirical research. It will facilitate an understanding and provide
syntheses and further interpretation of already known information about the topic under review.
The research will investigate a broad range of topics pertaining to expatriates in the workplace,
inclusive of: (a) biblical perspectives, (b) socialization of humans in society, (c) culture and
culture shock, (d) intercultural competence and adaptation, (e) theories of learning, (f) and
factors that impact success or failure of expatriates.
There has been a steady increase in the magnitude of traveling from country to country as
the trend of globalization has made international travel more commonplace. Employment
opportunities in overseas countries have become more prevalent. Living and working in a
country other than what is considered the home country is now considered a normal part of a
person‘s career development. A professional in the field of business or industry, an educator, a
governmental worker, or a person seeking to better themselves economically or seeking personal
development may take advantage of the opportunity to live and work abroad.
Just as the world has become more assessable to travelers and job opportunities become
more abundant, so has the body of literature become more prolific that examines the way
expatriates encounter and adapt to the nuances of a host culture (Sims &Schrader, 2004;Moseley,

28. 24
Reeder,&Armstrong, 2008;Furnham, 2010). A number of researchers, such as Lee and Sukoco
(2008),Brown and Holloway (2008),Armes and Ward (2001) have addressed the adaptation of
expatriates in the business sector, while the successful adaptation of expatriate teachers has
attracted some research from Brislin (1981), Bennett (1986), and Armes and Ward (2001),
Connellan (2000) point out that Hogan and Goodson (1990) suggest a significant factor in the
failure of business expatriates to meet their overseas expectations is their lack of understanding
of the host country‘s culture by the expatriate worker as well as a lack of effort on the part of the
expatriate to adapt to cultural nuances or social patterns of the host country.
The literature review presented in this study has been drawn from a variety of
sources.These include refereed journals, books, dissertations, online journals, and the Internet.
Expatriates in Biblical Settings
While one may think that leaving your home culture and traveling to another is a fairly
recent phenomenon, since Biblical times the custom of leaving your natural home and moving to
a new culture has been in existence. There are numerous recorded instances where persons in the
Bible journeyed from their home and relocated to another country. One such well known biblical
character was Abraham. God called Abraham to leave his family of origin and all that he
treasured and migrate to an unknown country. ―Now the Lord had said to Abram: Get out of
your country, from your family, and from your father‘s house to a land that I will show you‖
(Genesis 12:1).He, along with his wife Sarah, and his nephew, Lot travelled for hundreds of
miles and lived in a new land(Genesis 12:4). It is recorded that Abraham and his nephew Lot
prospered in the new land (Genesis 13:8-10).Lot also began a family and never returned to his
country of origin. He adapted to his city environment and adopted many of the practices and
values of his new environment (Genesis, chapter 19).

29. 25
Moses is another example of a well known biblical figure who was an expatriate. His
parents, Jochebed and Amram had been transplanted from their homeland to a foreign land.
Their son, Moses, though born in Egypt, was not considered an Egyptian (this is similar to many
immigration laws today) and was in grave danger as were all infant Hebrew boys who were
targeted to be put to death. Moses was hidden on the Nile River by his mother as a baby but
found by the king‘s daughter. The biblical record indicates that she claimed him as her son but he
continued to live with a Hebrew family (Exodus 2:7-9) throughout his childhood.About the age
of 12he was taken to the royal palace to live (Exodus 2:10). Although having lived in Egypt all
of his life, and now living in the palace, Moses did not embrace all the customs, traditions, or
values of Egypt even though he lived in the king‘s palace where he received the highest civil and
military training in preparation to be the successor on Pharaoh‘s throne(White,1939). Yet, when
he witnessed an Egyptian mistreating a Hebrew man,whom Moses considered to be his people,
he killed him(Exodus 2:11-12).
He escaped to the country of Midan where he lived, worked, married, and had children.
Upon the birth of his son Gresham he declared, ―I have been a foreigner in a foreign land‖
(Exodus 3:22). Remaining in Midan for a total of 40years he tended sheep until God revealed to
him that it was time to return to Egypt, his original home (Exodus 3:10; Hebrews 11:24-
26;White, 1939).Following God‘s leading Moses became a phenomenal servant leader and led
the exiled Israelites successfully from Egypt to the borders of Canaan.
Paul, a prominent Jew mentioned in the New Testament, fits the description of an
expatriate. He traveled to many countries such as Macedonia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Cilicia to
preach and teach the gospel of Christ. On another journey he travelled to Rome, Italy and
remained there for two years (Acts 13:2).He continued preaching the gospel and lived for short

30. 26
periods of time in places such as Greece and other countries in Asia. While in Corinth, Paul
became acquainted with Aquila and his wife. ―Because he was tentmaker as they were, he
stayed and worked with this couple...‖(Acts 18:1-3).These trips commonly known as missionary
journeys are recorded in the Bible and are the names of many of the books in the in the New
Testament, such as Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, etc. These are cities in whichPaul
lived and worked but he wrote letters known as epistles to the churches in these places.
Not only did men have the experience of expatriation but the Bible records the journey of
two women who sojourned from one country to another. The story is recounted in the book of
Ruth. Elimelech and Naomi, his wife, traveled from Bethlehem, their home country, with their
two sons to the country of Moab. The family made the trip because of a famine in their homeland
and became resident foreigners of Moab. The family remained there until Naomi‘s husband,
Elimelech died. The sons also married women from that country and continued to live there until
they also died.
Then Naomi, widowed and childless, decided to return to her home country of Bethlehem
in Judea(now Israel). Her daughters-in-law, Ruth and Orpah, desirous of remaining with their
mother-in-law, began the journey with her. During the journey Orpah turned back at the urging
of her mother in law. Ruth, however would not be persuaded. She travelled to Bethlehem with
her mother-in-law and then became a foreigner in Naomi‘s homeland. She later married Boaz
and settled in his country (Ruth 4:13).
In today‘s common vernacular the previouslymentioned individuals and other persons in
the Bible such as Joseph, Esther, Mordecai, and Daniel would be known as expatriates. They
served with distinction in a country other than their homeland. Crossing physical and cultural
barriers, they sojourned from the country of their birth, and became resident foreigners in other

31. 27
distinctivecultures. These biblical men and women endured the loss of the familiar and
broadened their horizons to embrace a new future. They encountered new meaning and values
and embraced the culture of countries. They lived and worked and brought up their families (if
they had one) with the challenges that come along with a new society.
In each instance these biblical characters attempted to preserve their own culture; yet to a
greater or lesser degree they all assimilated into the culture of the new society. Hendricks (2003)
states the call from God to travel to unfamiliar and unknown countries are a ―call to transmit
meaning-the meaning of life at its deepest level.‖ -
While no known theoretical research has been recorded on these biblical characters, the
researcher can assume that the circumstantialities of culture and culture shock, social and
transformational learning, cross-cultural experiences, and intercultural competences were all
deeply embedded in their human contacts with the host nationals.
Socialization
A great deal of research has been written concerning the successful socialization of
humans. Socialization, defined can be viewed as the conscious and unconscious process whereby
humans learn behavior patterns and norms that enable them to function appropriately in their
environment. It is based on the need to belong and the desire to be accepted (Finsterbusch,
2009). Socialization is really social interaction between people. It is a process of learning and
adapting to the roles of society from both a formal and informal exposure that occurs within an
individual‘s home and within society (Bandura, 1986).
Socialization has also been defined as the process of transmitting values, beliefs, and
culture that is essential to a society‘s survival. It occurs naturally from the earliest days of a
person‘s life. Humans learn what is acceptable and appropriate as they interact with others.

32. 28
Bandura (1986) writes that socialization is a learning process and can be formal such as what is
learned in school and what is learned on the job; but socialization can also be informal in terms
of what a person observes and experiences in everyday living. For example, girls are socialized
to the roles of what it means to be daughters, sisters, mothers, aunts, and wives; similarly boys
learn to be sons, brothers, fathers, uncles, and husbands. It is not necessary to take formal classes
to learn how to perform in gender roles and how males and females should act and behave in
their role. People observe and experience what socialization means and what society expects of
male and female roles and begin to fulfill the expectations of the roles from the time they are
children.
Hofstede (1980) addressed the role that socialization plays in culture. He contends that
people rarely adapt the values of those from cultures other than their own by mere observation,
but over time through interaction with various environments such as economic, ecological, and
technological they are more apt to change. He states that it takes a prolonged period of residence
for the expatriate to realize not just differences in culture but the subtle nuances of the host
country.
Socialization is also linked with the adaptation process when an expatriate sojourns to a
different environment or country. This process of adapting to a new culture is similar to what one
experiences when they were being socialized to their home culture. The expatriate becomes
socialized to their new environment as they become comfortable within the host country. They
observe and adopt customs and values of their new environment. Total socialization to a new
environment is not easily attained because socialization in any culture occurs over an expansion
of time. Living, working, socializing, and adopting the habits of the people, singing their songs,
dancing their dances, attending their churches, and observing their holidays are all a part of the

33. 29
socialization process. It is a learning experience that a successful expatriate will willingly engage
in during the process of being acculturated in the host country.
Socialization is highly germane to an expatriate‘s adjustment because it involves
understanding of how organizations function. Newcomers to the culture learn about their jobs
and the new environment through this process. Socialization has also been linked to several
important organizational outcomes. Among these are: job satisfaction (Ashforth, Saks, &Lee,
1998; Major et al., 1995), organizational commitment (Ashford & Taylor, 1990; Ashforth et al.,
1998; Klein & Weaver, 2000), and performance (Ashford & Taylor, 1990).
Culture
Culture is extricably bound to socialization.Finsterbusch (2009) declares culture ―is the
ordinary, everyday objects of living and the daily routines of life that is regularly punctuated by
festivals, celebrations and other special events (p.1). Han and Northoff (2008) put forwardthat
our brains and minds are shaped by the experiences that occur in the context of the culture in
which we develop and live. ―Culture somehow implies that rituals, climate, values and behavior
tie together into a coherent whole‖ (Schein,1994, p.15). We understand ourselves, others and the
environment within which we operate. People are socialized according to their culture-the way
they behave in their own environmental setting. It is based on a country‘s framework of where
and how people fit in the community; it is how one views education, religion, family, and
friends. Culture then is the sum total of all the beliefs, customs, values, traditions, and attitudes
that distinguish one group of people from another.
Culture is the very essence of a people and determines what is important to
them.―Routine and special times are the stuff of culture, for culture is the sum total of all the
elements of one‘s social inheritance‖ (Finsterbusch, 2009, p.1).One can see evidences of a

34. 30
country‘s culture but culture cannot be touched. A person can feel the effect of the culture but it
can‘t be packaged up.
As such encountering a foreign culture, such as expatriates do, is very much like
encountering a secret code. Until you are able to unlock the code, little of what you see or
experience will make much sense. Peter Conrad, (1991) described it this way:
Society has always seemed to me an idea dreamed up by conspirators. The tribe adheres
thanks to shared understandings, which never need to be voiced; it celebrates its
uniqueness by the exchange of private jokes, by perfecting a dialect of signals. I used to
be amazed, before I could understand the language, by the sight of a whole world which
conversed in Portuguese. Everything was unintelligible: I couldn‘t even read the gestures,
and because of their vehemence having come from the land of laconicism, where only
madmen or migrants talked with their hands -- I used to assume that people were
quarreling when they were only being exuberant.
The ability of expatriates to adapt across cultures is regarded as one of the three most
important factors for expatriate performance (Lee &Sikoco, 2010). When expatriates do not
achieve cultural adjustment, they tend to have much more difficulty in adapting to the
environment and are more likely to fail (Caligiuri, 2000). As a result researchers have began
focusing on identifying factors that influence cultural adjustment (Black, Mendenhall &Oddou,
1991).
Culture Shock
When a person is exposed to a culture that is different from what they are accustomed to,
whether voluntarily as a tourist, or as an expatriate worker, it is common to feel somewhat
frustrated, nervous, and overwhelmed. It is what has been termed as culture shock. Over the

35. 31
years researchers have tried to refine the definition of the term culture shock, by looking at very
specific psychological factors or facets that make up the experience (Winkelman, 2003; &Xia,
2009). It has been seen as a loss of one‘s culture, a marker of moving from one culture to another
and a resocialization into another culture. There remains no clear definition of the term culture
shock, but the first usage was attributed to the anthropologist Oberg (1960) over 50 years ago
(Ward et al., 2001). Culture shock describes the anxiety of not knowing exactly what to do in a
new culture. It is the process of initial adjustment to an unfamiliar environment.
When an expatriate worker is first exposed to a new country and experiences a feeling of
ambivalence—a feeling of not knowing what to do, how to act, not feeling readily accepted in
the new culture, and experiences a lack of direction, they are experiencing what is known as
culture shock. Lysgaard (1955) proposes a way to deal with culture shock which he calls the U
curve of adjustment. He describes it in the following words:
[We] observed that adjustment as a process over time seems to follow a U-shaped curve:
adjustment is felt to be easy and successful to begin with; then follows a ‗crisis‘ in which
one feels less well adjusted, somewhat lonely and unhappy; finally one begins to feel
better adjusted again, becoming more integrated into the foreign community. (p. 15)
Another researcher, Alfred Adler (1975), has identified four or five stages of adjustment
that persons living and working abroad can expect to encounter. The first stage of initial contact
is the honeymoon stage that is characterized by enthusiasm, expectancy, and exhilaration.
Expatriate workers in this honeymoon stage will demonstrate an eagerness to please and are
fascinated by the newness of the experience. Inevitability misunderstandings begin to mount and
the individual moves along to the second stage that is known as the hostility stage. Many times
this stage is characterized by frustration and anger, judgmental, and sometimes depression. Many

36. 32
times the expatriate feels misunderstood and typically is overwhelmed by the new culture‘s
requirements.
The third stage of adjustment involves that of reintegration and acceptance. The
expatriate begins to relax in the new environment and begins to reach out and make new friends
and find ways to take advantage of the recreational outlets and even change their original
expectations.
The fourth stage continues the process of reintegration toward autonomy and the
increased ability to have a balanced approach and perspective to interpret both the positive and
negative aspects of the former and new culture. Adler (1975) specifies the fifth stage as
reciprocal interdependence. This is where the expatriate has moved to a place of culturality,
where she is comfortable with both cultures.
This sequence of adjustment to a new culture is experienced by just about all persons
who sojourn to new countries. The process has been referred to as a U-curve or a W-curve
because it moves from higher to lower levels or adjustment and then returns to higher levels.
Church(1982) discusses empirical studies in support of the U-curve hypothesis yet there are
studies that refute this theory.
Furnham and Bochner (1986) cite several problems with the U-curve hypothesis. They
consider variables such as loneliness, homesickness, depression, and other attitudes that impact a
person‘s adjustment. Kim(1988) reports the most serious weakness of a U-curve is the inference
that the process is a smooth move along each stage. In reality it is not so and the process can be
awkward and unpredictable.
Every person experiences the world through his or her own culturally influenced values,
assumptions, and beliefs. Therefore when persons encounter another culture their values, beliefs,

37. 33
and assumptions clash with what they are now confronting.The encounter with a new culture
often poses a threat to one‘s way of life. Adler‘s (1975) view is that culture shock is very
significant in the understanding of change, including the changes that come when people move
from one place to another. What he calls ―transitional experiences‖ hold a great potential for
growth and development for all individuals that would naturally include expatriates.
One approach that has emerged in the study of culture shock is the social/learning
behavior model that emphasizes culture-specific knowledge, skills, and assimilation.
Researchers Black and Mendenhall (1991) put forward Bandura‘s (1977) social learning theory
as a way of comprehending the process. Basically, they posit that the degree to which individuals
believe they can succeed in learning another‘s culture influences their willingness to persist in
imitating the other culture behavior. The intensity of what is known as culture shock is not the
same in each individual. Depending on an individual‘s home culture, specific family, and work
situations determines how well or how poorly the expatriate will adjust to the new environment.
Culture shock as it relates to expatriation is a process that affects all people who relocate
to other countries. The changes in food, socializing, climate, transportation, and daily interaction
with people, may have a profound effect on the expatriate worker. The ability of the expatriate
teacher to understand and to master culture of the host country is an important factor in
determining if the teacher will be successful. Furnham (2010) notes,
While the term ‗culture shock‘ may have originated in the academicliterature it very
quickly took root in the popular imagination. Guides on how to mitigate the effects of
culture shock are offered to allsorts of travelers. People recognize it immediately though
they are surprised by it. There are many related definitions but they nearly all convey a
similar meaning. The concepts quoted are: ‗disorientation‘, ‗anxious confusion‘,‗disease‘

38. 34
or ‗mental shock‘ or ‗transition shock‘:it is agreed that culture shock is a disorientating
experienceof suddenly finding that the perspectives, behaviors and experienceof an
individual or group, or whole society are not shared by others.
Intercultural Competence
Intercultural competence focuses on a person‘s ability to communicate appropriately and
effectively in intercultural contexts. The importance of effective intercultural competence has
been well recognized in research studies. Hammer, Bennett, &Wiseman (2003) distinguish
between the terms ―intercultural sensitivity‖ and ―intercultural competence‖. They refer to the
first as the ability to discriminate and experience relevant cultural differences and the latter as the
ability to think and act in appropriate ways in the context in cross cultural experiences. They
argue that the expatriate to allow for greater intercultural competence to be experienced must
exercise both of these behaviors.
Bennett (1986, 1993- ) has suggested a theoretical framework for conceptualizing
intercultural sensitivity and intercultural competence that is the well-known Developmental
Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). It has six stages, which identify issues that may be
important to individuals at various stages of developmental levels. The DMIS as it is commonly
called,was created to give explanation to how people interpret cultural differences. The
underlying assumptions being that the development of intercultural sensitivity moves along a
continuum of stages of personal growth, moving from ethnocentrism-the first three stages which
is one‘s own culture as being central to understanding another‘s culture, to ethno relativism (the
last three) where one‘s own culture is experienced within the contexts of other cultures (Bennett,
1986). He further contends, the more one‘s cultural experiences become sophisticated, the more
one‘s competence in intercultural relationships is strengthened.

39. 35
There are data that specifically address the experiences of teachers in higher education,
journeying from their home country and adjusting to a host country and a foreign culture while
negotiating how to work in the subculture of their new temporary home. There are instances
where universities send their faculty abroad on international assignment. Keller (as cited by
Circarello, 2004) states as a result of data her research.Four themes emerged from her study for a
successful sojourn in a foreign country particularly pertaining to expatriate educators: (a) every
educator is not necessarily suited for an overseas assignment one must choose the ―right‖
teacher; (b) after choosing the candidate the teacher should receive in-depth training, this
occurring before they leave their home country; (c) even after the teachers are situated in their
new country and have begun their assignment, they should continued to receive support from the
university; (d) it is critical for universities to maintain open lines of communication with faculty
who are assigned abroad.
Varner&Palmer (2005) argued that the ability to adapt to a host country‘s culture plays a
critical role for an expatriate to have a positive experience.This is also the beginning of
intercultural competence.

40. 36
Cross Cultural Adjustment
Cross-cultural adjustment is the state of being at ease, and the familiarity that an
expatriate feels toward their host country as they adjust to their new environment.Firmin,
MacKay,&Firmin(2007) in their study of student teachers who complete their training overseas,
declare that cultural challenges are one of three critical factors that have the greatest impact on
overseas teacher internships. According to Firmin et al.(2007),expatriate teachers need to know
how to be appropriate in their behavior in the classroom and with persons on the street or in
church. Successfully adapting to cultural differences was listed as an important skill to be
mastered.
A number of terms have been used to describe this process of adapting successfully to a
new country and thus a new culture: cross-cultural, acculturation, cultural diversity, cultural
transmission and assimilation are but a few. ―Cultures exist to serve the vital, practical,
requirements of human life‖(Sowell, 2009,p.77). Every society is interwoven with social
differences: both those that are the result of real difference in access to resources and those that
are more the product of people‘s imagination. For nationals and expatriates living together in a
common society calls for intercultural competence on the part of both entities involved. Simply
stated one could say that a level of openness to accept differences of each is needed for
intercultural competence to be possible.
Every expatriate who arrives in a host country experiences a period of adjustment.
Adjustment refers to the process of well being to a life situation. Researchers such as Kamal and
Maruyama (1998) have included a range of outcomes that give a measure adjustment. They
included the work of previous researchers in outlining a comprehensive measure of expatriate
adjustment, including self-awareness and self-esteem (Kamal & Maruyama, 1990), mood states

41. 37
(Stone Feinstein & Ward, 1990), and health status (Wardas cited in Babiker, Cox, & Miller,
1980). Other typical measures of adjustment involve other subjective experiential constructs that
refer to well-being such as anxiety, mood, depression, subjective well-being, satisfaction, and
happiness.
Friedman,Dyke,& Murphy (2009) point out that the most widely cited model of cross-
cultural adjustment is the model developed by Black et al. (1991). It draws on the research on
expatriate adjustment and domestic work adjustments. Black et al. suggest that adjustment
occurs twice: first, prior to the expatriates‘ arrival into the country that is termed anticipatory
adjustment. In this stage it occurs as a function of the training and accuracy of their expectation
and any previous international experience. This adjustment period is further influenced by any
mechanisms or criteria that have been utilized by the organization. Secondly, there are in-country
factors which impact adjustment. These can be determined as individual skills such as relational
and perceptual skills factors, job characteristics organizational socialization, non-work
environment, and spousal and other family members family issues if such factors pertain.
While there is some academic research on cultural differences on international business
and organizational cultural, the expatriates‘ experience is largely impacted by variables that are
specific to a person‘s personality, their abilities, personal history, and the organization(Friedman
et al.,). Phenomenological research which is the description of the experiential meanings as we
live them will be a most appropriate way to capture the richness and descriptive phenomenon as
experienced by the expatriate worker as it will provide the reader an understanding of the lived
experience.
According to Marsumoto, Hirayama & Le Roux,&Brislin (1981) three factors of
adjustment have been identified including (a) having successful relationships with people from

42. 38
other cultures; (b) feeling that interactions are warm, cordial, respectful, and cooperative; and (c)
accomplishing tasks in an effective and efficient manner. Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman
(1978) focused on these factors, and also added the ability to manage psychological stress
effectively. Black and Stephens (1989)
Even so, there is some ambiguity as to what a successful adjustment to the host country
really means. Several models have been put forward. Ward and Kennedy (1999),Gullahorn and
Gullahorn (1960),Oberg (1960), andAdler (1975) all delineate phases of excitement, shock
culture stress, and adaptation. What all the models seem to have in common is the first stage
when there is positive feeling, fascination, excitement, and euphoria about the host country.
Although some models give time lines for the phases there is in fact little indication as to how
long each phase will last and therefore this is absent from most models. Brown and Holloway
point to the work of Furnham and Erdmann (1995) who say it is important to distinguish between
psychological and socio-cultural adjustment. They further state that distinguishing between the
two may have significant implications for those who offer support. As such, some may focus on
the expatriate acquiring skills to assisting in the socio-cultural adjustment while others may need
a course of action that addresses low self esteem or depression.
While most of the research has been advising expatriate teachers to heartily embrace their
new culture, conversely, authors Herman &Bailey (1991) urge a degree of caution in the cultural
exchange process. They quote Briere (1984) and Horowitz (1987) as supporting their argument,
citing that an overly enthusiastic admiration of a foreign culture is as dangerous as a negative
perception regarding a new culture.
Most of the literature corroborates the impact that acculturation has on the entire process.
Acculturation refers to the process of intercultural adaptation. Wichert, (1996 ) noted that Kim‘s

43. 39
early work in 1977 noted that as immigrants moved from one culture to another their values and
behaviors may be maladaptive to the new. Kim also characterizes acculturation as the
phenomena whereby ―sooner or later, immigrants come to understand better the norms and
values, and to adopt salient reference groups of the host society‖. Cross-cultural adaptation
refers to the ―process over time that takes place within individuals who have completed their
primary socialization in one culture and then come into continuous and prolonged firsthand
contact with a new culture (Kim, p.37).(Stenbacka, 2001)
Professional studies and scholarly literature on this important topic is still being
developed. As an increased number of teachers, both experienced and student teachers, venture
overseas, they experience the opportunities that international teaching brings therefore more
research is being produced.
Several theories address the transition between the home culture and the introspective and
transformational journey from known customs, beliefs,values, and traditions to the unknown
waters of a new culture. The process of acculturation of the expatriate will be viewed through the
lenses of social learning, self-efficacy, and transformational learning.
Social learning theory.
Albert Bandura (1977), a leading proponent of the social learning theory explains human
behavior in terms of the mutualinteraction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
influences. This theory referenced by Ormond (1999) focuses on learning that occurs within a
social context. It considers that people learn from one another and includes concepts such as
modeling, imitation, and observational learning.Bandura, the leading proponent of this theory,
puts forward several principles and provides implications to explain the theory.

44. 40
The primary principles of the social learning theory are: (a) People can learn by observing the
behavior of others and as such by the outcomes of those behaviors. Learning can occur without a
change in behavior. This concept is in direct opposition to the behaviorist view that says for
learning to occur there has to be a permanent change in behavior. Rather, says social theorists
learning may or may not result in a behavior change. (b) Cognition plays a role in learning. And
that awareness and expectations of reinforcement or punishments can have a major result on the
behaviors that people exhibit,and (c) as such the social learning theory serves as a transitional
bridge between the behaviorist‘s theories and the cognitive learning theories.
Bandura (1977) has suggested that the environment reinforces modeling in several ways.
He suggests that imitated behavior in and of itselfleads an observer to reinforcing consequences
and the behavior is learned through modeling and is thereby reinforced.Bandura (1977) has
further proposed that social learning theory can be used to explain cultural differences and it is
incumbent for a new comer in the host culture to become competent in new learning in order to
ensure adjustment in the new environment.
Researchers, Black and Mendenhall (1991), discuss Bandura‘s social learning theory and
put forwardthat learning can occur as a result of modeling and observing other people‘s
behavior. They argue that the extent to which individuals believe they can succeed is significant
to the amount of success they experience. Their willingness to persevere in mirroring ―the other‖
culture impacts and influences their lived experience. Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) contend
that expatriates often learn culturally appropriate behavior through social learning. Further,
Bandura (1986) addressed the topic of social-cultural diffusion and adaptation for people of
different cultures. He noted that there is some pressure to adapt to a new culture and to reshape
behaviors in a diffusion process. There are a range of stages that expatriates experience as they

45. 41
maneuver through the stages of adjustment to a new culture. There are obstacles to a smooth
transitional change of lifestyle and such as being forced to learn a new way and the time it takes
to journey through it is the cross-cultural learning process.
Self-efficacy theory.
Another theory that has meaningful context to this study and is related to the theory of
social learning is the theory of self-efficacy.Theself efficacy theory can be defined as the belief
in one‘s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage perspective
situations. According to Bandura, a person‘s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise
what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations
and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy determines how people feel,
think,and behave toward situations and motivate themselves. A strong sense of self-efficacy
enhances an individual‘s personal well-being.Possessing such a strong sense of efficacy fosters
an optimistic outlook and engenders deep engrossment and interest in activities.
In contrast, says Bandura, those who doubt their capabilities often do not attempt what
they perceive to be difficult tasks. They have low aspirations and a less than robust belief in their
ability to overcome adversity and fall victim to stress and depression.
Bandura (1986) records that there are four major sources of efficacy expectations:(a)
performance accomplishments: the most influential source of efficacy formation, because it
provides the most authentic evidence; (b) vicarious experience: less influential than performance
accomplishments. Although seeing the success of others similar to one‘s self can raise a person‘s
self efficacy; (c) verbal persuasion: although this does not provide authentic evidence, it does
raise favorable logical arguments that may raise self efficacy; (d). emotional arousal: especially

46. 42
in threatening situations, desensitization, and massive exposure treatments may produce some
reduction in avoidance behaviors.
Another study suggests that there is a strong correlation between expatriates‘
effectiveness and how well they adjust their behavior within a host culture. This study of
99expatriates occurred in Europe and was related to the variables of self efficacy and self
monitoring. Results of this particular study indicated that participants with high general self-
efficacy expressed significantly greater degrees of interaction and work adjustment than those
with low or weak self-efficacy(Harrison, Chadwick, & Scales, 1996).
Transformational learning theory.
Another theory that relates to this study of expatriate adaptation and effectiveness is that
of transformational learning. The study of transformational learning emerged with the work of
Jack Mezirow (1994, 1997). Transformational learning is defined as learning that induces more
far-reaching change in the learner than other kinds of learning; especially learning experiences
which shape the learner and produce a significant impact, or paradigm shift, which affects the
learner‘s subsequent experiences (Clark,1993). Transformative learning is concerned with ―how
learners construe, validate, and reformulate themeaning of theirexperience‖ (Cranton, 1994,
p.22).
When a learner is confronted with a new situation and becomes open to doing things a
different way, accepting of new ideas, are less defensive about their own view, and reflective
they are then in a transformational learning mode. Mezirow (1997) also posits that individuals do
not make transformative changes in the way they learn as long as the new material fits
comfortably in their existing frames of reference. The theory specifically asserts that learning
centers upon making meaning of life experiences.

47. 43
Teaching overseas and becoming immersed in diverse cultures is a means of learning
more about one‘s self. The experience of international teaching opens a window for personal
growth and increased professional competence. A theoretical framework known as
transformational learning, as suggested by McKay & Montgomery (1995), Wilson (1993), and
Taylor (1998) explains how a person‘s expectations directly influence the meaning they derive
from their experiences (Cranton, 1994, p.22). Garson (2005) calls it a reduction of one‘s own
ideas, attitudes, and behaviors while maintaining academic integrity. Student teachers seem
more open to incorporate their values, ideas, and beliefs and critically examine the assumptions
on which they were based. This affirms the research that states younger people adapt easier to
change than older persons. Clement and Outlaw (2002) suggest that the overseas internship
experience is a learning process on multiple levels. Students learn about themselves, the culture,
and about teaching.
Mezirow (1997) stated that a frame of reference is the collection of the assumptions
through which we interpret and understand the world we live in. A frame of reference includes
two elements: habits of mind and a point of view. Habits of mind are always affected and
shaped by assumptions which build on cultural, social, educational, and political codes. While, a
specific point of view is originated from habits of mind (Mezirow, 1997). When people begin to
critically reflect and examine their predetermined assumptions and beliefs, they would become
more open, inclusive, reflective, and willing to change (Choy, 2010). However, not every
experience can cause transformation. Effective learning does not follow from a positive
experience unless the learner participates in a reflective process. Thus, according to
Mezirow,critical reflection is central to transformational learning.

48. 44
Reflection is an important concept in adult learning. It is understood to be the activity in
the brain where people recapture their experiences, think about them, mull them over, and
evaluate them (Boud, Keogh, &Walker,1985c, p.33).Cognitive reflection is a key tool through
which individuals extract knowledge from concrete experience(Fenwick,2001). Mezirow(1997)
employs the theory of reflection in his concept of transformational learning citing it as a process
―grounded in cognition and content‖ through which adults can transform meaning perspectives.
This is a process that is essential for transformation. This process of reflection is useful and
essential for the ultimate success of the expatriate worker.
As an increased number of teachers—both experienced and student teachers—venture
overseas to experience the opportunities that international teaching brings, more research is
being produced. Further research in this area regarding self-identity and personal growth is
needed. The concepts could be further tested and this body of knowledge could make an
important contribution to the transformational experience of the international worker. One of the
articles that I read, I Don’t Eat White,took an alternate view of those who choose to teach
overseas. The researchers Moseley, Reeder, &Armstrong described the process of cultural
immersion, institutional and peer support, and social dynamics as transformational learning.
This process they contend is a means of the overseas teachers learning more about themselves.
Critical Factors that Impact Expatriate Teachers during their Work Experience
Several factors impact the expatriate teacher during their work experience:
Inadequate preparation for work overseas.
Research shows that universities and other institutions are beginning to put more effort
into training programs designed for teachers who work overseas. These programs are usually
limited and just focus on basic issues and do not address the teachers‘ needs fully (Bengu, 2009).

49. 45
In fact, most of the literature centers on the experiences of student teachers rather than the
experiences of the veteran teachers. However there did not appear to be much difference
between the two in the process of adaption to the new environment. The student teacher and the
experienced teacher seemed to meet with the same challenges and voice the same concerns.
Garson (2005), an experienced professor, writing from personal teaching experience in Cairo,
cites frustration, intolerance, nervousness, and uncertainty as contributing to her early departure
while other researchers report similar types of fears and concerns experienced by student
teachers.Stachowski and Visconti (1997) report that student teachers, while performing their
overseas internships, express the same types of feelings as they encounter unexpected challenges.
While preparation and orientation are needed to address specific academic
challenges,attention must be given to provide communal support as part of the groundwork in
preparing the expatriate worker to meet the nuances of living in the host country. Studies show
that while teachers sought to develop relationships with their colleagues and the people around
them communication with family and friends back home remained a key factor. Firmin, Mackay,
&Firmin (2007) state that other colleagues on staff often become a significant source of support.
Personality characteristics.
Personality can be defined as an attitudinal, emotional, experiential, and interpersonal
style that explains persons‘ behavior as it relates to situations and people (Rose, Ramula, Uli,
&Kumar, 2010). Psychologists such as Erikson and Maslow define personality as the pattern of
behavior and thinking that prevails across time and contexts and differentiates one person from
another.
The authors, Herman and Bailey (1991) purport that a combination of factors:
personality, language barriers, instructional concerns, and cultural context issues, impact the

50. 46
level of success of the foreign teachers‘ experience. Herman and Bailey (1991) found that
cultivating a spirit of patience and trust; being flexible; possessing humility, understanding, and
sensitivity captures desirable characteristics that make adapting to a new culture less stressful.
Herman and Bailey also contend that all teachers are not suited for overseas service, despite how
much teaching experiences or how many overseas assignments they‘ve executed. It is a matter
of the teacher having a healthy mental attitude and adjusting to new situations quickly.
One study not confined to just expatriate teachers but expatriates in general by Rose,
Ramula, Uli, and Kumar (2010) examined the ―Big Five personality traits‖ and its dimensions on
expatriate job performance. Organizational psychology suggests that personality characteristics
can be categorized in five basic trait dimensions: extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness,
openness to experience, and neuroticism (Rose et al., 2010). These personality traits have been
labeled as the Big Five Personality as cited by Hough (1992) and Digman (1997) by Rose et al
(2010). While the traits are not just predictors of employment success across cultures, the results
are congruent with both domestic and overseas cultures. Caligiuri (2000) linked three of the Big
Five as key to the expatriate‘s willingness to stay in the host country, that of agreeableness,
extroversion, and emotional stability. According to Caligiuri,(2000) expatriates with a higher
level of positive personality characteristics will adjust easier and their performance ratings will
be more in the positive range.
Yet, a study by Lee and Sukoco(2008) indicated that personality has no direct effect on
the success of expatriation. Rather this study suggests that companies should look to provide
psychological comfort to workers because this can directly influence expatriate performance.
Stress, tolerance, and coping.

51. 47
Hofstede (1980) suggests that those expatriates who take on an assignment in a foreign
cultural environment are placed under an inordinate amount of stress. There is an obvious
adjustment period because the expatriate does not have control over the infrastructure and
patterns and behaviors of the people in the host country and this causes the expatriate to
experience emotional stress.
Another study by researcher Forster (1994)reveals that expatriates suffer stress in the
early stages of their arrival into the new country. Using the Goldberg Health Questionnaire as an
indicator of stress he found 25% of employees and 30% of their partners scoredabove normal
stress levels on international assignment before they departed on their assignment but their
threshold increased to levels of 48% and 51% respectively just four months into the new
assignment.Several other studies are mentioned by Brown (2008) as linking increased levels of
psychosocial stress to overseas assignments (Torbiorn;Furnham;Ward,Bochner,
&Furnham,2010).
Coping an emotion related to stress is an area of research that really needs further probing
in regards to the expatriates‘ adaptation experience. From a process standpoint, coping is defined
as an ongoing cognitive and behavior effort to manage specific external and or internal demands
that are viewed as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person Lazarus, 1993.The ability to
cope quickly needs to be coupled with other noted factors of adjustment. Lazarus, 1993 further
states that whether a coping process is good or bad in reference to adaptation depends on the
particular person and the specific type of encounter in the short or long run. What is needed in
the coping measurement is to describe what the person is thinking and doing in an effort to cope
with the stressful encounter. Researchers noted that: ―patience, humility, flexibility,
understanding and sensitivity capture attitudes and behaviors that enhance the foreign teachers‘

52. 48
experience.‖ These seemingly obvious observations would indicate that a teacher who possessed
these characteristics would have a better chance of coping in a new environment.
Homesickness and loneliness.
Much of the literature on key issues that face expatriates does not cite homesickness on
the part of the expatriate as an adjustment difficulty Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou
(1991);Briscoe and Schuler (2004). It seems to be a forgotten phenomenon in the area of studies
on international resource management. Yet Hack-Polay(2009) presents evidence that
homesickness is an illness and detrimental to the well-being of individuals displaced from their
homes. Homesickness can be defined as ―the commonly experienced state of distress among
those who have left their house and home and find themselves in a new and unfamiliar
environment‖ (Van Tilburb,Vingerhoets,&Van Heck, 1996).
A number of behavioral symptoms have been identified and associated with
homesickness. Apathy, listlessness, lack of initiative, and little interest in the new environment
are typical symptoms. Fisher (1989) also identifies a state of absent mindedness in the affected
people. He reveals in his study that homesickness has a tendency to produce simultaneously
negative thoughts about the new environment and idealizing home and repressing the problems
that were present. A voluntary study by Ward and Kennedy (2001) revealed that homesickness
and loneliness were two of the factors that were associated with external locus of control.These
factors were predictors of social-cultural adjustment and were linked to satisfaction with the host
country. Therefore, homesickness in expatriates should be addressed by international agencies if
the success rate in labor transfers is to improve reports (Hack-Paloy,2009).
Behavior of Students.

53. 49
A study by Maylor et al. (2006) revealed that an area that seemed to cause the expatriate
teachers gross concern was the level of poor behavior encountered in the classroom. One teacher
referred to one of the classes she taught as ―the stereotypical class from hell.‖ Another teacher
said he was ―spat on‖, ―sworn at‖, and ―downright verbally abused….‖ Experiencing such
behavior in the classroom led many of the teachers just to hope for survival as opposed to how
they could best teach the students.Herman and Bailey (1991) would argue that those teachers did
not possess the personality traits to enhance their teaching in the classroom. They say that the
students would read ―one‘s heart‖ first and ―one‘s behavior‖ second. The authors base their view
on the theoretical writings of Carl Rogers (1980, 1983). They contend that the teacher should
operate in the ―role of facilitator of learning‖ where teachers help students to become active
learners through taking responsibility for their learning and discovering personal meaning in
their studies‖ This would enhance their experience in the classroom.
In a pilot study conducted by this researcher the expatriate teachers at a local parochial
school have often cited the less than ideal behavior of the students as a major factor that causes
them some concern and may even be a factor in their decision-making when contemplating
whether to continue their contract or whether to leave. While not using such descriptive
language as ―stereotypical class from hell‖ they have made comments such as ―constant talking‖
―disrespectful‖ and ―rude‖ to describe the poor behavior of the students. Because many of the
teachers who come to the school are relatively inexperienced (many come right out of college)
the Bermuda experience at this particular school indicates that more background checks and
information need to be conducted before actually bringing overseas teachers to our shores. A
study of personality traits, instructional concerns, and impact of the cultureHerman &Bailey,
(1991)exploring teacher perceptions, developing greater clarity about the new culture, knowing

54. 50
curriculum requirements are factors that need to be considered before final decisions are made
concerning hiring expatriate teachers(Maylor et al.,(2006).
Family Related Situations.
About 70% of expatriates have children and most of them bring their families along with
them on their international assignments Van der Zee, Ali, &Haaksma,(2007). The ability of the
expatriate‘s family members to adjust and perform effectively in the new environment is a key
component in the rate and level of adjustment of the expatriate worker. One of the major
problems cited by human resources departments is the inadequate attention paid to this variable
in the adjustment process Mendenhall &Oddou, (1995). Pressures faced by spouses can make
culture shock more intense if the spouse cannot adjust to the new culture Black,
Mendenhall,&Oddou,(1995).
In much the same way that the employee has to adjust to the new environment so do the
spouse and children of the expatriate worker. Children have had to leave their friends and
become accustomed to a new school, different teachers, and unfamiliar systems. Often times they
may have to learn a new language (Van der Zeeet al., 2007).This is a family stressor that is oft
times overlooked or under emphasized when relocation is in progress.According to Van der Zee
et al.,this lack of attention is somewhat hard to comprehend since the well being of the children
(and the spouse) may strongly affect the satisfaction and work performance of the expatriate
worker.
In an earlier work by Caligiuri et al. (1998) and Parker and McEvoy (1995) that focused
on expatriate family adjustment,determinants family, adaptability, and cohesion,
communications ranked high in the adjustment process. Insight into these family factors may
help hiring organizations better assist families in the relocation process.

55. 51
Summary
The globalization of our world has facilitated the ease with which persons can travel from
one country to another. This literature review specifically addressed the physiological,
psychological, and sociological factors that are determinants in the unfamiliar cultures
encountered by expatriate workers and the salient factors that contributed to their success or
failure while they maneuvered in their new environment. The theoretical and social-cultural
aspects of socialization, culture, and culture shock as viewed by researchers such as Adler
(1975), Bandura (1977), Bennett (1986), Caligiuri (2000), and others have been a major focus in
this work and present an overarching theme in this study.
While this research is not exhaustive, it has examined many possible variables of
acculturation and adaptation of expatriates and represents a better understanding of their
experiences. Cornwell and Stoddard (as cited in Bennett &Bennett, 1999) have called for a
greater integration of international and intercultural education. For while intercultural
competence is often listed among the most important goals for the success of international
workers, all researchers do not share that view.
Miranda (2009) for instance takes an opposing stance and cites the importance of
learning styles and how it impacts the expatriates‘ ability to relate with other team members. Her
work focuses on the direct impact of placing expatriates with appropriate team members so they
can complement each other. David Kolb (1984) and Yamazaki (2007) (as cited in Miranda,
(2009)contends that learning takes place through the use of feeling, reflecting, thinking, and
doing.
The underlying factors of lack of preparation,(Stachowski &Viscounti,(1997); stress
tolerance and coping(Hofstede, 1980); the impact of personality characteristic experiences of

56. 52
loneliness and homesicknessHack-Polay,(2008);and the cooperation and adjustment of other
family members Van Der Zee, Ali, &Haaksma, (2007) all challenge the expatriate workers‘
success. If the expatriate is employed in the educational arena, the behavior of students in the
classroom has been recorded as an additional challenge Maylor,(2006)faced by expatriate
workers and has impacted the length of stay and job performance of their experience.
Finally, the current theoretical outcomes of the literature review re-affirm past theoretical
concepts and empirical studies that will pave the way for expatriates to experience future
success. For the expatriation process to impact positively educators and other expatriate
workers, astringent efforts should be made to identify the salient factors that contribute to failure
in foreign assessments. Lack of communication and inadequate selection criteria, has been well
documented as impactful determinants in expatriation process but not from the context of
cultural differences Adler, 2001;Mintzberg &Gosling, (2002). It is clear that other extenuating
consideration factors are essential for expatriate success. Based on current studies the idea of the
expatriate training in cross-cultural skills has become important in ensuring expatriate success.
A continual understanding of intercultural competence development along with improved social
and academic networks for expatriate workers will allow further success in achieving an
improved outcome with expatriate workers as they encounter unexpected significant factors that
impact their worldview and actual sojourn in the host country.

57. 53

58. 54
Chapter 3
Methodology
Introduction
The aim of this study is to explore the experiences and perceptions of expatriate teachers
who live and work in Bermuda. This chapter will explain the research design, the population
sample, the process for data collection, and the proposed data analysis that will be used.
Research Design
This will be a qualitative research study. Qualitative research basically encompasses a
number of philosophical orientations. It is emergent, flexible, and responsive to the changing
conditions that are present in a qualitative study. It focuses on meaning and understanding of the
phonomena and seeks to make sense of the process (Merriam, 2009). Qualitative research
focuses on the process as well as the product of the outcome(, (Creswell, 2007). Patton (as cited
by Merriam, 2009) explains that:
qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a
context…to understand the nature of that setting-what it means for participants to be in
that setting, what their lives are like, what‘s going on for them, what their meanings are,
what the world looks like in that particular setting- and in the analysysis be able to
communicate that phenomenona faithfully to others who are interested in that setting...
(p. 14)
In qualitative research, Best & Kahn (1998)statethat there are six assumptions included in
qualitative research: it is descriptive; it involves fieldwork;it is concerned primarily with process
rather than outcomes; it is inductive in that it builds abstractions, concepts theory, and
hypotheses from detail; it is primarily interested in meaning and the researcher is the primary

59. 55
instrument for data collection and analysis.The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument
for data collection and analysis. The researcher will execute good research practice, make well
informed choices, and substantiate them.
The research design e conducted in this study will be a phenomenological inquiry. It is a
type of qualitative research with its own focus and methodological strategies. The basic purpose
will be to reduce the experiences of the participants to the very quintessence of the phenomenom.
It will describe the ―what‖ and the ―how for all of the participants. The task for the researcher
will be to depict essences of meaning in the experiences. The intent of the researcher is to
describe as accurately as possible the phenomenon. The researcher has to examine his own
experiences to be aware of any previous prejudcies, biases, viewpoints, or assumptions he may
have. ―Prior beliefs about a phenomenon are temporialy put aside or bracketed, so as not to
interfere with seeing or intuiting the elements or structure of the phenomenon‖(Merriam, 2009,
p. 25).
According to Creswell (2007),a phenomemological research study describes ―the
meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon‖(p.57).
It focuses on what the participants have in common. ―Phenomenology is both a twentieth century
school of philosophy associated with Husserl (1970) and a type of qualitative
research‖(Merriam, 2009, p.24). According to Welman and Kruger (1999) ―the
phenomenologists are concerned with understanding social and psychological phenomena from
the perspectives of people involved‖ (p.189).
Van Manen(1990)declares that phenomenology aims at gaining a deeper understanding
of our everyday experiences. One is always asking what kind of experience. It attempts, he says
to gain an insightful description of the way we experience the world.

60. 56
Sometimes in describing an approach it is important to state what that methodology is
not. As such, phenomenology does not describe actual states of affaires that is it is not a science
of empirical facts. It goes beyond mere particulars. It cannot be used to show or to prove or
problem solve or seek solutions or to pursue winning strategies or tecniques. It is all about the
meaning and significance of the phenomena. Van Manen (1990)states ―Phenomenological
questions are meaning questions. they can be better or more deeply understood, so that on the
basis of this understanding, I may be able to act more thoughtfully in certain situations‖ (p.23).
Proposed Sample
This study will have participants from both the public and private schools in Bermuda.
Because almost half of the expatraite teachers who are employed by the Ministry of Education
teach in the two public secondary schools on the island, I will chose a larger percentage of
teachers from the two public schools to be participants in the study. The first public secondary
school that has been chosen has a population of 860 students with a teaching faculty of eighty.
There are a number of teachers there that are considered expatriates. The second public school
has a student population of about 650, also with a large population of expatriates.
Two schools will also be chosen from the private sector. One of these private instutions
chosen will be a schoolowned and operated by the church. It receives no public funding from the
Bermuda Government. Even though it is located in Bermuda the school operates on the
Americam system of education. That is,it has adopted an American curriculm.The Ministry of
Education has no jursidiction over its adopted curriculm. The grades encompass kindergarden to
Grade 12. The students earn a high school diploma upon completion of Grade 12. The total
number of students enrolled at this particular school fluctuate between 345 and 380. There are
32 teachers on the staff. Of that number 13of the teachers are expatriates.

61. 57
The second private school operates on a British system of education. It is a well
established private school and many consider it a privilege to be accepted into the school. The
grades encompass primary one to secondary four. The school receives no public funding from
the Bermuda Government. The Ministry of Education has no juridiction over its adopted
curriculum, which is the United Kingdom National Curriculm. The school has a population of
500.The school also has an optional Sixth Form Centre that contains two more grade levels.
(Grades 12 &13). There ratio of Bermudian teachers to expatriate teachers on the
staffisunknown at this time.
Criteria for Selection of Teachers
The criterion that will be used to select the participants will be germaine to the study
being investigated. To facilitate this process the following criteria will be utilized. A sample of
eight expatriate teachers will be chosen from the two public secondary schools and six from two
private schools making a total of 14. All participants must have completed teaching for a
minimum of one full school year. They must have been recruited from overseas and not lived in
Bermuda before being hired. They may or may not be married. Both male and female
participants will be chosen. All participants will be selected because they have experienced the
phenomenom being studied and they are willing to share their thoughts and can articulate their
concious experiences.
Principals
There is no set criterion for principals because they will be chosen on the basis of their
schools being part of the study. At this time the national status of each of the principals is
unknown.

62. 58
Data Gathering
According to Merriam (2009),―Data are nothing more than ordinary bits and pieces of
information found in the environment.‖ ―They can be concrete and measurable… or invisible
and difficult.‖… ―Whether or not a bit of information becomes data in a research study depends
solely on the interest and perspective of the investigator‖ (p.85). To collect the data for this
study exact words, perceived perceptions, and felt feelings about the lived experiences will be
extracted from the chosenteachers.
An introductory letter will be sent to the principals which will give the particulars of the
study. A personal interview will be requested. During a face-to-face meeting with each of the
principals from the four schools,I will reiterate the purpose and goals of my research. I will seek
permission to engage a meeting with the non-Bermudian teachers in their school. Once approval
has been granted, I will meet with the teachers.I will explain the focus of my research and ask
for volunteers who would like to to be part of the study. If more than the pre-determined number
of 14express an interest, then the names of the teachers will be randomly chosen. A total of
eight expatriate teachers will be chosen from the two public secondary schools, with four being
chosen from each public school. A total of six teachers will be chosen from the private sector.
Three teachers will be chosen from each of the two private schools. This will make a total of
14teachers. Once all the participants have been verified, a letter will be sent which will confirm
their participation and provide pertinent information such as the purpose of the study and the
time and place of the interviews (seeAppendix B).As a researcher, I will be seeking in-depth
information about the phenomenon the expatriate teachers are experiencing (seeAppendix D).
The principals will be asked to share their perceptions and experiences as they relate to
expatriate teachers‘ perceived success or non-success. They will be asked to specify how they

63. 59
see the expatriate teacher responding to the cultural challenges and social issues that may occur
on a recurring basis and that inevitably arise in a school setting. All information that is obtained
will be coded, confidential, and anonymous.This will be considered a secondary source for
obtaining data.
In depth, face-to-face interviews will be the preferred primary source to obtain data. It
will be the responsibility of the researcher to glean information on the dynamics of the research
problem in an intentional way. The researcher will seek to understand the essence and
underlying structure of the phenomenon, based on their everyday experiences and social
interactions. The objective of the interview will be to be aware of the experience and identify the
emotions the participant is relaying when they reflect and report on their own experiences.
The researcher‘s field notes will be another important source of gathering data for the study.
Field notes are a written account of the researchers‘ observations that will be written during and
as soon after the interview as possible.
Interviews
Interviewing is probably the most common method of data collection.Merriam (2009)
states that: ―As a means of collecting information, interviewing has been with us for centuries‖
(p. 9). The interview is a very important aspect of qualitative research. It plays a central role in
the collection of data. The data that is collected is based on the participants‘ perspective. Even
though the researcher is conducting the interview, the voice of the interviewee must speak. The
interview must not contain the biases of the interviewer. The interviewer wants to find out what
is on the participants‘ mind with the purpose being to enter into the other person‘s perspective.
The objective is to collect thick,rich, in-depth data. As Patton explains (2002):

64. 60
We interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly observe….
We cannot observe feelings, thoughts and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that
took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the
presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and
the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world.(pp. 20-21)
Not just the words themselves are important but the very environment is the key to the
process. Where the interviewer stands and sits whether the interview is conducted on the
telephone or face-to-face will contribute to the quality of the responses. These interviews will be
held where the participant is most comfortable. Interviews will be conducted in a quiet setting
free from distractions. A neutral place will be sought out, ideally in a school setting.
Merriam (2009) and Creswell (2007) record that good interview questions are open-
ended and yield descriptive data. The interviews will be semi-structured, guided by a set of
proposed questionshowever; the order of the questions nor the exact wording will not be the
same for each interviewee. This form of interviewing will be more conducive to achieving the
desired outcome (see Appendix B).
For this research study the aim is to interview all participants face-to-face. To achieve
uniformity of questioning an interview protocol has been created. It will contain open-ended
questions; even though there will be prepared questions, other questions may evolve as the
interview proceeds. As much as possible teachers will be chosen who have come from different
countries and who have been teaching for varying lengths of time. Each interview will be
recorded on a digital device.
Data Analysis

65. 61
Data analysis is the process that the researcher uses to make sense out of the data. As
Merriam 1988states,the researcher must ask herself if the information gained answers the
purpose statement. After obtaining the interview, the first step will be to organize the data. In
organizing the data the researcher will transcribe the audio data. Each participant‘s file will be
transcribed. Notes and reflections will be added along the way. Once the data has been
organized the researcher moves on to the next step where the researcher must interpret the
findings. The data will be analyzed for significant statements made by the interviewees.
Therefore the researcher must consolidate, reduce, and interpret what the participants have said
and what the researcher has seen and read Merriam,(1988). The collected data will be transcribed
from a digital audio recorder. As the interviewer I will also write my reflections immediately
following the interview to aid the process of analyzing the information itself. The information
will be organized into chunks and segments (coding). Phenomenological research uses the
analysis of significant statements and the development of what Moustakes (1994) calls an
essence of the description.To gain a better understanding of the essence or nature of an
experience Van Manen(1990) explains, ―the essence or nature of an experience has been
adequately described in language if the description reawakens or shows us the lived quality and
significance of the experience in a fuller or deeper manner‖ (p. 10)
Holloway (1997) recommends that the researchers listen a number of times to the digital
recorder to become familiar with the words and feelings of the interviewee to develop a holistic
sense, the ―gestalt‖. The researcher must bracket his presuppositions in order to remain true to
the phenomenon.
Common themes, patterns, and categories will emerge out of the interviews. For the
phenomenologist, they are typically formed by grouping units of meaning together (Creswell,

66. 62
1998) and the researcher identifies topics that are significant to the study. There may be some
overlap but that is not unusual considering the nature of human phenomena. The researcher will
be careful not to cluster common themes together if significant differences exist.
Reliability and Validity
In qualitative research the requirements of validity and reliability are under active, on-
going discussion.Patton (2001) states that validity and reliability are two factors which any
qualitative researcher should be concerned with when designing a qualitative study. To insure
reliability in qualitative research the examination of trustworthiness is critical. Further, Seale
(1999)reports that ―trustworthiness of a research report lies at the heart of issues conventionally
discussed as validity and reliability‖ (p. 266).Trustworthiness of the research must be considered
when justifying the results and quality of the study.
Not all researchers agree with these views. In contrast, Stenbacka (2001) argues that
since reliability issues reflect measurements and therefore has no relevance in qualitative
research. She further adds―the issue of reliability is an irrelevant matter in the judgment of the
quality of qualitative research‖ (p.552).
For the purpose of this phenomenological research, each participant will be given an
opportunity to ask questions and seek clarification. A copy of their responses will be given to the
participants and they will be asked to verify that their recorded responses to the questions
accurately reflected their responses and sentiments. This will be done to comply with member
checking this procedure and will give credibility to the interpretation. I will meet with other peer
researchers in my study group to collaborate on best methods and for them to provide a critical
review and feedback. Additionally, the participants can be privy to the results of the study.

67. 63
Triangulation and generalizability will be employed strategies that will be used. Table 1, adapted
from Johnson (1997) summarizes this research paradigm.
Table 1. Strategies used to Promote Qualitative Research Validity (Johnson 1997).
Strategy Description My study
Field notes Field notes are secondary data Field notes will be an integral
storage. Method. Notes will not part of each interview. I will
only be taken during the pay special attention to tone of
interview but as soon as the voice, loudness and
possible after the interview the softness. I also will be attentive
researcher willrecorded what to body language and may note
happened and what was of it in my field notes.
involved.
Triangulation Information will be cross- I will employ multiple forms of
checked through the use of data gathering. Interviews with
multiple data sources and the the teachers, the principals, and
use of multiple research my field notes will form the
methods to study a sources of information, thus
phenomenon. triangulation will occur.
Participant feedback Otherwise known as member- After recording the responses of
checking., the interpretations of the participants, the researcher
the researcher will be verified will interpret it and then return
by the actual participant. it to the participant to check for
accuracy. i

68. 64
Peer review Discussion of the researcher‘s I will take advantage of my
interpretations with others in a local study group to accomplish
study group to provide feedback this. I will also utilize the input
and critical review. of a colleague who has also
employed phenomenological
research.
Generalizability The degree to which the My findings regarding
findings can be can be expatriate can be generalized
generalized from the sample for all schools in the Bermuda
study to the entire population. circumstances where a large
number of expatriate teach in
the educational system in both
public and private schools.
Reflexivity Self awareness and self I am aware I hold some
reflection by the researcher by personal views regarding
being aware of potential biases expatriate teachers. A definite
and predispositions. effort will be made to separate
my assumptions from my
findings. Further I will let a
professional read my research.
Discussion s of my paper will
be had with members in my
study group. A disinterested

69. 65
peer will also be asked to read
the research and play devil‘s
advocate for any interpretations
or conclusions that have been
made by the researcher.
The researcher will bracket or suspend her views, experiences, and presuppositions to try
to really understand in terms of the perspectives of the expatriate teachers that were interviewed
for the phenomenon that will be studied. This is a critical process in phenomenological research.
I am aware that I hold some personal views regarding the acculturation of expatriate teachers. I
will be sensitive to my personal views in reference to expatriate teachers. A definite effort will
be made to separate my assumptions from findings of my study.
Each participant will be an authority on his or her own story. By using their own words
and expressions, and reporting their perceptions, lived experiences, and their felt feelings and
emotions will give authenticity to the experiences of expatriate teachers in the study.
References

70. 66
Adler, P. S. (1975). The transitional Experience: An alternative view of cultural shock. Journal
of Humanistic Psychology,15, 13-23.
Armes, K. & Ward, C. (1989). Cross-cultural transitions and sojourner adjustment in Singapore,
Journal of Social Psychology, 129, (2), 273-275.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bennett, M. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, (1)179-196.
Berry, J. W. (2006). Acculturation:A conceptual overview. In M.C. Bornstein & Coke, l. R.
Accultural and parent-child relationships: Measurement and development (pp. 13-
30),Mahwah,N.J. Lawrence Erlbaun.
Best, J. W. (1998).Research in education (8th ed). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Black, J. &Mendenhall,.M. (1991). The U-curve adjustment hypothesis revisited; A review and
theoretical framework. Journal of International Business Studies,22,(2) 225 - 247.
Black, J. S. (1990). Locus of control, social support, stress, and adjustment in international
transfers. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 7, 1-29.
Black, J. S. (1989). The influence of the spouse on American expatriate adjustment and intent to
stay in Pacific Rim overseas assignments. Journal of Management, 15, 529-544.
Bodycott, P. W. (2000). Teaching abroad: Lessons learned about intercultural understanding for
teachers in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 5(1), 79-94.
Boyle, J. (2000, July).Education for teachers of English in China. Journal of Education for
Teaching, 26(2), 147-155. Retrieved from EBSCO.
Brislin, R. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters.New York: Pergamon References.

71. 67
Brown, L. &. Holloway, I.(2008). The initial stage of the international sojourn: excitement and
culture shock? British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 36(1), 33-49.
Brown, R. J. (2008). Dominant stressors on expatriate couples during international assignments.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(6), 1018-1034.
Caligiuri.P.M. (2000). The Big Five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire
to terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnell Psychology,
53, 67-88.
Caligiuri, P. M. (1997). Assessing expatriate success: Beyond just "being there". In D. M.
Aycan, New approaches to employee management (pp. 117.140). Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.
Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). The Big Five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's
desire to terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnel
Psychology, 53, 67-88.
Church, A. (1982). Sojourner adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 540-572.
Coates, T. (2005, November 28).Looking abroad for a few good teachers. Time, 166(2), 64.
Retrieved fromwww.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1132834,00.html
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Creswell, J. W. (2009).Research design: Qualitative quantative and mixed methods approaches
(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Ministry of Education. (1996). Bermuda's education in public or private schools. Retrieved from
www. bermuda-online.org/education.htm.

72. 68
Deardorff, D. K. (2004). The identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a
student outcome of international at institutions of higher education in the United
States.Thousand Oaks, CA:The Sage Handbook of Intercultural Competence.
Fantini, (2000) Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence, SIT Occasional papers,
Issue No. 1. Retrived from http://www.sit.edu/publications/docs/compentence.pdf.
Firmin, M. M. (2007).Intrinsic factors affecting overseas student teaching. Education 128, 138-
147. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(5), 368-373. Retrieved from
www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=0&d=5023490056.
Firmin, M. W. (2008). Extrinsic factors affecting overseas student teaching. Journal of
Ethonographic & Qualitative Research, 2, 91-99.
Fletcher, S. &. (2004, December).Developing effective beginning teachers through mentor-based
induction. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 12(3), 321-333. Retrieved
from EBSCO.
Friedman, T. L. (2006).The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York,:
Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Furnham, A. (2000). Culture Shock: Literature review, personal statement and relevance for the
South Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4(2), 87-94
Furnham, A. (2000). Culture shock: Literature review, personal statement and relevance for the
South Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4(2), 87-94.
Garson, B. (2005). Teaching abroad: A cross-cultural journey. Journal of Education for
Business, 80(6), 322-327.
Glatthorn, A. A. (2005).Writing the winning thesis or dissertations: A step-by-step guide.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

73. 69
Gorden, R. (1992).Coding interview responses. Retrieved from
http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:J3uhpO9yU0QJ:www.indiana.edu/~educy520/
Guihermes Pires, J. (1994). Improving expatriate adjustment and effectivemess in ethnically
diversecountries marketing insights. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal,
13(2), 156-170.
Hack-Polay, P. D. (2009). Thematic articles – Migrants‘ integration in host societies. Journal of
Identity and Migration Studies, 3(1).
Hahs-Vaughn, D. &. (2008, Fall).Beginning English teacher attrition, mobility, and retention.
Journal of Experimental Education, 77(34), 21. Retrieved from MAS Ultra - School
Edition.
Hendricks, B. (2003). The impact of transition. The Way. 42(1) .
Herman, W. E. (1991, Summer).College teaching: Recommendations for teaching overseas.
Retrieved from http://ns2.ncu.edu
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Holy Bible. (1966). Philadelphia, PA: National Bible Press, King James Version.
Hutchison, C. B.& Jazzar M. (2007, January).Mentors for teachers from outside the U S Phi
Delta Kappan, 88(5), 368-373. Retrieved from
www.kappanmagazine.org/content/88/5/368.abstract.
Johnson, S. M. &Kardos, S. M. (2002March ).Keeping new teachers in mind. Educational
Leadership, 59(5), 12. Retrieved from www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/mar02/vol59/nu5.

74. 70
Karen I. Van Der Zee, A. J. (2007, March). Determinants of effective coping with cultural
transition among expatriate children and adolescents. Anxiety,Stress, and Coping, 25-45.
Lee, L. & Sukoco, B. M. (2008). The mediating effects of expatriate adjustment and operational
capability on the success of expatriation. Social Behavior and Personality, 36(9), 1191-
1204.
Lazarus. R. S.,&Folkman, S. (1984).Stress, coping and appraisal. New York, Springer.
Matsumoto, D. L. (2004). Personality and behavioral correlates of intercultural adjustment
potential. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28(3-4), 281-309.
McCormack, A. &. (2003, July). Is survival enough? Induction experiences of beginning
teachers within a New South Wales context. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education,
31(2), 125. Retrieved from EBSCO.
McKay, J. Montgomery,J., (1995).Changes in perceptions: A comparative study of the
experiential learning of international student teachers.Retrived from
www.eric.ed.gov:80/PDFS/ED384582.pdf
Merriam, S. B. (1988).Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey Bass.
Merriam, S. D. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation revised and
expanded from qualitative research and case study application in education.San
Francisco, CA: JosseyBass.
Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformational learning: Theory to practice. Transformative learning in
action: Insights from practice, New directions for adult and continuing education. (P.
Cranton, Ed.) San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass.

75. 71
Midgley, S. (2002, April 5).Strangers in a foreign land. Times Educational Supplement.
Retrievedfromwww.tes.co.uk/publications.aspx.
Moseley. Reeder, S. Armstrong. (2008). I don’t eat white. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue
10, 55-71.
Moustakes, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
O'Brien, J. &. (2005, August). Characteristics of support for beginning teachers: Evidence from
the new Teacher Induction Scheme in Scotland. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in
Learning, 13(2), 189-203. Retrieved from EBSCO.
Owen, G. (2002). Third world teachers give up on Britain. Times, The (United Kingdom).
Retrieved from UK/EIRE Reference center.
Patton, M. Q. (1985). Quality in qualitative research: Methodological principles and recent
developments invited address to Division J of the American Educational Research
Association. Chicago, IL:.
Pires, G., Stanton,J., &Ostenfeld,S. (2006). Improving expatriate adjustment and effectiveness in
ethnically diverse countries: Marketing insights. Cross-cultural Management, 13(2), 156-
170.
Rudmin, F. W. (2003a). Correction to Rudmin. Critical history of the acculturation psychology
of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Review of General
Psychology, 7(1), 3-37.
Schram, T. H. (2003). Conceptualizing qualitative inquiry. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril
Prentice Hall.
Scott, C. (2007). The joys of teaching overseas. Independent School, 66(2), 6.

76. 72
Shin, H. (1999). The homesickness and contentment scale: Developing a culturally sensitive
measure of adjustment for Asians. Research on Social Work Practice, 9(1), 45-60.
Stachowski, L. L. (2007, Winter). Thirty years and 2,000 student teachers later: An overseas
student teaching project that is popular, successful and replicable. Teacher Education
Quarterly, pp. 115-132.
Stachowski, L. V. (1997). Adaptations for success: US student teachers living and teaching
abroad. International Eduation, 29, 5-16.
Takeuchi, R. , Yun, Seokhwa, &Russell, E. E. (2002). An examination of crossover and
spillover effects comes of spousal and expatriates' cross-cultural adjustments on
expatriate out. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 655-666.
Varhegyi, V.,&Nann, S.(2000). Framework for intercultural competences.Retrieved from
www.intercultool.edu/framework.pdf.
Varner, I. & Palmer (2005). Role of cultural self-knowledge in successful expatriation.
Singapore Management Review, 27(1), 1-24.
Ward, C. A. (2001). Coping with cross-cultural transition. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 32(5), 636-642.
Williams, A. &. (2002, January).The induction tutor: Mentor, manager or both? Mentoring
&Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 10(1), 35-46. Retrieved from EBSCO.
Wong, H. (2002, March).Induction: The best form of professional development. Educational
Leadership, 59(3), 52. Retrieved from MAS Ultra - School Edition. Retrived from www.
new teacher.com/pdf./induction.
Woods, C. (2007). Researching and developing interdisciplinary teaching: Towards a conceptual
framework for classroom communication. High Education, 54, 853-866.

77. 73

78. 74
Appendix A
Letter of Consent to Principal
Date
Name and address of Principal
Dear Mr./(Mrs.) --------
Allow me to introduce myself. I am an educator and have been so for over thirty five years.
Presently I serve as the Superintendent of schools for the Bermuda Conference of Seventh-day
Adventists. I have previously served as a primary school teacher (16 years), a guidance counselor
(8 years), school principal (8 years) and now as Superintendent for six years.
I am currently involved in a doctoral program at Northern Caribbean University where the focus
of my study is the experiences of expatriate teachers in the public and private systems of
education in Bermuda. I specifically am exploring factors that make them successful, or factors
that impede that success. I‘d like to know what they consider to be the stressors during their stay
in Bermuda.
As such I would like permission to interview three or four teachers from your school who would
fit the following criteria:
1. The teacher has completed at least one full school year teaching in the private system.
2. The teacher resides in Bermuda;
3. The teacher was recruited from another country; (Not living in Bermuda before they were
recruited)
4. The teacher may be married (or not) to a Bermudian. A single teacher will also be
acceptable.
Each interview will last approximately 45 minutes to an hour.
If I am permitted to contact teachers at your school and to interview them, I am at your discretion
as to how to make an initial contact. You can make recommendations or I can be made privy to a
pool of teachers from which I can make contact.
Furthermore, I would like a face-to-face interview with you to gain some impressions and
insights as to how the expatriate teachers acclimate to the island and to the school. The questions
can be sent ahead if that is preferred.
Lastly, I would like to know the total number of teachers in your school, and the number of
Bermudians to non-Bermudians.

79. 75
My research chair is Dr. Elsie Jackson. If you have any questions or comments you may contact
either one of us. I can be contacted in the following ways: telephone: 292 0629 (home), 292 4110
(work) 505-7707 (cell) fax 295 4993, or by email: sholder@bermudaconference.bm. Dr. Jackson
can be contacted by email: elsie.jackson@ncu.edu.jm or telephone: 281-993 8889.
I will keep the information that I collect during this investigation confidential. I will not
disclose the identity of the participants unless otherwise indicated by the participants. However,
I will be willing to share the final results with you, if requested.
If you are in agreement please sign the document below and return by fax, scan and email, or by
placing it in the self addressed envelope.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I hereby give my permission for teachers from my school to participate in this study: Call me at
______________so that we can work out the details. I will also be available for a face-to-face
interview.
Print your Name:___________________________ Signature:___________________________
Thank you for volunteering to participate in my research project.

80. 76
Appendix B
Interview Questions for Expatriates
I am interviewing several teachers to discover their experiences as an expatriate teacher in the
Bermuda Education School System. My interest is in learning from your experience. The
objective is two-fold. First, the collected comments will assist me in understanding the
distinctive factors that have contributed to your stay. Secondly when the study is completed I
would like to produce an orientation document that can be used to assist in the transition process.
The interview will take about one hour.
Questions:
1. Can you tell me about your educational background?
2. What motivated you to teach in a country that is not your home?
3. What were your expectations when you arrived in Bermuda?
4. Would you share an experience you had that was significant as a first time teacher to the
island?
5. How could the school or the organization/conference/ministry of education have been of
more assistance to you?
6. What challenges have you experienced?
7. If you were to plan a transition program for expatriate teachers, what three important
things would you put in place?
8. What factors have contributed to your decision to stay here in Bermuda?
Thank you for participating in this interview. Your responses are confidential and will be used
for the purposes stated.
I plan to ask between seven to ten questions regarding the cultural experiences of expatriate
teachers in Bermuda. They will be open-ended; even though there will be prepared questions,
other questions will evolve as the interview proceeds.

81. 77
Appendix C
Participant Information
Dear Participant,
The following information is provided for you to decide whether you wish to participate in this
qualitative study. You should be aware that you are free to decide not to participate or to
withdraw at anytime from the research.
The purpose of this study is to understand the process of learning qualitative research at the
doctoral level. At this stage of the research, the process will be generally defined as perceptions
of the course and making sense out of the qualitative research at different phases in the course.
Data may be collected at three points-at the beginning of the course, at the midpoint and at the
end of the course. Data collection will involve documents, interviews, and field notes made by
participants and the researcher. Individuals involved in the data collection will be the researcher
and participants.
Do not hesitate to ask any questions about the study either before participating or during the time
that you are participating. We would be happy to share our findings with you after the research
is completed. However, your name will not be associated with the research findings in any way,
and only the researchers will know your identity as participant. There are no known risks and/or
discomforts associated with this study.
The expected benefits associated with your participation are that the informationgained will help
identify issues that impact expatriate teachers, provide insight into cultural situations and provide
recommendations that may assist foreign teachers and those educational employment agencies
that hire them. Additionally hiring bodies may develop effective strategies that may contribute to
a successful sojourn for the expatriate worker.
By signing below you indicate your consent with full knowledge of the nature and purpose of the
procedures listed on the information sheet. A copy of this consent form will be given to you for
your records.

82. 78
The Participant
Understands the information on the information sheet
Is free to withdraw at any time during the process
Is free to ask questions
Agrees to participate in the study
Agrees to being recorded on a digital device
Has no objection to further contact for clarification
_____________________________________ _________________________
Name and Signature of Participant Date
Sheila V. Holder
Researcher

83. 79
(Cranton P. , 2006)(Clement & Outlaw, 2002)(Rose R. C., 2010)(Hough, 1992)(Stachowski L.
&., 1997)(Digman, 1997)(Caligiuri P. M., The big five personality charististics as predictors of
expatriate success., 2000)(Forster, 1994)
ii
Works Cited
(n.d.).
. (n.d.). Human Relations .
Ward, C. A. (2001). Coping with cross-cultural transition. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32 (5), 636
- 642.
Ward, C. B. (2001). The Psychology of Culture Shock. London: Routledge.
Wichert, R. (1996). Acculturation and intercultural identity in the post-modern world. Retrieved 2011,
from www. wichert.org/icid.html
Williams, A. &. (2002, January). The induction tutor: mentor, manager or both? Mentoring & tutoring:
Partnership in learning, 10(1), 35-46. Retrieved October 22, 2008, from EBSCO.
White, E. (1939). The Story of Patriarchs and Prophets. Mountain View, California: The Ellen G. White
Publications.
Wong, H. (2002, March). Induction: The best form of professional development. Educational Leadership,
59(3), 52. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition.
Woods, C. (2007). Researching and developing interdisciplinary teaching: towards a conceptual
framework for classroom communication. High Education, 54, 853 - 866.
Van Der Zee, K. I. (2007, March). Determinants of effective coping with cultural transition among
expatriate children and adolescents. Anxiety,Stress, and Coping , 25-45.
Van der Zee, K. I. (2007). Determinants of effective coping with cultural transition among expatriate
children and adolescents. Anxirty, Stress and Coping , 20 (1), 25-45.

84. 80
Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy.
New York: Stste University of New York.
Varner, I. &. (2005). Role of cultural self-knowledge in successful expatriation. Singapore Management
Review, 27 (1), 1-24.
Adelman, M. B. (1988). Cross-cultural adjustment: A theoretical perspective on social support.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12, 183-204.
Adler, N. J. (2001). International dimension of organizational behavior. (4th ed.). Cincinati , Ohio: South-
Western.
Adler, P. S. (1975). "The Transitional Experience: An Alternative View of Cultural Shock". Journal of
Humanistic Psychology, 15, 13-23.
Albrecht, T. L. (1987). Communicating social support: A theoretical perspective. In T. L. (Eds.),
Communicating social support (pp. 18-40). Newbury Park, California, United States of America: Sage.
Ashford, B. E. (1998). Socialization and newcomer adjustment: The role of organization content. Human
Relations, 51, 897- 926.
Armes K. Ward, C. (1989). Cross-cultural transitions and sojourner adjustment in Singapore. Journal of
Social Psychology, 129, 273-275.
B., G. (2005). Teaching Abroad: A Cross Cultural Journey. Journal of Education for Business, 80 (6), 322-
327.
Babiker, I. C. (1980). The measurement of cultural distance and its relationship to medical consultations,
symptomatology and examination of performance of overseas students at Edinburgh University. Social
Psychiatry, 15, 109-116.
Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84 (2),
191-215.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, United States of America: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, United States of America:
Prentice-Hall.
Bennett, M. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. . International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 179-196.
Best, J. W. (1998). Research in education. Eighth Edition. Boston, Massachusettes, United States of
America: Allyn and Bacon.

85. 81
Bermuda, Goverment of. (2010). Annual Employment Survey. Retrieved 2011 from Department of
Statistics: www.gov.bm/portal/servicer.pt./gateway
Berry, J. W. (2006). Acculturation: A conceptual Overview. In M. C. Bornstein (Ed.), Acculturation and
parent-child relationships: Measurement and development (pp. 13-30). N.J.: Lawerence Erlbaun.
Berry, J. (1994). Acculturation and psychological adaptation. . In F. J. A. M. Bouvy, Journeys into corss-
cultural psychology (pp. 129-141). Lisse, Netherlands, Sweden: Swets and Zeitlinger.
Black, J. &. (1991). The U-curve adjustment hypothesis revisited; A review and theoretical framework.
Journal of International Business Studies , 225 - 247.
Black, J. S. (1990). Locus of control, social support, stress, and adjustment in international transfers. Asia
Pacific Journal of Management, 7, 1-29.
Black, J. S. (1989). The influence of the spouse on American expatriate adjustment and intent to stay in
Pacific Rim overseas assignments. Journal of Management, 15, 529-544.
Black, J. S. (1991). Toward A Comprehensive Model of International Adjustment: An integration of
multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management View, 16 (2), 291-317.
Boyle, J. (2000, July). Education for teachers of English in China. Journal of Education for Teaching, 26(2),
147-155. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from EBSCO.
Bodycott, P. W. (2000). Teaching abroad: Lessons learned about intercultural understanding for teachers
in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 5 (1), 79 - 94.
Briere, J. (1984). Cultural understanding through cross-cultural analysis. Retrieved 2011, from ERIC:
http://www.eric.ed.gov./PDFS/ED 262577
Briscoe, D. S. (2004). International Human resources management ( Global HRM) (2nd ed.). New York:
Routledge.
Brislin, R. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters. New York: Pergamon References.
Brown, L. &. (2008). The initial stage of the international sojourn: excitement and culture shock? British
Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 36 (1), 33 - 49.
Brown, L. H. (2008). The initial stage of the international sojourn: excitement and culture shock? British
Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 36 (1), 33 - 49.
Brown, R. J. (2008). Dominant stressors on expatriate couples during international assignments. The
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19 (6), 1018 - 1034.
Caligiuri. (2000). The Big Five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire to terminate
the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnell Psychology, 53, 67-88.

86. 82
Caligiuri, P. M. (1997). Assessing expatriate success: Beyong just "being there.". In D. M. Aycan, New
approaches to employee management (p. 117.140). Greenwich, Connecticut, United States of America:
JAI Press.
Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). The Big Five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire to
terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnel Psychology, 53, 67-88.
Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). The big five personality charististics as predictors of expatriate success.
Personality Psychology, 53, 67-88.
Church, A. (1982). Sojourner Adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 540 - 572.
Clark, C. (1993, Spring). Transformational Learning.
Clark, M. C. (1993). Transformational Learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1993
(57), 47-56.
Clement, C. M. (2002). Student teaching abroad: Learning about teaching, culture and self. . Kappa Delta
Pi Record, 38 (4), 180-183.
Clement, M. C. (2000). Student teaching abroad : Learning about teaching culture and self. Kappa Delta
Pi Record, 38, pp. 180-183.
Coates, T. (2005, November 28). Looking abroad for a few good teachers. Time, 166(2), 64. Retrieved
October 29, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition database.
Colgan, C. (August 2004). Is there a teacher retention crisis? American School Board Journal , 22-25.
Conrad, P. (1991). Where I Fell to Earth A life in Four Cities. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Conrad, P. (1991). Where I fell to earth: A Life in Four Cities. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Cranton, P. (2006). Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A quick guide for educators
of adults (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and Promoting Transformational Learning: A guide for Educators of
Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, California, United States of America: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative quantative and mixed methods approaches. Third
Edition. Thousand Oaks, California, United States of America: Sage Publications Inc.
Education, M. o. (1996). Bermuda Education Act 1996. Retrieved from Department of Education.

87. 83
Davis, N. &. (2005 йил April). Inttionercultural competence for future leaders of educational technology
and its evaluation. Retrieved 2012 йил 15-January from Interactive Educational Multimedia:
http://www. ub.edu./multimedia/iem
Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher order factors of the big five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
73, 1246-1256.
Furnha, A. (2000). Culture Shock: Literature review, personal statement and relevance for the South
Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4 (2), 87 - 94.
Furnham, A. &. (1995). Psychological and socioculturals variables as predictors of adjustment in cross-
cultural transitions. . Psychologia, 38, 238-251.
Furnham, A. (2000). Culture Shock: Literature review, personal statement and relevance for the South
Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4 (2), 87 - 94.
Furmham A. & Bocher, S. (1986). Culture shock: psychological reactions to unfamiliar environments. New
York: Methuen & Co.
Fantini, A. E. (2000). A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence. Retrieved May 2011, from
http://www.sit.edu/SIT OccasionalPapers/feil_appendix_f.pdf
Fantini, A. E. (22). A central concern:Developing intercultural competence. Retrieved 2010 йил 18-
September from SIT Occasional Papers, Issue no. 1:
http.//www.sit.edu/publishers/docs/compentence.pdf
Farrell, M. (2003, September 26). Racism exposed in secondaries. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from
Professional Development Collection.
Finsterbusch, K. (2009). Annual Editions: Sociology. Boston: Mc-graw-Hill.
Firmin, M. W. (2008). Extrinsic Factors Affecting Overseas Student Teaching. Journal of Ethonographic &
Qualitative Research, 2, 91 - 99.
Firmin, M. M. (2007). Intrinsic factors affecting overseas student teaching. Education 128, 138-147. Phi
Delta Kappan, 88(5), 368-373. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
Fletcher, S. &. (2004, December). Developing effective beginning teachers through mentor-based
induction. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 12(3), 321-333. Retrieved October 22, 2008,
from EBSCO.
Forbes, K. (2011, June June). Bermuda's Education in Public or Private Schools. Retrieved August 15, 1,
from Welcome to Bermuda: www.bermuda-online.org/education.htm
Forster, N. (1994). The forgotten employers? The experiences of expatriates staff returning to the UK. .
MThe international journal of Human Resource Management, 5 (2), 405-425.

88. 84
Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York, New York,
United States of American: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Guihermes Pires, J. (1994). Improving expatriate adjustment and effectivemess in ethnically diverse
countries marketing insights. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 13 (2), 156 - 170.
Gallahon, J. T. (1963). An extension of the u-curve hypothesis. Journal of Social Issues., 19 (3), 33-47.
Garson, B. (2005). Teaching Abroad: A Cross-Cultural Journey. Journal of Education for Business, 80 (6),
322-327.
Glatthorn, A. A. (2005). Writing the winning thesis or dissertations: A step-by-step guide. Thousand Oaks,
California, United States of America: Corwin Press.
Gorden, R. (1992). Coding interview responses. Retrieved February 12, 2009, from Basic interviewing
skills: http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:J3uhpO9yU0QJ:www.indiana.edu/~educy520/
Hutchison, C. &. (2007, January). Mentors for teachers from Outside the U. S. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(5),
368-373. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
Hack, P. D. (2009). Thematic Articles - Migrants integration in host societies. Journal of Identity and
Migration Studies, 3 (1).
Hahs-Vaughn, D. &. (2008, Fall). Beginning English teacher attrition, mobility, and retention. Journal of
Experimental Education, 77(34), 21. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition.
Han, S. &. (2008). Culture-sensitive neural substrates of human cognition: a transcultural neuroimaging
approach. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 646- 659.
Hammer, M. R. (1978). Dimensionss of intercultural effectiveness: An exploratory study. . International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2, 382-392.
Hammer, M. R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity :The intercultural development inventory .
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 421-443.
Harrison, J. K. (1996). The relationship between cross-cultural adjustment and the personality variables
of self-efficacy and self monitoring. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 20 (2), 167-182.
Hendricks, B. (2003). The Way. 42(1) .
Hendricks, B. (2003, January). The impact of transition. The Way , 34-43.
Herman, W. E. (1991, Summer). College Teaching: recommendations for teaching overseas. Retrieved
November 14, 2009, from EBSCO: http://ns2.ncu.edu
Herman, W. E. (1991). Recommendations for teaching overseas. College Teaching, 39 (3).

89. 85
Hough, L. M. (1992). The "big five" personality varibles- construct confusion: Description versus
prediction. Human Performance, 5, 139-155.
Howe, E. (2005, September). PhD Abstract: Japan's teacher acculturation: a comparative ethnographic
narrative of teacher induction. Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education, 35(3), 339-339. Retrieved
November 15, 2008, from EBSCO.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Newbury
Park, California, United States of America: Sage Publications.
Hogan, G. &. (1990). The key to expatriate success. Training and Development Journal, 44 (1), 50-53.
Holy Bible. (1966). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America: National Bible Press, King James
Version.
Johnson, B. R. (1997). Examining the validuty structure of qualitative research. Education, 118 (3), 282-
292.
Johnson, S. &. (2002, March). Keeping new teachers in mind. Educational Leadership, 59(5), 12.
Retrieved November 15, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition.
Klein, H. J. (2000). The effectiveness of an organizational-level orientation training program in the
socialization of new hires. Personnel Psychology, 53, 47-66.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experiences as the source of learning and development.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice- Hall.
Levine, J. M. (n.d.). Group Socialization: Theory and Research. 1994.
Lee, L. S. (2008). The mediating effects of expatriate adjustment and operational capability on the
success of expatriation. Social Behavior and Personality, 36 (9), 1191 - 1204.
Lee, L.-Y. &. (2008). The mediating effects of expatriate adjustment and operational capability on the
success of expatriation. Social Behavior and Personality, 36 (9), 1191 - 1204.
Maylor, U. J. (2006). Culture Clash: The experiences of overseas-trained supply teachers in english
schools. British Educational Research Association (pp. 1-11). London: Institute for policy studies in
education.
Manen, V. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. State
University of New York, New York.
Matsumoto, D. L. (2004). Personality and behavioral correlates of intercultural adjustment potential.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28 (3-4), 281-309.
McCoubrey, S. (2001). Recruiting teachers from abroad. Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers,
76(5), 33. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.

90. 86
McCormack, A. &. (2003, July). Is survival enough? Induction experiences of beginning teachers within a
New South Wales context. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 31(2), 125. Retrieved October 22,
2008, from EBSCO.
McEvoy, G. P. (1995). Expatriate Adjustment: Causes and Consequences in Selmer, J. Expatriate
Management , 97-114.
McKay, J. M. (1995). Changes in perceptions: A comparative study of the experiential learning of
international student teachers. San Francisco, California, United States of American: Publisher ?????
McKay, J. M. (1995). Changes in perceptions: A comparative study of the experiential learning of
international student teachers. San Francisco.
Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformational learning: Theory to practice. Transformative learning in action:
Insights from practice, New directions for adult and continuing education. (P. Cranton, Ed.) San
Francisco, California, United States of America: Jossey-Bass.
Mendenhall, M. O. (1985). The Demensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of
Management Review, 10, 39-48.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco,
California, United States of America: Jossey Bass.
Merriam, S. D. (2009). Qualitative Research: A guide to design and implementation revised and
expanded from qualitative research and case study application in education. Jossey-Bass.
Midgley, S. (2002, April 5). Strangers in a foreign land. Times Educational Supplement, . Retrieved
October 29, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
Mintzberg, H. G. (2002). Educating beyond borders. . Academy of management Learning & Education, 1
(1), 64-76.
Mintzberg, H. G. (September 2002). Educating managers beyond borders. Academy of Management
Learning & Education, 1 (1), 64--76.
Miranda, J. (2009, January). An Exploratory research on learning styles of expatriates in Malaysia.
Retrieved October 2011, from UNITAR E Journal: www. teo-education.com/teo
photos/album/userpics/exploratory_Research,PDF
Moustakes, C. (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, California, United States of
America: Sage Publications.
Owen, G. (2002). Third World teachers give up on Britain. Times, The (United Kingdom). Retrieved
November 11, 2008, from UK/EIRE Reference center.
Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock: Adjustment to new environments. Practical Anthropolodgy, 7, 177-182.

91. 87
O'Brien, J. &. (2005, August). Characteristics of support for beginning teachers: evidence from the new
Teacher Induction Scheme in Scotland. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 13(2), 189-203.
Retrieved October 13, 2008, from EBSCO.
Patton, M. Q. (1985). Quality in qualitative research: Methodological principles and recent developments
invited address to Division J of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, Illinois, United
States of America: ?????
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications,Inc.
Pires, S. &. (2006). Improving expatriate adjustment and effectiveness in ethnically diverse countries:
marketing insights. Cross-cultural Management, 13 (2), 156-.
Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E. (2004). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schram, T. H. (2003). Conceptualizing qualitative inquiry. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, United States
of America: Merril Prentice Hall.
Scott, C. (2005). The Joys of Teaching Overseas. Retrieved April 15, 2010, from Ephost@net.com:
academic search database
Scott, C. (2007). The Joys of Teaching Overseas. Independent School, 66 (2), 6.
Seale, C. (1999). Quality in qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 5 (4), 465-478.
Seale, C. (1999). The quality of qualitative work. London: Sage.
Seale, C. (1999). The quality of qualitative research. London: Sage.
Shin, H. &. (1999). The homesickness and contentment scale: Developing a culturally sensitive measure
of adjustment for Asians. Research on Social Work Practice, 9 (1), 45 - 60.
Stachowski, L. &. (1997). Adaptation for success: U. S. student teachers living and teaching abroad.
International Education, 26, 5-20.
Stachowski, L. V. (1997). Adaptations for success: US student teachers living and teaching abroad.
International Eduation, 29, 5 - 16.
Stachowski, L. L. (2007, Winter). Thirty Years and 2,000 student teachers later: An overseas student
teaching project that is popular, successful and replicable. Teacher Education Quarterly , pp. 115 - 132.
Stenbacka, C. (2001). Qualitative research requires quality concepts of its own. Management Decision,
39 (7), 551-555.

92. 88
Rudmin, F. W. (2003(a) - Correction to Rudmin (2003)). "Critical history of the acculturation psychology
of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization". Review of General Psychology, 7 (1), 3 - 37.
Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1983). Freedom to learn for the 80s. Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill.
Rogers, C. R. (1980). The Way of Being. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company.
Rose, R. C. (2010, August). Expatriate performance in international assignments: The role of cultural
intellenge as dynamaic intercultural competency. Retrieved from www.ccsent.org/ijbm
Rose, R. J. (2010). Expatriate performance in overseas assignments: The Role of the big five personality.
Asian Social Science, 6 (6), 104-113.
Taylor, E. W. (1994). The Theory and Practice of Transformational Learning: A critical review Information
Series 374. Retrieved September 1, 2010, from ERIC: http://eric.ed.gov.PDFS/Ed423422.pdf
Takeuchi, R. &. (2002). An examination of crossover and spillover effects comes of spousal and
expatriates' cross-cultural adjustments on expatriate out. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 655 - 666.
Takeuchi, R. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of the perceived adjustment of Japanese expatrates
in the USA. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13 (8).
Taormina, R. J. (1999). Predicting employee commitment and satisfaction: The relative effects of
socialization and demographics. International Journal of Human Resource management, 10 (6), 1066-
1076.
Torbiorn, I. (1982). Living Abroad: Personal Adjustment and Personnel policy in the overseas setting (2nd
ed.). New York: Wiley.
Bibliog (Hendricks B. , 2003) (Ashford, 1998) (Klein, 2000)
(Taormina, 1999) (Con91) (Con91) (Con91)raphy
Ward, C. A. (2001). Coping with cross-cultural transition. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32 (5), 636
- 642.
Ward, C. B. (2001). The Psychology of Culture Shock. London: Routledge.
Williams, A. &. (2002, January). The induction tutor: mentor, manager or both? Mentoring & tutoring:
Partnership in learning, 10(1), 35-46. Retrieved October 22, 2008, from EBSCO.
White, E. (1939). The Story of Patriarchs and Prophets. Mountain View, California: The Ellen G. White
Publications.

93. 89
Wong, H. (2002, March). Induction: The best form of professional development. Educational Leadership,
59(3), 52. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition.
Woods, C. (2007). Researching and developing interdisciplinary teaching: towards a conceptual
framework for classroom communication. High Education, 54, 853 - 866.
Van Der Zee, K. I. (2007, March). Determinants of effective coping with cultural transition among
expatriate children and adolescents. Anxiety,Stress, and Coping , 25-45.
Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy.
New York: Stste University of New York.
Varner, I. &. Palmer(2005). Role of cultural self-knowledge in successful expatriation. Singapore
Management Review, 27 (1), 1-24.
Adelman, M. B. (1988). Cross-cultural adjustment: A theoretical perspective on social support.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12, 183-204.
Adler, P. S. (1975). "The Transitional Experience: An Alternative View of Cultural Shock". Journal of
Humanistic Psychology, 15, 13-23.
Albrecht, T. L. (1987). Communicating social support: A theoretical perspective. In T. L. (Eds.),
Communicating social support (pp. 18-40). Newbury Park, California, United States of America: Sage.
Association, A. P. (2010). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Sixth Edition.
Washington D. C., United States of American.
Armes K.' Ward, C. (n.d.).
Armes K. Ward, C. (1989). Cross-cultural transitions and sojourner adjustment in Singapore. Journal of
Social Psychology, 129, 273-275.
B., G. (2005). Teaching Abroad: A Cross Cultural Journey. Journal of Education for Business, 80 (6), 322-
327.
Babiker, I. C. (1980). The measurement of cultural distance and its relationship to medical consultations,
symptomatology and examination of performance of overseas students at Edinburgh University. Social
Psychiatry, 15, 109-116.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, United States of America: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, United States of America:
Prentice-Hall.
Bennett, M. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. . International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 179-196.

94. 90
Best, J. W. (1998). Research in education. Eighth Edition. Boston, Massachusettes, United States of
America: Allyn and Bacon.
Bermuda, G. o. (2010). Annual Employment Survey. Retrieved 2011 from Department of Statistics:
www.gov.bm/portal/servicer.pt./gateway
Berry, J. W. (2006). Acculturation: A conceptual Overview. In M. C. Bornstein (Ed.), Acculturation and
parent-child relationships: Measurement and development (pp. 13-30). N.J.: Lawerence Erlbaun.
Berry, J. (1994). Acculturation and psychological adaptation. . In F. J. A. M. Bouvy, Journeys into corss-
cultural psychology (pp. 129-141). Lisse, Netherlands, Sweden: Swets and Zeitlinger.
Black, J. &. (1991). The U-curve adjustment hypothesis revisited; A review and theoretical framework.
Journal of International Business Studies , 225 - 247.
Black, J. S. (1990). Locus of control, social support, stress, and adjustment in international transfers. Asia
Pacific Journal of Management, 7, 1-29.
Black, J. S. (1989). The influence of the spouse on American expatriate adjustment and intent to stay in
Pacific Rim overseas assignments. Journal of Management, 15, 529-544.
Boyle, J. (2000, July). Education for teachers of English in China. Journal of Education for Teaching, 26(2),
147-155. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from EBSCO.
Bodycott, P. W. (2000). Teaching abroad: Lessons learned about intercultural understanding for teachers
in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 5 (1), 79 - 94.
Briscoe, D. S. (2004). International Human resources management ( Global HRM) (2nd ed.). New York:
Routledge.
Brislin, R. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters. New York: Pergamon References.
Brown, L. &. (2008). The initial stage of the international sojourn: excitement and culture shock? British
Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 36 (1), 33 - 49.
Brown, L. H. (2008). The initial stage of the international sojourn: excitement and culture shock? British
Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 36 (1), 33 - 49.
Brown, R. J. (2008). Dominant stressors on expatriate couples during international assignments. The
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19 (6), 1018 - 1034.
Caligiuri. (2000). The Big Five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire to terminate
the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnell Psychology, 53, 67-88.
Caligiuri, P. M. (1997). Assessing expatriate success: Beyong just "being there.". In D. M. Aycan, New
approaches to employee management (p. 117.140). Greenwich, Connecticut, United States of America:
JAI Press.

95. 91
Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). The Big Five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire to
terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnel Psychology, 53, 67-88.
Church, A. (1982). Sojourner Adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 540 - 572.
Clark, C. (1993, Spring). Transformational Learning.
Clement, M. C. (2000). Student teaching abroad : Learning about teaching culture and self. Kappa Delta
Pi Record, 38, pp. 180-183.
Coates, T. (2005, November 28). Looking abroad for a few good teachers. Time, 166(2), 64. Retrieved
October 29, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition database.
Colgan, C. (August 2004). Is there a teacher retention crisis? American School Board Journal , 22-25.
Conrad, P. (1991). Where I Fell to Earth A life in Four Cities. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and Promoting Transformational Learning: A guide for Educators of
Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, California, United States of America: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative quantative and mixed methods approaches. Third
Edition. Thousand Oaks, California, United States of America: Sage Publications Inc.
Education, M. o. (1996). Bermuda Education Act 1996. Retrieved from Department of Education.
Davis, N. &. (2005 йил April). Inttionercultural competence for future leaders of educational technology
and its evaluation. Retrieved 2012 йил 15-January from Interactive Educational Multimedia:
http://www. ub.edu./multimedia/iem
Furnha, A. (2000). Culture Shock: Literature review, personal statement and relevance for the South
Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4 (2), 87 - 94.
Furnham, A. (2000). Culture Shock: Literature review, personal statement and relevance for the South
Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4 (2), 87 - 94.
Fantini, A. E. (2000). A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence. Retrieved May 2011, from
http://www.sit.edu/SIT OccasionalPapers/feil_appendix_f.pdf
Fantini, A. E. (22). A central concern:Developing intercultural competence. Retrieved 2010 йил 18-
September from SIT Occasional Papers, Issue no. 1:
http.//www.sit.edu/publishers/docs/compentence.pdf
Farrell, M. (2003, September 26). Racism exposed in secondaries. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from
Professional Development Collection.

96. 92
Finsterbusch, K. (2008). Annual Editions: Sociology. Boston: Mc-graw-Hill.
Firmin, M. W. (2008). Extrinsic Factors Affecting Overseas Student Teaching. Journal of Ethonographic &
Qualitative Research, 2, 91 - 99.
Firmin, M. M. (2007). Intrinsic factors affecting overseas student teaching. Education 128, 138-147. Phi
Delta Kappan, 88(5), 368-373. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
Fletcher, S. &. (2004, December). Developing effective beginning teachers through mentor-based
induction. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 12(3), 321-333. Retrieved October 22, 2008,
from EBSCO.
Forbes, K. (2011, June June). Bermuda's Education in Public or Private Schools. Retrieved August 15, 1,
from Welcome to Bermuda: www.bermuda-online.org/education.htm
Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York, New York,
United States of American: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Guihermes Pires, J. (1994). Improving expatriate adjustment and effectivemess in ethnically diverse
countries marketing insights. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 13 (2), 156 - 170.
Garson, B. (2005). Teaching Abroad: A Cross-Cultural Journey. Journal of Education for Business, 80 (6),
322-327.
Glatthorn, A. A. (2005). Writing the winning thesis or dissertations: A step-by-step guide. Thousand Oaks,
California, United States of America: Corwin Press.
Gorden, R. (1992). Coding interview responses. Retrieved February 12, 2009, from Basic interviewing
skills: http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:J3uhpO9yU0QJ:www.indiana.edu/~educy520/
Hutchison, C. &. (2007, January). Mentors for teachers from Outside the U. S. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(5),
368-373. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
Hack, P. D. (2009). Thematic Articles - Migrants integration in host societies. Journal of Identity and
Migration Studies, 3 (1).
Hahs-Vaughn, D. &. (2008, Fall). Beginning English teacher attrition, mobility, and retention. Journal of
Experimental Education, 77(34), 21. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition.
Hendricks, B. (2003). The Way. 42(1) .
Herman, W. E. (1991, Summer). College Teaching: recommendations for teaching overseas. Retrieved
November 14, 2009, from EBSCO: http://ns2.ncu.edu
Howe, E. (2005, September). PhD Abstract: Japan's teacher acculturation: a comparative ethnographic
narrative of teacher induction. Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education, 35(3), 339-339. Retrieved
November 15, 2008, from EBSCO.

97. 93
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Newbury
Park, California, United States of America: Sage Publications.
Hogan, G. &. (1990). The key to expatriate success. Training and Development Journal, 44 (1), 50-53.
Holy Bible. (1966). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America: National Bible Press, King James
Version.
Johnson, B. R. (1997). Examining the validuty structure of qualitative research. Education, 118 (3), 282-
292.
Johnson, S. &. (2002, March). Keeping new teachers in mind. Educational Leadership, 59(5), 12.
Retrieved November 15, 2008, from MAS Ultra - School Edition.
Lee, L. S. (2008). The mediating effects of expatriate adjustment and operational capability on the
success of expatriation. Social Behavior and Personality, 36 (9), 1191 - 1204.
Lee, L.-Y. &. (2008). The mediating effects of expatriate adjustment and operational capability on the
success of expatriation. Social Behavior and Personality, 36 (9), 1191 - 1204.
Maylor, U. J. (2006). Culture Clash: The experiences of overseas-trained supply teachers in english
schools. British Educational Research Association (pp. 1-11). London: Institute for policy studies in
education.
Manen, V. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. State
University of New York, New York.
Matsumoto, D. L. (2004). Personality and behavioral correlates of intercultural adjustment potential.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28 (3-4), 281-309.
McCoubrey, S. (2001). Recruiting teachers from abroad. Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers,
76(5), 33. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
McCormack, A. &. (2003, July). Is survival enough? Induction experiences of beginning teachers within a
New South Wales context. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 31(2), 125. Retrieved October 22,
2008, from EBSCO.
McKay, J. M. (1995). Changes in perceptions: A comparative study of the experiential learning of
international student teachers. San Francisco, California, United States of American: Publisher ?????
McKay, J. M. (1995). Changes in perceptions: A comparative study of the experiential learning of
international student teachers. San Francisco.
Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformational learning: Theory to practice. Transformative learning in action:
Insights from practice, New directions for adult and continuing education. (P. Cranton, Ed.) San
Francisco, California, United States of America: Jossey-Bass.

98. 94
Mendenhall, M. O. (1985). The Demensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of
Management Review, 10, 39-48.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco,
California, United States of America: Jossey Bass.
Merriam, S. D. (2009). Qualitative Research: A guide to design and implementation revised and
expanded from qualitative research and case study application in education. Jossey-Bass.
Midgley, S. (2002, April 5). Strangers in a foreign land. Times Educational Supplement, . Retrieved
October 29, 2008, from Professional Development Collection.
Mintzberg, H. G. (September 2002). Educating managers beyond borders. Academy of Management
Learning & Education, 1 (1), 64--76.
Moustakes, C. (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, California, United States of
America: Sage Publications.
Owen, G. (2002). Third World teachers give up on Britain. Times, The (United Kingdom). Retrieved
November 11, 2008, from UK/EIRE Reference center.
O'Brien, J. &. (2005, August). Characteristics of support for beginning teachers: evidence from the new
Teacher Induction Scheme in Scotland. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 13(2), 189-203.
Retrieved October 13, 2008, from EBSCO.
Patton, M. Q. (1985). Quality in qualitative research: Methodological principles and recent developments
invited address to Division J of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, Illinois, United
States of America: ?????
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications,Inc.
Pires, S. &. (2006). Improving expatriate adjustment and effectiveness in ethnically diverse countries:
marketing insights. Cross-cultural Management, 13 (2), 156-.
Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E. (2004). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schram, T. H. (2003). Conceptualizing qualitative inquiry. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, United States
of America: Merril Prentice Hall.
Scott, C. (2005). The Joys of Teaching Overseas. Retrieved April 15, 2010, from Ephost@net.com:
academic search database
Scott, C. (2007). The Joys of Teaching Overseas. Independent School, 66 (2), 6.

99. 95
Seale, C. (1999). Quality in qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 5 (4), 465-478.
Seale, C. (1999). The quality of qualitative work. London: Sage.
Seale, C. (1999). The quality of qualitative research. London: Sage.
Shin, H. &. (1999). The homesickness and contentment scale: Developing a culturally sensitive measure
of adjustment for Asians. Research on Social Work Practice, 9 (1), 45 - 60.
Stachowski, L. V. (1997). Adaptations for success: US student teachers living and teaching abroad.
International Eduation, 29, 5 - 16.
Stachowski, L. L. (2007, Winter). Thirty Years and 2,000 student teachers later: An overseas student
teaching project that is popular, successful and replicable. Teacher Education Quarterly , pp. 115 - 132.
Stenbacka, C. (2001). Qualitative research requires quality concepts of its own. Management Decision,
39 (7), 551-555.
Rudmin, F. W. (2003(a) - Correction to Rudmin (2003)). "Critical history of the acculturation psychology
of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization". Review of General Psychology, 7 (1), 3 - 37.
Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rose, R. J. (2010). Expatriate performance in overseas assignments: The Role of the big five personality.
Asian Social Science, 6 (6), 104-113.
Taylor, E. W. (1994). The Theory and Practice of Transformational Learning: A critical review Information
Series 374. Retrieved September 1, 2010, from ERIC: http://eric.ed.gov.PDFS/Ed423422.pdf
Takeuchi, R. &. (2002). An examination of crossover and spillover effects comes of spousal and
expatriates' cross-cultural adjustments on expatriate out. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 655 - 666.
Takeuchi, R. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of the perceived adjustment of Japanese expatrates
in the USA. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13 (8).
Torbiorn, I. (1982). Living Abroad: Personal Adjustment and Personnel policy in the overseas setting (2nd
ed.). New York: Wiley.