Hugo Gellert was a Hungarian-American artist known for his political artwork promoting leftist ideas and communism. He worked as a graphic designer for many radical magazines in the early 20th century such as The Masses, The Liberator, and The New Masses. Gellert also created political cartoons, book covers, posters, and murals with communist themes. A key part of Gellert's work was emphasizing the importance of artists collaborating to more effectively spread political ideas to the public. His artwork played an important role in defining the role of the political artist in America during the 1920s and 1930s.

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Sarah Kraft
Dr. Chu
Senior Seminar
April 26, 2016
An Artist for the People: Hugo Gellert’s Work in the New Masses
When an artist adds activism to their art, their work takes on a new meaning and
significance. Instead of being viewed simply for aesthetic pleasure, their work is now explored
within a deeper context, engaging the viewer in a new way. The political work of artist Hugo
Gellert is an example of this idea. As an activist, Gellert worked for the New Masses, a leftist
magazine published from the 1920s to the 1940s. Gellert’s political drawings and cartoons were
an important part of the magazine’s publication, criticizing the manner in which the United
States’ government was run, while praising Communism and the political left. Gellert played a
key role in defining the artist’s position in America during the Depression era and beyond,
emphasizing the idea that artists should unify and work together in order to disseminate ideas
with a more striking impact.
Hugo Gellert was born to a working class Jewish family in a small neighborhood just
outside Budapest, Hungary in 1892. Gellert’s parents, while Jewish, were not particularly
religious, sending Gellert to a public school in Budapest instead of a Jewish school. In 1905,
Gellert’s father moved to New York, sending for the family in the next year. According to “The
Art and Activism of Hugo Gellert: Embracing the Specter of Communism”, a dissertation written
by James M. Wechsler, “It is likely the growing reactionary movement in Hungary, accompanied
by a fresh wave of anti-Semitism in the early years of the 20th century played a significant role
in the decision to build a new life in America.”i Gellert’s family settled in a predominantly
Hungarian community on the Upper East Side of Manhattan called Yorkville. Three years later,

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in 1909, Gellert became a student at the National Academy of Design. His education began with
learning to draw from antique casts, typical for most art academies. He also studied composition,
painting, and etching, winning a total of nine prizes during his time at the academy. He remained
at the academy until the spring of 1914, when he decided to travel to Hungary, where he would
stay with his aunt and uncle. While in Europe, Gellert traveled to Paris, where he visited the
Louvre and was exposed to the relatively new style of Cubism. Wechsler states, “But it was the
posters in the street; particularly those advertising Michelin tires that impressed him most.”ii
Upon his return to New York, Gellert followed up on his interest in graphic design, taking a job
creating advertisements with Rusling Wood, a commercial lithography company. His early
Socialist ideas were manifested at this job, when Gellert quit after his boss refused to pay him
more over the holidays.
Gellert’s interest in politics began to grow during his time spent in Hungary with his
relatives, as he saw the effects of World War I ravage people’s homes and families. When he
returned to New York, Gellert was influenced by the Socialist ideas of his brother Ernest and the
Hungarian-American workers. He submitted drawings to a Socialist Hungarian magazine’s
Sunday supplement, Elore Kepes Folyoirat. His drawings were used for the first six covers for
the supplement, showcasing his style and social concerns. Gellert’s cover from the February
1916 issue of Elore is a black and white drawing of an armless man being fed by his wife as his
child stares blankly into the air. The caption reads “After War”, commenting on the way that the
war leaves people broken and families disturbed. This work is an example of Gellert’s anti-
military and anti-war attitude, which is evident in many of his early drawings. According to
Wechsler, at this point, Gellert may have been influenced by Félix Vallotton, a Swiss anarchist
woodblock designer who created six woodcuts titled “C’est la guerre!” that Gellert would have

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been exposed to in about 1915 or 1916. The similarities come from the “large areas of open
space, the way form is defined by decorative patterning, and stark contrasts of light versus
dark…”iii As well as covers for Elore, Gellert’s drawings also appeared in the magazine above or
below the articles. For example, one of Gellert’s drawings is in the April 24, 1921 issue of the
magazine, below an article headlined “The Village and the City’s Struggle”, loosely translated
from Hungarian. The drawing shows a muscular working class man swinging a pickaxe at a
closed door with a sign reading “Factory Closed”. The caption on the picture states “How to
open the locked door”. Gellert stopped contributing to Elore until the 1920s because of his
involvement with The Masses, a leftist magazine, which began in June of 1916.
Some of Gellert’s anti-war art for The Masses stemmed from the fact that his brother,
Ernest, was killed while in prison in Fort Hancock, New Jersey as a conscientious objector after
he was drafted into the military and refused to serve.iv Earlier in 1916, John Sloan and some
other Masses artists led a rebellion against the editor-in-chief, Max Eastman. The artists’ position
was that the magazine had become an overbearing political platform, rather than a light mockery
of the bourgeois lifestyle. Gellert sided with Eastman, joining The Masses staff to fill vacancies
left by the other artists. He believed that Eastman’s goal was “to present a collaboration between
artists and writers” by placing witty captions with the illustrations in the magazine, making them
easier for the public to understand.v This is an early example of what would become Gellert’s
main artistic goal: the promotion of collaboration and unification of artists to present a more
striking impact with their message. Gellert’s Masses illustrations and covers often mocked the
conservative values of American life. For example, his February and June covers from 1917
show a bare-breasted woman and a man smoking cigarettes like a panpipe, respectively. In
comparison to his anti-war drawings for Elore and his later drawings, Gellert’s work for The

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Masses seems much less politically charged, focusing more on the social issues in America
rather than the political. The drawings are very simple, using few colors and only ever featuring
a single figure in the center. In 1917, The Masses was declared unmailable by the Postmaster
General upon the United States’ entry in World War I, because it supposedly promoted language
that would incite people against the United States’ government. Thus, the magazine was shut
down, forcing its artists to move onto other political magazines.vi
Gellert then moved on to work for The Liberator, another leftist magazine, where he
worked as a contributing editor, a higher position than he had held at either of the previous
magazines. The Liberator was created by Max Eastman, Crystal Eastman, Floyd Dell, and John
Reed, as a replacement for The Masses. The first issue was printed in March of 1918, with one of
Gellert’s drawings as the cover. The drawing shows a man dressed in black, white, and red, bent
over sowing tiny hearts onto the ground. There is a small headline in red next to the drawing
reading, “John Reed’s Story of the Bolsheviki Revolution”. The vast majority of Gellert’s
Liberator covers are done in only black, white, and red, the colors of Communism. The main
purpose of The Liberator was not to criticize America, which was the reason The Masses had
been criticized, but to praise Russia and the events of the Bolshevik Revolution. While still
working at The Liberator, Gellert produced a sixty-two lithograph collection called Karl Marx
Capital in Pictures, which made Marxism easy for Americans to understand and brought
Marxism to America. The images are all Communism-related, often showing workers, the
hammer and sickle, and cartoon-like old men depicting big government. They are mostly printed
in red and black, with captions such as “Workers of all lands unite!”vii In 1924, The Liberator ran
out of funding for publications, and combined with two other failing Communist papers to form
The Workers Monthly. At this point, Gellert was no longer involved with the magazine. In a 1925

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letter from John Sloan, Hugo Gellert, and Maurice Becker, the three artists mention producing a
new magazine stating, “There is a good chance of getting hold of a big subsidy toward the
starting of a new “Masses” for the new time. Are you still feeling young and expressionistic?”viii
One year later, in 1926, the first issue of The New Masses was printed, bringing about the apex
of Gellert’s graphic design career.
The New Masses was dedicated to a new radical view of art and literature, perpetuated by
members of the Communist Party in the United States. According to Martin Goodman, author of
Marxists.org and the New Masses archive, “The name was an homage to the predecessor of The
Liberator…which was The Masses…shut down by the US Government in 1917 for its fierce
opposition to US recruitment for fighting in the Great War..”ix The first issue of The New
Masses, produced in May 1926, featured a cover by Gellert, as did most of the magazine’s
issues. This is probably Gellert’s most famous cover, often called “The May Day Worker”. His
style was heavily influenced by his acquaintance, Louis Lozowick, an expert on Russian
Constructivism and Modernism. The cover is in red, black, and white; the figure is drawn using
geometric, angular strokes against a solid red and white plane. The figure is clearly a worker,
possibly some kind of miner judging from the flashlight-like shape on his forehead. A cloud is
coming off the side of his head, like the aftermath of an explosion, yet he smiles blindly at the
viewer. The cover is quite unnerving, with its angular aspects and the figure’s one large black
eye staring out at the viewer. The first issue also featured the work of multiple other leftist
artists, such as William Gropper and Alfred Ronnebeck. Gellert’s drawings for The New Masses
were not only produced on covers, but within the issues themselves as well. For example, in the
June 1926 issue, Gellert’s drawing “British Labor: They Stood as One”, was printed in
conjunction with an article on a British trade union strike in which the union was victorious. The

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drawing is characteristic of Gellert’s artistic style, showing three muscular, working-class men
standing in a manner that makes them seem like one man. Their figures blend together,
emphasizing the unity of the workers’ movement, and they each hold a pickaxe in one hand. The
drawing is solely in green and black, the monochromatic aspect characteristic of Gellert’s New
Masses drawings. In later issues, Gellert’s style changes pretty drastically. His cover for the
March 1928 issue of The New Masses was extremely different from his previous proletkult-style
drawings. Instead, this cover more closely resembles a political cartoon, and is done solely in
black and white, no color whatsoever. The drawing shows a man dressed fairly well, most likely
a member of government, with his mouth open unrealistically wide to devour the country of
Nicaragua. The headline reads “The Truth about Nicaragua”, with Nicaragua printed on the
country that is about to be eaten by the man. The cover references the issue’s main article, which
is about “United States profit-imperialism in Nicaragua”.x Gellert became less active in The New
Masses around 1928; his drawings were still featured in the magazine, but he was no longer an
editor. Soon after, in 1929, he helped to found the John Reed Club, a Communist revolutionary
art organization, along with Louis Lozwoick, William Gropper, and other artists. The New
Masses ceased publication in 1948, when it merged with another Communist magazine,
Mainstream.xi
Gellert’s political art extended far past the realm of only drawing and lithography. He
was also an accomplished painter and muralist, as well as a set designer. Around 1925, he
became involved with the Workers’ Drama League, organized by Michael Gold. Gellert created
sets, playbills, and tickets for this organization, which promoted the glory of the worker and
other Communist ideas. He was also commissioned by the “State Publishing House to design
book jackets for Russian translations of [Theodore] Dreiser’s novels and stories”.xii The book

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jacket for Dreiser’s novel, Sister Carrie, is typical of Gellert’s design style. It is done all in red,
white, and black, and depicts an urban cityscape. Skyscrapers, smoke, and a bullet train dominate
the cityscape, emphasizing the city and machine, which is a sign of Lozowick’s influence on
Gellert’s work. Gellert was also deeply influenced by the Mexican muralists of the 1920s and
30s, such as Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco. In 1928, Gellert was commissioned to
paint a mural for the Workers (Communist) Party cafeteria, called the Proletcos Cooperative
Cafeteria, on Union Square East in New York City. The mural was “eight feet high…covered
one eighty-foot-long wall, and a facing wall with roughly thirty feet of usable space”.xiii The
mural depicts muscular men and women, especially coal miners and steel workers, some holding
up signs with slogans such as “Workers of the world unite” and “Don’t scab”. The mural also
depicts Vladimir Lenin, the Russian Bolshevik leader, in a suit through which one can see that he
is as muscular as the working men, showing that he works alongside the people as one of them.
Along with Lenin, other radical Communists are shown, such as John Reed, Nicola Sacco and
Bartolomeo Vanzetti, and Charles Ruthenberg. This mural was destroyed when the building was
demolished around 1954. After a scandal involving a controversial work mocking John D.
Rockefeller for the Museum of Modern Art’s exhibition, “Murals by Painters and
Photographers”, Gellert was surprisingly contacted by Eugene Schoen, an interior designer for
the Rockefeller Center Corporation, commissioning him for a mural in the Center Theater. A
description of the mural from James Wechsler states:
Gellert used the motif of a film strip…The walls of the theater were covered with silver
paper…On the two side walls he simply depicted laborers with building tools. On the
ceiling Gellert painted a moon which looked like a silver dollar. A man was tied to the

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moon, his hands bound behind him with ticker tape. Another man was reaching up for the
largest of the great red stars which dominated the background.xiv
This mural was destroyed in the late 1940s when the Center Theater was torn down after it could
not compete with Radio City’s popularity. Gellert also created a series of murals in Seward Park,
which are completely unrelated to Communism. Instead, these murals depict great American
heroes, such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, and Frederick Douglass.
Early in his career, Gellert also experimented with painting. The Mary Ryan Gallery owns one of
his early paintings, an oil on panel titled Dive from 1920-1923. It is obviously an early,
experimental work for Gellert, based on the odd mix of colors, such as green, orange, and brown,
as well as the lack of musculature on the thin body of the painting’s figure. Also in 1923, Gellert
painted a self-portrait, using oil and graphite. Self-Portrait is a mixture of abstraction and
figuration, demonstrating the different influences on Gellert’s artistic career, such as Russian
Modernism. On one side of Gellert is abstraction, a wavy rainbow of colors. On his other side is
figuration, a rural landscape with an airplane and a nude woman. He is literally between the two
movements in this work. Gellert abandoned painting in 1928 “as an elitist form and concentrated
entirely on media that were accessible to a wide audience, with the specific purpose of leftist
agitation.”xv This is when Gellert turned to graphic design to sustain his career, designing posters
for the Communist party and working for various leftist magazines.
One of Gellert’s main ideas was that the unification and cooperation of artists was
necessary for the rapid dissemination of their ideas and wishes. This idea is what led to the
formation of organizations such as the John Reed Club and the Anti-Horthy League, as well as
the formation of many different leftist magazines and newspapers over the span of Gellert’s
career. Collaboration between artists was easy to achieve, as many of them shared political

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views and the common goal of the spread of leftist ideas. The main concern of Communist artists
in America was making their works accessible. Many of them, such as Gellert, turned to
printmaking to achieve this end. Unlike murals or magazines, “prints allowed Gellert to create a
portable, organized, permanent record of many of the images he explored in other media.”xvi For
example, he created the lithograph series Karl Marx Capital in Pictures in 1933, a series of
prints illustrating Karl Marx’s Das Capital. The illustrated series allowed for the spread of
Marxist ideas in America, as they were easy to interpret and understand. In the foreword to the
print series, Gellert states, “Das Kapital is our guide…it is my hope that in this abbreviated form
the immortal work of Karl Marx will become accessible to the Masses: To the huge army of
workers without jobs and farmers without land; to the workers in mills and mines, to all who toil
with brain or brawn. This book is made for them.”xvii Each print in the series makes a different
and direct statement, however, they can be read together to form a unified interpretation of
Marx’s text. Gellert printed these lithographs from metal plates rather than stone, giving them a
rougher, less ‘fine art’ feel. This made the prints more relatable to factory workers, who were
used to reading rough, illustrated newspapers not studying fine art prints. This allowed
Communist ideas to become accessible to the common working man in an easy to understand
volume, rather than people having to study huge tomes of economic theory.xviii As stated
previously, Gellert was a founding member of the John Reed Club, a Communist organization in
America which strove to bring the arts closer to the working class. The John Reed Club achieved
this goal “through traveling exhibitions, art classes, and lectures, which targeted disenfranchised
communities.”xix He also helped to found both The Artists’ Committee of Action and The
Artists’ Union, organizations which united artists against private patronage and censorship
issues.xx In 1930, Gellert became the director and co-founder of the John Reed Club Art School.

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These organizations, of which Gellert was a pioneering member, strove to unite artists for the
purpose of promoting their common ideas and bringing to light issues in the art world.
Aside from his prints and his role in pivotal Communist organizations, Gellert used
magazines to showcase his work and promote the collaboration of artists for a greater cause. His
work for The New Masses is most well-known of all the work he did for leftist publications.
Some of Gellert’s most famous pieces were created for The New Masses to criticize capitalism,
celebrate the liberation of the worker, and praise the Communist party. In the second issue of The
New Masses (June 1926) Gellert created multiple drawings. One particularly critical piece is
captioned “GOD!” and is a perfect example of Gellert’s artistic style and denigration of
American capitalism. It is done all in green, white, and black, giving the viewer an eerie sense of
the greediness of capitalist America, as green is often associated with greed. A man’s head
smoking a cigar, obviously representative of a corporate ‘fat-cat’, is situated in the center of the
drawing. An American dollar bill breaks out of his forehead, as a woman’s stockinged leg seems
to kick him from behind. To one side of the man’s head is a worker carrying a rifle in front of a
building that appears to be a factory. The other side shows a church with a figure in front of it
who may be interpreted to be a policeman. The drawing references the article above it in the
issue, called “The Passaic Symposium”. The article discussed a textile workers strike which
“precipitated when the millionaire employers tried to cut the wages of their workers ten per
cent…”xxi Gellert’s cartoon compares the factory to a church, with the corporate employers and
owners as the workers’ gods. The corporate man’s eyes seem to be staring straight at the viewer,
comparable to the all-seeing eyes of God. The three symbols in the center of the cartoon seem to
be symbolic of the Holy Trinity. The corporate man is symbolic of God the Father, the money is
a symbol of Jesus the Son, and the woman’s white leg clothed in a stocking is symbolic of the

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Holy Spirit. This trinity represents the driving force behind many of the workers’ problems
leading up to the strike.
The New Masses not only dealt with issues in America, but issues of Americans abroad
and world news as well. For example, the February 1927 issue of The New Masses was headlined
“Is Oil Thicker than Blood?” referencing the sale and cultivation of oil in Mexico. Scott Nearin,
the author of the article accompanying the headline, stated “And if the keeping of the Mexican
oil fields costs a few rivulets of working class blood- well at any rate Standard will have the oil-
and oil is thicker than blood any day”.xxii Gellert created the cover for this issue of The New
Masses, showing the country of Mexico as drawn on a map, with a compass rose in the upper
right corner. The compass rose has a skull in the middle, and seems to be tilted toward the north.
This same volume featured a cartoon by Gellert illustrating a crisis in Nicaragua in which
President Coolidge and the United States’ government took Nicaraguan land from the people to
build a canal. President Coolidge essentially threatened to destroy Nicaragua if the people did
not stop resisting. Gellert’s cartoon is captioned “Don’t wriggle, Buddy! Lie still and listen to the
music, or we’ll step on your face!” It shows four men who are clearly sailors, inferred from their
clothing and muscular bodies, holding down a shirtless Nicaraguan man who seems to be
struggling against their hold. There is a chain on the Nicaraguan man’s wrist and ankle
connected to a heavy ball and a peg, which it looks like one of the sailors is about to drive into
the ground. The music that the caption references is most likely the sound of construction of the
American canal in Nicaragua. The sailors force the native man to listen to the sounds of the
destruction of his land, and threaten him as President Coolidge threatened all of Nicaragua.
According to the accompanying New Masses article, “Uncle Sam- Buccaneer: Daring Exploits of
Star-Spangled Pirate in the Caribbean”, there were fifteen United States war vessels in

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Nicaraguan waters in order to shut down native resistance to the building of a canal.xxiii Toward
the end of this issue of The New Masses, Gellert featured a third drawing, a satirical portrait of
Miklós Horthy, the conservative leader of Hungary between the two World Wars. The cartoon’s
caption reads “Horthy is Worried about the Arts”. Horthy’s portrait dominates the picture in the
front. He is surrounded on both sides by crosses marking graves, and two bodies swing from a
gallows behind him. The cartoon is mocking Horthy’s concern for arts and sciences after he has
killed and imprisoned all of the foremost figures in these fields. The three drawings referenced in
this volume of The New Masses demonstrate Gellert’s interest in issues concerning the less
fortunate or working class people who are oppressed in other countries either by their own
government or by corporate American greed.
In the January 1928 issue of The New Masses, Gellert features a drawing that is less
cartoon-like and much more serious, dealing with a Colorado mine strike. The caption reads
“Bullets for Bread: Six miners were killed and 25 wounded when coal company police fired into
a crowd of unarmed workers at the Columbine mine, Colorado, on November 21st. Colorado’s
labor policy is dictated by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., largest stockholder in the Colorado Fuel and
Iron Co.” The drawing seems to have three different levels: the first being the workers, the
second is the policemen, and the third is a bowl and a loaf of bread. The workers form an upside-
down pyramid, with a man who has been shot at the very tip. Separating the workers and the
policemen is a jagged strip of barbed wire, and the five policemen crouch behind it as though
they are at war, although the workers are unarmed. The largest part of the drawing is the bowl,
spoon, and loaf of bread that are in the forefront. These are most likely the largest because they
are the reason that the workers were protesting, and the reason that some of them lost their lives
against the mining police. This drawing is a little different from most of Gellert’s cartoons. First,

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it is much less of a cartoon and more of a depiction of the sad reality of something that happened.
The drawing is not poking fun at political figures or leaders, rather it shows the cruelty that is
inherent in corporate America. Second, the viewer can clearly see the expressions of sadness,
rage, and anguish on the faces of the workers. These types of emotions are atypical for Gellert’s
usually stalwart and stoic workers. This drawing clearly demonstrates the cruelty of American
corporations, where the police would shoot unarmed workers over a strike for decent food.
Third, the viewer can see that Gellert’s style is moving away from the abstract and geometric,
becoming more naturalistic in his representations of different figures.
In 1931, Gellert helped to distribute the Communist message to all people by aiding in
the creation of New Pioneer, a leftist magazine for children. Wechsler states, “Moreover, to
encourage working-class children to develop skills as proletkult artists, New Pioneer offered
prizes for portraits of Communist leaders like Lenin and Stalin…”xxiv The point of the magazine
was clearly to educate children about Communism and the success of Communist leaders in
Russia. Much like Gellert’s lithograph series, Karl Marx Capital in Pictures, New Pioneer was a
way to make Communism easy to understand for a certain target audience, in this case, children.
New Pioneer often featured stories of radical working class heroes, such as Sacco and Vanzetti,
as well as political cartoons. Gellert created a cover for the November 1932 issue of New
Pioneer, featuring a multi-racial group of children under a Communist banner. Five years later,
in 1935, the New Pioneer Storybook was published, a collection of stories and illustrations from
the magazine, featuring the work of both Gellert and Gropper.xxv New Pioneer Storybook is an
example of collaboration between people in the artistic community to foster a world in which the
ideas of Communism can be distributed to all people, even children.

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In conclusion, Gellert was a key figure in the unification of artists working for the
Communist cause. His artistic career spanned many years and many different leftist publications,
allowing his style to develop and is ideas to spread rapidly. After the death of his brother Ernest
in an American military camp, Gellert spent most of his life praising the Communist government
in Russia and criticizing the government and big business corporations in America. The New
Masses played an important role in the diaspora of the socio-political ideas of Gellert and many
other leftist artists, such as Louis Lozowick, John Reed, and William Gropper. As an activist,
Gellert’s art is viewed in a new way. His drawings, paintings, murals, and lithographs are
interpreted in a political context, rather than being viewed for aesthetic pleasure. The propaganda
effect of Gellert’s drawings for magazines incited people to join the leftist cause. The
cooperation between artists, authors, and others on the editorial board of The New Masses and
other political magazines allowed for the cause’s ideas to be spread to people all over the United
States. Hugo Gellert is largely responsible for the formation of organizations and magazines
which would promote the cooperation and unification of artists and other leftist supporters in
order to provide a striking message of support for the Communist cause.

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Notes
i James M. Wechsler, "The Art and Activism of Hugo Gellert: Embracing the Specter of
Communism," Order No. 3083718, City University of New York, 2003,
http://search.proquest.com/docview/305331828?accountid=13793.
ii Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 46.
iii Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 49.
iv Archives of American Art, “Hugo Gellert Papers”, http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/hugo-
gellert-papers-7845/more, Accessed: March 21, 2016.
v Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 51.
vi Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 58.
vii “Karl Marx ‘Capital’ in Pictures”, The Wolfsonian-Florida International University,
http://www.wolfsonian.org/explore/collections/karl-marx-capital-lithographs, Accessed: April 7,
2016.
viii Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 115.
ix Martin Goodman, “New Masses Archive”, https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/new-
masses/, Accessed: March 21, 2016.
x Goodman, “New Masses Archive”, 2016.
xi Goodman, “New Masses Archive”, 2016.
xii James Wechsler, "From World War I to the Popular Front: The Art and Activism of Hugo
Gellert,” The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 2002. 199. JSTOR Journals,
EBSCOhost (accessed March 21, 2016).
xiii Wechsler, “World War I”, 216.

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xiv James Wechsler, “Hugo Gellert: History of Controversy”, CUNY Art History Department,
http://newdeal.feri.org/gellert/wechsler.htm, Accessed: April 7, 2016.
xv Wechsler, “World War I”, 213.
xvi Wechsler, “World War I”, 227.
xvii Hugo Gellert, Karl Marx ‘Capital’ in Pictures, Ray Long and Richard R. Smith: New York,
1933.
xviii Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 158.
xix Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 146.
xx Wechsler, “World War I”, 228.
xxi Goodman, “New Masses Archive”, 2016.
xxii Goodman, “New Masses Archive”, 2016.
xxiii Goodman, “New Masses Archive”, 2016.
xxiv Wechsler, “Art and Activism”, 158.
xxv Bolerium Books, “American Labor and Radical Social Movements in the 1930s”,
http://www.bolerium.com/Labor1930s.pdf, Accessed: April 12, 2016.