This document provides an introduction and overview of power flow analysis and nodal analysis techniques. It discusses modeling a power distribution system as a circuit with nodes, voltage sources, and branch impedances. Nodal analysis is described as applying Kirchhoff's Current Law at each node to obtain a set of nodal equations relating the node voltages. Power flow analysis adds real and reactive power inputs and outputs and results in nonlinear equations that must be solved iteratively to determine the unknown node voltages and power flows. Different types of system buses - slack, load, and voltage controlled - are also defined based on their specified and calculated parameters.
3. K. Webb ESE 470
Nodal Analysis
ļØ Consider the following circuit
ļØ Three voltage sources
ļ¤ ššš š š , ššš š š , ššš š š
ļØ Generic branch impedances
ļ¤ Could be any combination of R, L, and C
ļØ Three unknown node voltages
ļ¤ šš1, šš2, and šš3
ļØ Would like to analyze the circuit
ļ¤ Determine unknown node voltages
ļØ One possible analysis technique is nodal analysis
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4. K. Webb ESE 470
Nodal Analysis
ļØ Nodal analysis
ļ¤ Systematic application of KCL at each unknown node
ļ¤ Apply Ohmās law to express branch currents in terms of node
voltages
ļ¤ Sum currents at each unknown node
ļØ Weāll sum currents leaving each node
and set equal to zero
ļØ At node šš1, we have
šš1 ā ššš š š
ššš š š
+
šš1 ā šš2
šš1
= 0
ļØ Every current term includes division
by an impedance
ļ¤ Easier to work with admittances instead
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5. K. Webb ESE 470
Nodal Analysis
ļØ Now our first nodal equation becomes
šš1 ā ššš š š ššš š š + šš1 ā šš2 šš1 = 0
where
ššš š š = 1/ššš š š and šš1 = 1/šš1
ļØ Rearranging to place all unknown node voltages on the left and all
source terms on the right
ššš š š + šš1 šš1 ā šš1šš2 = ššš š š ššš š š
ļØ Applying KCL at node šš2
šš2 ā šš1 šš1 + šš2šš2 + šš2 ā ššš š š ššš š š + šš2 ā šš3 šš3 = 0
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Nodal Analysis
ļØ Rearranging
āšš1šš1 + šš1 + šš2 + ššš š š + šš3 šš2 ā šš3šš3 = ššš š š ššš š š
ļØ Finally, applying KCL at node šš3, gives
šš3 ā šš2 šš3 + šš3 ā ššš š š ššš š š = 0
āšš3šš2 + šš3 + ššš š š šš3 = ššš š š ššš š š
ļØ Note that the source terms are the Norton equivalent
current sources (short-circuit currents) associated with each
voltage source
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7. K. Webb ESE 470
Nodal Analysis
ļØ Putting the nodal equations into matrix form
ššš š 1 + ššš āšš1 0
āšš1 šš1 + šš2 + ššš š š + šš3 āšš3
0 āšš3 šš3 + ššš š š
šš1
šš2
šš3
=
ššš š 1ššš š 1
ššš š š ššš š š
ššš š š ššš š š
or
šššš = š°š°
where
ļ® šš is the šš Ć šš admittance matrix
ļ® š°š° is an šš Ć 1 vector of known source currents
ļ® š½š½ is an šš Ć 1 vector of unknown node voltages
ļØ This is a system of šš (here, three) linear equations with šš
unknowns
ļØ We can solve for the vector of unknown voltages as
š½š½ = ššā1
š°š°
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The Admittance Matrix, šš
ļØ Take a closer look at the form of the admittance matrix, šš
ššš š 1 + ššš āšš1 0
āšš1 šš1 + šš2 + ššš š š + šš3 āšš3
0 āšš3 šš3 + ššš š š
=
šš11 šš12 šš13
šš21 šš22 š¦š¦23
šš31 šš32 šš33
ļØ The elements of šš are
ļ¤ Diagonal elements, šššššš:
ļ® šššššš = sum of all admittances connected to node šš
ļ® Self admittance or driving-point admittance
ļ¤ Off-diagonal elements, šššššš (šš ā šš):
ļ® šššššš = ā(total admittance between nodes šš and šš)
ļ® Mutual admittance or transfer admittance
ļØ Note that, because the network is reciprocal, šš is symmetric
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9. K. Webb ESE 470
Nodal Analysis
ļØ Nodal analysis allows us to solve for unknown voltages
given circuit admittances and current (Norton
equivalent) inputs
ļ¤ An application of Ohmās law
šššš = š°š°
ļ¤ A linear equation
ļ¤ Simple, algebraic solution
ļØ For power-flow analysis, things get a bit more
complicated
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11. K. Webb ESE 470
The Power-Flow Problem
ļØ A typical power system is not entirely unlike the simple
circuit we just looked at
ļ¤ Sources are generators
ļ¤ Nodes are the system buses
ļ¤ Buses are interconnected by impedances of transmission
lines and transformers
ļØ Inputs and outputs now include power (P and Q)
ļ¤ System equations are now nonlinear
ļ¤ Canāt simply solve šššš = š°š°
ļ¤ Must employ numerical, iterative solution methods
ļØ Power system analysis to determine bus voltages and
power flows is called power-flow analysis or load-flow
analysis
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System One-Line Diagram
ļØ Consider the one-line diagram for a simple power system
ļØ System includes:
ļ¤ Generators
ļ¤ Buses
ļ¤ Transformers
ļ® Treated as equivalent circuit impedances in per-unit
ļ¤ Transmission lines
ļ® Equivalent circuit impedances
ļ¤ Loads
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13. K. Webb ESE 470
Bus Variables
ļØ The buses are the system nodes
ļØ Four variables associated with each bus, šš
ļ¤ Voltage magnitude, šššš
ļ¤ Voltage phase angle, šæšæšš
ļ¤ Real power delivered to the bus, šššš
ļ¤ Reactive power delivered to the bus, šššš
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Bus Power
ļØ Net power delivered to bus šš is the difference between power
flowing from generators to bus šš and power flowing from bus šš to
loads
šššš = šššŗšŗšŗšŗ ā šššæšæšæšæ
šššš = šššŗšŗšŗšŗ ā šššæšæšæšæ
ļØ Even though weāve introduced power flow into the analysis, we can
still write nodal equations for the system
ļØ Voltage and current related by the bus admittance matrix, šššššššš
šš = šššššššššš
ļ¤ šššššššš contains the bus mutual and self admittances associated with
transmission lines and transformers
ļ¤ For an šš bus system, šš is an šš Ć 1 vector of bus voltages
ļ¤ šš is an šš Ć 1 vector of source currents flowing into each bus
ļ® From generators and loads
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Types of Buses
ļØ There are four variables associated with each bus
ļ¤ šššš = š½š½šš
ļ¤ šæšæšš = ā š½š½šš
ļ¤ šššš
ļ¤ šššš
ļØ Two variables are inputs to the power-flow problem
ļ¤ Known
ļØ Two are outputs
ļ¤ To be calculated
ļØ Buses are categorized into three types depending on which
quantities are inputs and which are outputs
ļ¤ Slack bus (swing bus)
ļ¤ Load bus (PQ bus)
ļ¤ Voltage-controlled bus (PV bus)
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Bus Types
ļØ Slack bus (swing bus):
ļ¤ Reference bus
ļ¤ Typically bus 1
ļ¤ Inputs are voltage magnitude, šš1, and phase angle, šæšæ1
ļ® Typically 1.0ā 0Ā°
ļ¤ Power, šš1 and šš1, is computed
ļØ Load bus (š·š·š·š· bus):
ļ¤ Buses to which only loads are connected
ļ¤ Real power, šššš, and reactive power, šššš, are the knowns
ļ¤ šššš and šæšæšš are calculated
ļ¤ Majority of power system buses are load buses
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Bus Types
ļØ Voltage-controlled bus (š·š·š·š· bus):
ļ¤ Buses connected to generators
ļ¤ Buses with shunt reactive compensation
ļ¤ Real power, šššš, and voltage magnitude, šššš, are known
inputs
ļ¤ Reactive power, šššš, and voltage phase angle, šæšæšš, are
calculated
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Solving the Power-Flow Problem
ļØ The power-flow solution involves determining:
ļ¤ šššš, šæšæšš, šššš, and šššš
ļØ There are šš buses
ļ¤ Each with two unknown quantities
ļØ There are 2šš unknown quantities in total
ļ¤ Need 2šš equations
ļØ šš of these equations are the nodal equations
š°š° = šššš (1)
ļØ The other šš equations are the power-balance equations
šŗšŗšš = šššš + šššššš = š½š½ššš°š°šš
ā
(2)
ļØ From (1), the nodal equation for the ššš”š”š”
bus is
š°š°šš = āšš=1
šš
ššššššš½š½šš (3)
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Solving the Power-Flow Problem
ļØ Substituting (3) into (2) gives
šššš + šššššš = š½š½šš āšš=1
šš
ššššššš½š½šš
ā (4)
ļØ The bus voltages in (3) and (4) are phasors, which we can
represent as
š½š½šš = šš
šššššššæšæšš and š½š½šš = šššššššššæšæšš (5)
ļØ The admittances can also be written in polar form
šššššš = šššššš šššššššššš (6)
ļØ Using (5) and (6) in (4) gives
šššš + šššššš = šššššššššæšæšš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šššššššššššš
šššššššæšæšš
ā
šššš + šššššš = šššš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šššššš šæšæššāšæšæššāšššššš (7)
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20. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem
ļØ In Cartesian form, (7) becomes
šššš + šššššš =
šššš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš [cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
+šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš ] (8)
ļØ From (8), active power is
šššš = šššš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš (9)
ļØ And, reactive power is
šššš = šššš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš (10)
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21. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem
šššš = šššš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš (9)
šššš = šššš āšš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš (10)
ļØ Solving the power-flow problem amounts to finding a
solution to a system of nonlinear equations, (9) and (10)
ļØ Must be solved using numerical, iterative algorithms
ļ¤ Typically Newton-Raphson
ļØ In practice, commercial software packages are available for
power-flow analysis
ļ¤ E.g. PowerWorld, CYME, ETAP
ļØ Weāll now learn to solve the power-flow problem
ļ¤ Numerical, iterative algorithm
ļ® Newton-Raphson
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22. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem
ļØ First, weāll introduce a variety of numerical algorithms
for solving equations and systems of equations
ļ¤ Linear system of equations
ļ® Direct solution
ļ® Gaussian elimination
ļ® Iterative solution
ļ® Jacobi
ļ® Gauss-Seidel
ļ¤ Nonlinear equations
ļ® Iterative solution
ļ® Newton-Raphson
ļ¤ Nonlinear system of equations
ļ® Iterative solution
ļ® Newton-Raphson
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Linear Systems of Equations ā
Direct Solution
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24. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving Linear Systems of Equations
ļØ Gaussian elimination
ļ¤ Direct (i.e. non-iterative) solution
ļ¤ Two parts to the algorithm:
ļ® Forward elimination
ļ® Back substitution
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25. K. Webb ESE 470
Gaussian Elimination
ļØ Consider a system of equations
ā4š„š„1 + 7š„š„3 = ā5
2š„š„1 ā 3š„š„2 + 5š„š„3 = ā12
š„š„2 ā 3š„š„3 = 3
ļØ This can be expressed in matrix form:
ā4 0 7
2 ā3 5
0 1 ā3
š„š„1
š„š„2
š„š„3
=
ā5
ā12
3
ļØ In general
šš ā š±š± = š²š²
ļØ For a system of three equations with three unknowns:
š“š“11 š“š“12 š“š“13
š“š“21 š“š“22 š“š“23
š“š“31 š“š“32 š“š“33
š„š„1
š„š„2
š„š„3
=
š¦š¦1
š¦š¦2
š¦š¦3
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26. K. Webb ESE 470
Gaussian Elimination
ļØ Weāll use a 3Ć3 system as an example to develop the Gaussian elimination
algorithm
š“š“11 š“š“12 š“š“13
š“š“21 š“š“22 š“š“23
š“š“31 š“š“32 š“š“33
š„š„1
š„š„2
š„š„3
=
š¦š¦1
š¦š¦2
š¦š¦3
ļØ First, create the augmented system matrix
š“š“11 š“š“12 š“š“13 ā® š¦š¦1
š“š“21 š“š“22 š“š“23 ā® š¦š¦2
š“š“31 š“š“32 š“š“33 ā® š¦š¦3
ļØ Each row represents and equation
ļ¤ šš rows for šš equations
ļØ Row operations do not affect the system
ļ¤ Multiply a row by a constant
ļ¤ Add or subtract rows from one another and replace row with the result
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Gaussian Elimination ā Forward Elimination
ļØ Perform row operations to reduce the augmented
matrix to upper triangular
ļ¤ Only zeros below the main diagonal
ļ¤ Eliminate š„š„šš from the šš + 1 st through the ššth equations for
šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļ¤ Forward elimination
ļØ After forward elimination, we have
š“š“11 š“š“12 š“š“13 ā® š¦š¦1
0 š“š“22
ā²
š“š“23
ā²
ā® š¦š¦2
ā²
0 0 š“š“33
ā²
ā® š¦š¦3
ā²
ļ¤ Where the prime notation (e.g. š“š“22
ā²
) indicates that the value
has been changed from its original value
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Gaussian Elimination ā Back Substitution
š“š“11 š“š“12 š“š“13 ā® š¦š¦1
0 š“š“22
ā²
š“š“23
ā²
ā® š¦š¦2
ā²
0 0 š“š“33
ā²
ā® š¦š¦3
ā²
ļØ The last row represents an equation with only a single unknown
š“š“33
ā²
ā š„š„3 = š¦š¦3
ā²
ļ¤ Solve for š„š„3
š„š„3 =
š¦š¦3
ā²
š“š“33
ā²
ļØ The second-to-last row represents an equation with two unknowns
š“š“22
ā²
ā š„š„2 + š“š“23
ā²
ā š„š„3 = š¦š¦2
ā²
ļ¤ Substitute in newly-found value of š„š„3
ļ¤ Solve for š„š„2
ļØ Substitute values for š„š„2 and š„š„3 into the first-row equation
ļ¤ Solve for š„š„1
ļØ This process is back substitution
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29. K. Webb ESE 470
Gaussian elimination
ļØ Gaussian elimination summary
ļ¤ Create the augmented system matrix
ļ¤ Forward elimination
ļ® Reduce to an upper-triangular matrix
ļ¤ Back substitution
ļ® Starting with š„š„šš, solve for š„š„šš for šš = šš ā¦ 1
ļØ A direct solution algorithm
ļ¤ Exact value for each š„š„šš arrived at with a single execution of
the algorithm
ļØ Alternatively, we can use an iterative algorithm
ļ¤ The Jacobi method
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Linear Systems of Equations ā
Iterative Solution ā Jacobi Method
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Jacobi Method
ļØ Consider a system of šš linear equations
šš ā š±š± = š²š²
š“š“1,1 āÆ š“š“1,šš
ā® ā± ā®
š“š“šš,1 āÆ š“š“šš,šš
š„š„1
ā®
š„š„šš
=
š¦š¦1
ā®
š¦š¦šš
ļØ The ššth equation (ššth row) is
š“š“šš,1š„š„1 + š“š“šš,2š„š„2 + āÆ + š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš + āÆ + š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš = š¦š¦šš (11)
ļØ Solve (11) for š„š„šš
š„š„šš =
1
š“š“šš,šš
[š¦š¦šš ā (š“š“šš,1š„š„1 + š“š“šš,2š„š„2 + āÆ + š“š“šš,ššā1š„š„ššā1 + (12)
+š“š“šš,šš+1š„š„šš+1 + āÆ + š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš)]
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Jacobi Method
ļØ Simplify (12) using summing notation
š„š„šš =
1
š“š“šš,šš
š¦š¦šš ā ļæ½
šš=1
ššā1
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš ā ļæ½
šš=šš+1
šš
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš , šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļØ An equation for š„š„šš
ļ¤ But, of course, we donāt yet know all other š„š„šš values
ļØ Use (13) as an iterative expression
š„š„šš,šš+1 =
1
š“š“šš,šš
š¦š¦šš ā ļæ½
šš=1
ššā1
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš ā ļæ½
šš=šš+1
šš
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš , šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļ¤ The šš subscript indicates iteration number
ļ® š„š„šš,šš+1 is the updated value from the current iteration
ļ® š„š„šš,šš is a value from the previous iteration
(13)
(14)
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Jacobi Method
š„š„šš,šš+1 =
1
š“š“šš,šš
š¦š¦šš ā ļæ½
šš=1
ššā1
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš ā ļæ½
šš=šš+1
šš
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš , šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļØ Old values of š„š„šš, on the right-hand side, are used to
update š„š„šš on the left-hand side
ļØ Start with an initial guess for all unknowns, š±š±0
ļØ Iterate until adequate convergence is achieved
ļ¤ Until a specified stopping criterion is satisfied
ļ¤ Convergence is not guaranteed
(14)
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Convergence
ļØ An approximation of š±š± is refined on each iteration
ļØ Continue to iterate until weāre close to the right answer
for the vector of unknowns, š±š±
ļ¤ Assume weāve converged to the right answer when š±š±
changes very little from iteration to iteration
ļØ On each iteration, calculate a relative error quantity
šššš = max
š„š„šš,šš+1 ā š„š„šš,šš
š„š„šš,šš
, šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļØ Iterate until
šššš ā¤ ššš š
where ššš š is a chosen stopping criterion
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Jacobi Method ā Matrix Form
ļØ The Jacobi method iterative formula, (14), can be rewritten in matrix form:
š±š±šš+1 = ššš±š±šš + ššā1š²š²
where šš is the diagonal elements of A
šš =
š“š“1,1 0 āÆ 0
0 š“š“2,2 0 ā®
ā® 0 ā± 0
0 āÆ 0 š“š“šš,šš
and
šš = ššā1
šš ā šš
ļ¤ Recall that the inverse of a diagonal matrix is given by inverting each diagonal
element
ššāšš =
1/š“š“1,1 0 āÆ 0
0 1/š“š“2,2 0 ā®
ā® 0 ā± 0
0 āÆ 0 1/š“š“šš,šš
(15)
(16)
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Jacobi Method ā Example
ļØ Consider the following system of equations
ā4š„š„1 + 7š„š„3 = ā5
2š„š„1 ā 3š„š„2 + 5š„š„3 = ā12
š„š„2 ā 3š„š„3 = 3
ļØ In matrix form:
ā4 0 7
2 ā3 5
0 1 ā3
š„š„1
š„š„2
š„š„3
=
ā5
ā12
3
ļØ Solve using the Jacobi method
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37. K. Webb ESE 470
Jacobi Method ā Example
ļØ The iteration formula is
š±š±šš+1 = ššš±š±šš + ššā1š²š²
where
šš =
ā4 0 0
0 ā3 0
0 0 ā3
ššā1 =
ā0.25 0 0
0 ā0.333 0
0 0 ā0.333
šš = ššā1 šš ā šš =
0 0 1.75
0.667 0 1.667
0 0.333 0
ļØ To begin iteration, we need a starting point
ļ¤ Initial guess for unknown values, š±š±
ļ¤ Often, we have some idea of the answer
ļ¤ Here, arbitrarily choose
š±š±0 = 10 25 10 šš
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Jacobi Method ā Example
ļØ At each iteration, calculate
š±š±šš+1 = ššš±š±šš + ššā1š²š²
š„š„1,šš+1
š„š„2,šš+1
š„š„3,šš+1
=
0 0 1.75
0.667 0 1.667
0 0.333 0
š„š„1,šš
š„š„2,šš
š„š„3,šš
+
1.25
4
ā1
ļØ For šš = 1:
š±š±1 =
š„š„1,1
š„š„2,1
š„š„3,1
=
0 0 1.75
0.667 0 1.667
0 0.333 0
10
25
10
+
1.25
4
ā1
š±š±1 = 18.75 27.33 7.33 šš
ļØ The relative error is
šš1 = max
š„š„šš,1 ā š„š„šš,0
š„š„šš,0
= 0.875
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Jacobi Method ā Example
ļØ For šš = 2:
š±š±2 =
š„š„1,2
š„š„2,2
š„š„3,2
=
0 0 1.75
0.667 0 1.667
0 0.333 0
18.75
27.33
7.33
+
1.25
4
ā1
š±š±2 = 14.08 28.72 8.11 šš
ļØ The relative error is
šš2 = max
š„š„šš,2 ā š„š„šš,1
š„š„šš,1
= 0.249
ļØ Continue to iterate until relative error falls below a specified
stopping condition
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Jacobi Method ā Example
ļØ Automate with computer code, e.g. MATLAB
ļØ Setup the system of equations
ļØ Initialize matrices and parameters for iteration
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Jacobi Method ā Example
ļØ Loop to continue iteration as long as:
ļ¤ Stopping criterion is not satisfied
ļ¤ Maximum number of iterations is not exceeded
ļØ On each iteration
ļ¤ Use previous š±š± values to update š±š±
ļ¤ Calculate relative error
ļ¤ Increment the number of iterations
41
43. K. Webb ESE 470
Linear Systems of Equations ā
Iterative Solution ā Gauss-Seidel
43
44. K. Webb ESE 470
Gauss-Seidel Method
ļØ The iterative formula for the Jacobi method is
š„š„šš,šš+1 =
1
š“š“šš,šš
š¦š¦šš ā ļæ½
šš=1
ššā1
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš ā ļæ½
šš=šš+1
šš
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš , šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļØ Note that only old values of š„š„šš (i.e. š„š„šš,šš) are used to
update the value of š„š„šš
ļØ Assume the š„š„šš,šš+1 values are determined in order of
increasing šš
ļ¤ When updating š„š„šš,šš+1, all š„š„šš,šš+1 values are already known
for šš < šš
ļ¤ We can use those updated values to calculate š„š„šš,šš+1
ļ¤ The Gauss-Seidel method
(14)
44
45. K. Webb ESE 470
Gauss-Seidel Method
ļØ Now use the š„š„šš values already updated on the
current iteration to update š„š„šš
ļ¤ That is, š„š„šš,šš+1 for šš < šš
ļØ Gauss-Seidel iterative formula
š„š„šš,šš+1 =
1
š“š“šš,šš
š¦š¦šš ā ļæ½
šš=1
ššā1
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš+1 ā ļæ½
šš=šš+1
šš
š“š“šš,ššš„š„šš,šš , šš = 1 ā¦ šš
ļØ Note that only the first summation has changed
ļ¤ For already updated š„š„ values
ļ¤ š„š„šš for šš < šš
ļ¤ Number of already-updated values used depends on šš
(17)
45
46. K. Webb ESE 470
Gauss-Seidel ā Matrix Form
ļØ In matrix form the iterative formula is the same as for the Jacobi
method
š±š±šš+1 = ššš±š±šš + ššā1
š²š²
where, again
šš = ššā1 šš ā šš
but now šš is the lower triangular part of šš
šš =
š“š“1,1 0 āÆ 0
š“š“2,1 š“š“2,2 0 ā®
ā® ā® ā± 0
š“š“šš,1 š“š“šš,2 āÆ š“š“šš,šš
ļØ Otherwise, the algorithm and computer code is identical to that of
the Jacobi method
(15)
(16)
46
47. K. Webb ESE 470
Gauss-Seidel ā Example
ļØ Apply Gauss-Seidel to our previous example
ļ¤ š„š„0 = 10 25 10 šš
ļ¤ ššš š = 1 Ć 10ā6
šš š±š±šš šŗšŗšš
0 10 25 10 šš -
1 18.75 33.17 10.06 šš 0.875
2 18.85 33.32 10.11 šš 0.005
3 18.94 33.47 10.16 šš 0.005
4 19.03 33.61 10.20 šš 0.005
ā® ā® ā®
151 20.50 36.00 11.00 šš 0.995Ć10-6
ļØ Convergence achieved in 151 iterations
ļ¤ Compared to 371 for the Jacobi method
47
49. K. Webb ESE 470
Nonlinear Equations
ļØ Solution methods weāve seen so far work only for
linear equations
ļØ Now, we introduce an iterative method for solving a
single nonlinear equation
ļ¤ Newton-Raphson method
ļØ Next, weāll apply the Newton-Raphson method to a
system of nonlinear equations
ļØ Finally, weāll use Newton-Raphson to solve the
power-flow problem
49
50. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson Method
ļØ Want to solve
š¦š¦ = šš(š„š„)
where šš š„š„ is a nonlinear function
ļØ That is, we want to find š„š„, given a known nonlinear
function, šš, and a known output, š¦š¦
ļØ Newton-Raphson method
ļ¤ Based on a first-order Taylor series approximation to
šš š„š„
ļ¤ The nonlinear šš š„š„ is approximated as linear to update
our approximation to the solution, š„š„, on each iteration
50
51. K. Webb ESE 470
Taylor Series Approximation
ļØ Taylor series approximation
ļ¤ Given:
ļ® A function, šš š„š„
ļ® Value of the function at some value of š„š„, šš š„š„0
ļ¤ Approximate:
ļ® Value of the function at some other value of š„š„
ļØ First-order Taylor series approximation
ļ¤ Approximate šš š„š„ using only its first derivative
ļ¤ šš š„š„ approximated as linear ā constant slope
š¦š¦ = šš š„š„ ā šš š„š„0 +
šššš
šššš
ļæ½
š„š„=š„š„0
š„š„ ā š„š„0 = ļæ½
š¦š¦
51
52. K. Webb ESE 470
First-Order Taylor Series Approximation
ļØ Approximate value of the function at š„š„
šš š„š„ ā ļæ½
š¦š¦ = šš š„š„0 + ššā² š„š„0 š„š„ ā š„š„0
52
53. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson Method
ļØ First order Taylor series approximation is
š¦š¦ ā šš š„š„0 + ššā² š„š„0 š„š„ ā š„š„0
ļØ Letting this be an equality and rearranging gives an iterative formula
for updating an approximation to š„š„
š¦š¦ = šš š„š„šš + ššā² š„š„šš š„š„šš+1 ā š„š„šš
ššā² š„š„šš š„š„šš+1 ā š„š„šš = š¦š¦ ā šš š„š„šš
š„š„šš+1 = š„š„šš +
1
ššā² š„š„šš
š¦š¦ ā šš š„š„šš
ļØ Initialize with a best guess at š„š„, š„š„0
ļØ Iterate (18) until
ļ¤ A stopping criterion is satisfied, or
ļ¤ The maximum number of iterations is reached
(18)
53
54. K. Webb ESE 470
First-Order Taylor Series Approximation
ļØ Now using the Taylor
series approximation
in a different way
ļ¤ Not approximating
the value of y = f(x)
at x, but, instead
ļ¤ Approximating the
value of x where
f(x) = y
š„š„šš+1 = š„š„šš +
1
ššā² š„š„šš
š¦š¦ ā šš š„š„šš
54
55. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson ā Example
ļØ Consider the following nonlinear equation
š¦š¦ = šš š„š„ = š„š„3 + 10 = 20
ļØ Apply Newton-Raphson to solve
ļ¤ Find š„š„, such that š¦š¦ = šš š„š„ = 20
ļØ The derivative function is
ššā² š„š„ = 3š„š„2
ļØ Initial guess for š„š„
š„š„0 = 1
ļØ Iterate using the formula given by (18)
55
61. K. Webb ESE 470
Perform three iterations toward the solution of the following system
of equations using the Jacobi method. Let š±š±0 = 0, 0 šš.
2š„š„1 + š„š„2 = 12
2š„š„1 + 3š„š„2 = 5
61
65. K. Webb ESE 470
Perform three iterations toward the solution of the following system
of equations using the Gauss-Seidel method. Let š±š±0 = 0, 0 šš.
2š„š„1 + š„š„2 = 12
2š„š„1 + 3š„š„2 = 5
65
69. K. Webb ESE 470
Perform three iterations toward the solution of the following
equation using the Newton-Raphson method. Let š±š±0 = 0.
šš š„š„ = cos š„š„ + 3š„š„ = 10
69
71. K. Webb ESE 470
Nonlinear Systems of Equations
71
72. K. Webb ESE 470
Nonlinear Systems of Equations
ļØ Now, consider a system of nonlinear equations
ļ¤ Can be represented as a vector of šš functions
ļ¤ Each is a function of an šš-vector of unknown variables
š²š² =
š¦š¦1
š¦š¦2
ā®
š¦š¦šš
= šš š±š± =
šš1 š„š„1, š„š„2, āÆ , š„š„šš
šš2 š„š„1, š„š„2, āÆ , š„š„šš
ā®
šššš š„š„1, š„š„2, āÆ , š„š„šš
ļØ We can again approximate this function using a first-order Taylor series
š²š² = šš š±š± ā šš š±š±0 + ššā²
š±š±0 š±š± ā š±š±0
ļ¤ Note that all variables are šš-vectors
ļ® šš is an šš-vector of known, nonlinear functions
ļ® š±š± is an šš-vector of unknown values ā this is what we want to solve for
ļ® š²š² is an šš-vector of known values
ļ® š±š±šš is an šš-vector of š±š± values for which šš š±š±0 is known
(19)
72
73. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson Method
ļØ Equation (19) is the basis for our Newton-Raphson iterative formula
ļ¤ Again, let it be an equality and solve for š±š±
š²š² ā šš š±š±0 = ššā² š±š±0 š±š± ā š±š±0
ššā² š±š±0
āšš
š²š² ā šš š±š±0 = š±š± ā š±š±0
š±š± = š±š±0 + ššā² š±š±0
āšš
š²š² ā šš š±š±0
ļØ This last expression can be used as an iterative formula
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + ššā² š±š±šš
āšš
š²š² ā šš š±š±šš
ļØ The derivative term on the right-hand side of (20) is an šš Ć šš matrix
ļ¤ The Jacobian matrix, šš
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + šššš
āšš
š²š² ā šš š±š±šš (20)
73
74. K. Webb ESE 470
The Jacobian Matrix
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + šššš
āšš
š²š² ā šš š±š±šš
ļØ Jacobian matrix
ļ¤ šš Ć šš matrix of partial derivatives for šš š±š±
ļ¤ Evaluated at the current value of š±š±, š±š±šš
šššš =
šššš1
ššš„š„1
šššš1
ššš„š„2
āÆ
šššš1
ššš„š„šš
šššš2
ššš„š„1
šššš2
ššš„š„2
āÆ
šššš2
ššš„š„šš
ā® ā® ā± ā®
šššššš
ššš„š„1
šššššš
ššš„š„2
āÆ
šššššš
ššš„š„šš š±š±=š±š±šš
(20)
74
75. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson Method
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + šššš
āšš
š²š² ā šš š±š±šš
ļØ We could iterate (20) until convergence or a maximum
number of iterations is reached
ļ¤ Requires inversion of the Jacobian matrix
ļ® Computationally expensive and error prone
ļØ Instead, go back to the Taylor series approximation
š²š² = šš š±š±šš + šššš š±š±šš+1 ā š±š±šš
š²š² ā šš š±š±šš = šššš š±š±šš+1 ā š±š±šš
ļ¤ Left side of (21) represents a difference between the known and
approximated outputs
ļ¤ Right side represents an increment of the approximation for š±š±
Īš²š²šš = ššššĪš±š±šš
(20)
(21)
(22)
75
76. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson Method
Īš²š²šš = ššššĪš±š±šš
ļØ On each iteration:
ļ¤ Compute Īš²š²šš and šššš
ļ¤ Solve for Īš±š±šš using Gaussian elimination
ļ® Matrix inversion not required
ļ® Computationally robust
ļ¤ Update š±š±
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + Īš±š±šš
(22)
(23)
76
77. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson ā Example
ļØ Apply Newton-Raphson to solve the following system of
nonlinear equations
šš š±š± = š²š²
š„š„1
2
+ 3š„š„2
š„š„1š„š„2
=
21
12
ļ¤ Initial condition: š±š±0 = 1 2 šš
ļ¤ Stopping criterion: ššš š = 1 Ć 10ā6
ļ¤ Jacobian matrix
šššš =
šššš1
ššš„š„1
šššš1
ššš„š„2
šššš2
ššš„š„1
šššš2
ššš„š„2 š±š±=š±š±šš
=
2š„š„1,šš 3
š„š„2,šš š„š„1,šš
77
78. K. Webb ESE 470
Newton-Raphson ā Example
Īš²š²šš = ššššĪš±š±šš
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + Īš±š±šš
ļØ Adjusting the indexing, we can equivalently write (22)
and (23) as:
Īš²š²ššā1 = ššššā1Īš±š±ššā1
š±š±šš = š±š±ššā1 + Īš±š±ššā1
ļØ For iteration šš:
ļ¤ Compute Īš²š²ššā1 and ššššā1
ļ¤ Solve (22) for Īš±š±ššā1
ļ¤ Update š±š± using (23)
(22)
(23)
(22)
(23)
78
86. K. Webb ESE 470
Perform three iterations toward the solution of the following system
of equations using the Newton-Raphson method. Let š±š±0 = 1, 1 šš.
10š„š„1
2
+ š„š„2 = 20
ššš„š„1 ā š„š„2 = 10
86
90. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Overview
90
91. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Overview
ļØ Consider an šš-bus power-flow problem
ļ¤ 1 slack bus
ļ¤ šššššš PV buses
ļ¤ šššššš PQ buses
šš = šššššš + šššššš + 1
ļØ Each bus has two unknown quantities
ļ¤ Two of šššš, šæšæšš, šššš, and šššš
ļØ For the N-R power-flow problem, šššš and šæšæšš are the
unknown quantities
ļ¤ These are the inputs to the nonlinear system of equations ā the
šššš and šššš equations ā of (9) and (10)
ļ¤ Finding unknown šššš and šæšæšš values allows us to determine
unknown šššš and šššš values
91
92. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Overview
ļØ The nonlinear system of equations is
š²š² = šš(š±š±)
ļØ The unknowns , š±š±, are bus voltages
ļ¤ Unknown phase angles from PV and PQ buses
ļ¤ Unknown magnitudes from PQ bus
š±š± =
š š
šš
=
šæšæ2
ā®
šæšæšššššš+šššššš+1
šššššššš+2
ā®
šššššššš+šššššš+1
šššššš + šššššš
šššššš
(24)
92
93. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Overview
š²š² = šš(š±š±)
ļØ The knowns , š²š², are bus powers
ļ¤ Known real power from PV and PQ buses
ļ¤ Known reactive power from PQ bus
š²š² =
šš
šš
=
šš2
ā®
šššššššš+šššššš+1
šššššššš+2
ā®
šššššššš+šššššš+1
šššššš + šššššš
šššššš
(25)
93
94. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Overview
š²š² = šš(š±š±)
ļØ The system of equations , šš, consists of the
nonlinear functions for šš and šš
ļ¤ Nonlinear functions of šš and š š
šš(š±š±) =
šš(š±š±)
šš(š±š±)
=
šš2 š±š±
ā®
ā®
šššššššš+2 š±š±
ā®
ā®
šššššš + šššššš
šššššš
(26)
94
95. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Overview
ļØ šššš š±š± and šššš š±š± are given by
šššš = šššš ļæ½
šš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šššš = šššš ļæ½
šš=1
šš
šššššš šš
šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
ļ¤ Admittance matrix terms are
šššššš = šššššš ā šššššš
(9)
(10)
95
96. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Overview
ļØ The iterative N-R formula is
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + Īš±š±šš
ļ¤ The increment term, Īš±š±šš, is computed through
Gaussian elimination of
Īš²š²šš = ššššĪš±š±šš
ļ¤ The Jacobian, š½š½šš, is computed on each iteration
ļ¤ The power mismatch vector is
Īš²š²šš = š²š² ā šš š±š±šš
ļ® š²š² is the vector of known powers, as given in (25)
ļ® šš š±š±šš are the šš and šš equations given by (9) and (10)
96
97. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Procedure
97
98. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Procedure
ļØ The following procedure shows how to set up and
solve the power-flow problem using the N-R
algorithm
1. Order and number buses
ļ¤ Slack bus is #1
ļ¤ Group all PV buses together next
ļ¤ Group all PQ buses together last
2. Generate the bus admittance matrix, šš
ļ¤ And magnitude, Y = šš , and angle, Īø = ā šš, matrices
98
99. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Procedure
3. Initialize known quantities
ļ¤ Slack bus: šš1 and šæšæ1
ļ¤ PV buses: šššš and šššš
ļ¤ PQ buses: šššš and šššš
ļ¤ Output vector:
š²š² =
šš
šš
4. Initialize unknown quantities
š±š±šš =
š š šš
šššš
=
0
ā®
0
1.0
ā®
1.0
šššššš + šššššš
šššššš
(24)
99
100. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Procedure
5. Set up Newton-Raphson parameters
ļ¤ Tolerance for convergence, reltol
ļ¤ Maximum # of iterations, max_iter
ļ¤ Initialize relative error: šš0 > reltol, e.g. šš0 = 10
ļ¤ Initialize iteration counter: šš = 0
6. while (šš > reltol) && (šš < max_iter)
ļ¤ Update bus voltage phasor vector, šššš, using magnitude
and phase values from š±š±šš and from knowns
ļ¤ Calculate the current injected into each bus, a vector of
phasors
šššš = šš ā šššš
100
101. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Procedure
6. while (šš > reltol) && (šš < max_iter) ā contād
ļ¤ Calculate complex, real, and reactive power injected into each bus
ļ® This can be done using šššš and šššš vectors and element-by-element
multiplication (the .* operator in MATLAB)
šššš,šš = šššš,šš ā šššš,šš
ā
šššš,šš = š š š š šššš,šš
šššš,šš = š¼š¼š¼š¼ šššš,šš
ļ¤ Create šš š„š„šš from šššš and šššš vectors
ļ¤ Calculate power mismatch, Īš²š²šš
Īš²š²šš = š²š² ā šš š±š±šš
ļ¤ Compute the Jacobian, šššš, using voltage magnitudes and phase
angles from šššš
101
102. K. Webb ESE 470
Solving the Power-Flow Problem - Procedure
6. while (šš > reltol) && (šš < max_iter) ā contād
ļ¤ Solve for Īš±š±šš using Gaussian elimination
Īš²š²šš = ššššĪš±š±šš
ļ® Use the mldivide (, backslash) operator in MATLAB: Īš±š±šš = ššššĪš²š²šš
ļ¤ Update š±š±
š±š±šš+1 = š±š±šš + Īš±š±šš
ļ¤ Check for convergence using power mismatch
šššš+1 = max
š¦š¦šš ā šššš š±š±
š¦š¦šš
ļ¤ Update the number of iterations
šš = šš + 1
102
103. K. Webb ESE 470
The Jacobian Matrix
ļØ The Jacobian matrix has four quadrants of varying
dimension depending on the number of different
types of buses:
šš =
šššš
ššš š
šššš
šššš
šššš
ššš š
šššš
šššš
šššššš + šššššš
šššššš
šššššš
šššššš + šššššš
šš1 šš2
šš3 šš4
103
104. K. Webb ESE 470
The Jacobian Matrix
ļØ Jacobian elements are partial derivatives of (9) and (10) with
respect to šæšæ or šš
ļØ Formulas for the Jacobian elements:
ļ¤ šš ā šš
šš1šššš =
šššššš
šššæšæšš
= šššššššššššš
šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šš2šššš =
šššššš
šššš
šš
= šššššššššš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šš3šššš =
šššššš
šššæšæšš
= āšššššššššššš
šš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šš4šššš =
šššššš
šššš
šš
= šššššššššš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
(29)
(27)
(28)
(30)
104
105. K. Webb ESE 470
The Jacobian Matrix
ļØ Formulas for the Jacobian elements, contād:
ļ¤ šš = šš
šš1šššš =
šššššš
šššæšæšš
= āšššš ļæ½
šš=1
ššā šš
šš
šššššššš
šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šš2šššš =
šššššš
šššššš
= šššššššššš cos šššššš + ļæ½
šš=1
šš
šššššššš
šš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šš3šššš =
šššššš
šššæšæšš
= šššš ļæ½
šš=1
ššā šš
šš
šššššššš
šš cos šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
šš4šššš =
šššššš
šššššš
= āšššššššššš sin šššššš + ļæ½
šš=1
šš
šššššššš
šš sin šæšæšš ā šæšæšš ā šššššš
(33)
(31)
(32)
(34)
105
106. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Example
106
107. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Buses
ļØ Determine all bus voltages and power flows for the following three-
bus power system
ļØ Three buses, šššššš = 1, šššššš = 1, ordered PV first, then PQ:
ļ¤ Bus 1: slack bus
ļ® šš1 and šæšæ1 are known, find šš1 and šš1
ļ¤ Bus 2: PV bus
ļ® šš2 and šš2 are known, find šæšæ2 and šš2
ļ¤ Bus 3: PQ bus
ļ® šš3 and šš3 are known, find šš3 and šæšæ3
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108. K. Webb ESE 470
ļØ Per-unit, per-length impedance of all transmission lines:
š§š§ = 31.1 + ššššš Ć 10ā6 šššš/šššš
ļ¤ Admittance of each line:
šš12 = šš23 =
1
š§š§ ā 150 šššš
= 2.06 ā šššš.9 šššš
šš13 =
1
š§š§ ā 200 šššš
= 1.54 ā šš15.7 šššš
Power-Flow Solution ā Admittance Matrix
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111. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Initialize Unknowns
ļØ The vector of unknown quantities to be solved for is
š±š± =
š š
šš
=
šæšæ2
šæšæ3
šš3
ļØ Initialize all unknown bus voltage phasors to šššš = 1.0ā 0Ā° šššš
š±š±0 =
š š 0
šš0
=
šæšæ2,0
šæšæ3,0
šš3,0
=
0
0
1.0
ļØ The complete vector of bus voltage phasors ā partly known, partly
unknown ā is
šš =
šš1ā šæšæ1
šš2ā šæšæ2
šš3ā šæšæ3
=
1.0ā 0Ā°
1.05ā šæšæ2,0
šš3,0ā šæšæ3,0
=
1.0ā 0Ā°
1.05ā 0Ā°
1.0ā 0Ā°
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112. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Jacobian Matrix
ļØ The Jacobian matrix for this system is
šš =
šššš2
šššæšæ2
šššš2
šššæšæ3
šššš2
šššš3
šššš3
šššæšæ2
šššš3
šššæšæ3
šššš3
šššš3
šššš3
šššæšæ2
šššš3
šššæšæ3
šššš3
šššš3
ļØ This matrix will be computed on each iteration using
the current approximation to the vector of
unknowns, š±š±šš
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113. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Set Up and Iterate
ļØ Set up N-R iteration parameters
ļ¤ reltol = 1e-6
ļ¤ max_iter = 1e3
ļ¤ šš0 = 10
ļ¤ šš = 0
ļØ Iteratively update the approximation to the vector of
unknowns as long as
ļ¤ Stopping criterion is not satisfied
šššš > ššš š
ļ¤ Maximum number of iterations is not exceeded
šš ā¤ šššššš _šššššššš
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114. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Iterate
ļØ šš = 0:
ļ¤ Vector of bus voltage phasors
šš0 =
šš1ā šæšæ1
šš2ā šæšæ2,0
šš3,0ā šæšæ3,0
=
1.0ā 0Ā°
1.05ā 0Ā°
1.0ā 0Ā°
ļ¤ Current injected into each bus
šš0 = šš ā šš0
šš0 =
3.6 ā šššš.6 ā2.1 + šššš.9 ā1.5 + šššš.7
ā2.1 + šššš.9 4.1 ā šššš.8 ā2.1 + šššš.9
ā1.5 + šššš.7 ā2.1 + šššš.9 3.6 ā šššš.6
1.0ā 0Ā°
1.05ā 0Ā°
1.0ā 0Ā°
šš0 =
1.05ā 95.6Ā°
2.10ā ā 84.4Ā°
1.05ā 95.6Ā°
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115. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Iterate
ļØ šš = 0:
ļ¤ Complex power injected into each bus
šš0 = šš0 .ā šš0
ā
šš0 =
1.0ā 0Ā°
1.05ā 0Ā°
1.0ā 0Ā°
.ā
1.05ā 95.6Ā°
2.10ā ā 84.4Ā°
1.05ā 95.6Ā°
ā
šš0 =
ā0.103 ā ššš.045
0.216 + ššš.195
ā0.103 ā ššš.045
ļ¤ Real and reactive power
šš0 =
ā0.103
0.216
ā0.103
, šš0 =
ā1.045
2.195
ā1.045
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122. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution ā Iterate
ļØ šš = 0:
ļ¤ Use power mismatch to check for convergence
šš0 = max
š¦š¦šš ā šššš š„š„
š¦š¦šš
= 0.9794
ļ¤ Move on to the next iteration, šš = 1
ļ® Create šš1 using š±š±1 values
ļ® Calculate šš1
ļ® Calculate šš1, šš1, šš1
ļ® Create šš š±š±1 from šš1 and šš1
ļ® Calculate Īš²š²1, šš1, Īš±š±1
ļ® Update š±š± to š±š±2
ļ® Check for convergence
ļ® ā¦
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123. K. Webb ESE 470
Power-Flow Solution
ļØ Convergence is achieved after four iterations
šš4 =
1.0ā 0Ā°
1.1ā ā 2.1Ā°
0.97ā ā 8.8Ā°
, šš4 =
3.08 ā ššš.82
2.0 + ššš.67
ā5.0 ā ššš.0
šš4 = 0.41 Ć 10ā6
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125. K. Webb ESE 470
For the power system shown, determine
a) The type of each bus
b) The first row of the admittance matrix, šš
c) The vector of unknowns, š±š±
d) The vector of knowns, š²š²
e) The Jacobian matrix, šš, in symbolic form
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