Running head: DETOXIFICATION FROM ALCOHOL AND OPIATES 1
5
DETOXIFICATION FROM ALCOHOL AND OPIATES
Research Paper Outline: Detoxification from Alcohol and Opiates
Grand Canyon University: PCN-527-0500
December 06, 2017
I. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DRUG
A. History of Alcohol
B. History of Opiates
II. PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY OF THE DRUG
A. Psychopharmacology of Alcohol
1. Effects of alcohol on mood
2. Effects of alcohol on thinking
3. Effects of alcohol on behavior
4. Effects of alcohol on sensation
B. Psychopharmacology of Opiates
1. Effects of alcohol on mood
2. Effects of alcohol on thinking
3. Effects of alcohol on behavior
4. Effects of alcohol on sensation
III. CURRENT TRENDS OF ISSUES
A. Current trends of issues of alcohol
1. Alcohol addiction
2. Binge drinking
3. Addiction
4. Physical symptom of withdrawal
5. Treatment
B. Current trends or issues of opiates
1. Types of opiates
2. Addiction
3. Physical symptoms of withdrawal
4. Treatment
IV. SOCIETAL CONCERNS OR ISSUES RELATED TO THE TOPIC
A. Stigma of being an alcoholic
1. Physical symptoms
2. Disruption in functioning
3. Other’s perceptions of addiction
B. Stigma of being addicted to opiates
1. Physical Symptoms
2. Disruption in functioning
3. Other’s perception of addiction
V. SIGNIFICANCE OR RELEVANCE ON THE COUNSELING PROFESSION
A. Relevance of alcohol addiction and treatment on the counseling profession
1. Different option for treatment
2. Treatment after detoxification
B. Relevance of opiate addiction and treatment on the counseling profession
1. Different option for treatment
2. Treatment after detoxification
VI. ANY FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
A. Future implications of alcohol detoxification
B. Future implications of opiate detoxification
References
Carlebach, S., Wake, D., & Hamilton, S. (2011). Experiences of home detoxification for alcohol
dependency. Nursing Standard, 26(10), 41-47.
Green, L., & Gossop, M. (1988). Effects of information on the opiate withdrawal syndrome. British Journal Of Addiction, 83(3), 305-309. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1988.tb00472.x
Ison, J., Day, E., Fisher, K., Pratt, M., Hull, M., & Copello, A. (2006). Self-detoxification from
opioid drugs. Journal Of Substance Use, 11(2), 81-88. doi:10.1080/14659890500143697
Masson, C. L., Barnett, P. G., Sees, K. L., Delucchi, K. L., Rosen, A., Wong, W., & Hall, S. M. (2004). Cost and cost-effectiveness of standard methadone maintenance treatment compared to enriched 180-day methadone detoxification. Addiction, 99(6), 718-726. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00728.x
Perdomo Gutiérrez, R. E. (2011). Clinical case of rapid opiate detoxification under anesthesia. Anestesia Pediatrica E Neonatale, 9(1), 1-10.
Van den Berg, J. F., Van den Brink, W., Kist, N., Hermes, J. J., & Kok, R. M. (2015). Social
factors and readmission after inpatient detoxification in older alcohol-dependent patients.
The American Journal On Addictions, (7), 661. doi:10.1111/ajad.12287
Wulffson, R. M. (2014). Detoxifi ...
Forum 4Based on what you’ve learned and your own experience.docxalisoncarleen
Forum 4:
Based on what you’ve learned and your own experience, how does pretend play contribute to a child’s development?
What qualities and skills do you think are important for academic and vocational success? How many of those qualities and skill are assessed by traditional intelligence tests? What advice would you give to parents and teachers who want to nurture creativity and special talents with children?
Cognitive Development (Piaget) and Intelligence
The topic for this week is cognitive development and intelligence from the perspective of Piaget and Vygotsky. Additionally, we will learn definitions of intelligence, the predictive value of intelligence tests, variations in IQ, the role of early intervention in intellectual development, and the development of creativity.
Topics to be covered include:
· Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives
· Role of Intelligence Testing in the Development of Educational Programs
· Case Studies Related to Intelligence
Cognitive Development
We will begin to examine cognitive development, or how the intellectual capabilities of infants transform into those of the child, adolescent, and adult. First, let us define cognition. Cognition refers to the inner processes and products of the mind that lead to “knowing.” In other words, how do we acquire, comprehend, and apply knowledge? What transformations must occur for individuals to develop increasingly sophisticated mental capacities?
JEAN PIAGET
You have likely heard the name of Swiss cognitive theorist, Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, people are not cognitive beings at birth; instead, they discover, or construct, all knowledge of the world through their own experiences. As they begin to construct knowledge, they refine and organize the information in order to effectively adapt to their environments. This theory of active construction of knowledge is known as the constructivist approach to cognitive development. This approach follows children through four invariant (fixed order) and universal (assumed to characterize all children) stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Throughout these stages, infants’ investigative behaviors gradually transform into the abstract, rational intelligence of more mature individuals.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SENSORIMOTOR
PREOPERATIONAL
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
Piaget identified specific psychological structures called schemes (organized ways of making sense of experiences) that change with age. Initially, schemes are patterns of action involving the senses and motor functions. For example, a baby may simply grab and release an object. As the baby gets older, this scheme becomes more deliberate, and she may begin to throw the object down the stairs, up in the air, or against walls. In other words, she is thinking before she acts. When there evidence of this, Piaget says the child has moved ...
Forum 4Based on what you’ve learned and your own experience.docxalisoncarleen
Forum 4:
Based on what you’ve learned and your own experience, how does pretend play contribute to a child’s development?
What qualities and skills do you think are important for academic and vocational success? How many of those qualities and skill are assessed by traditional intelligence tests? What advice would you give to parents and teachers who want to nurture creativity and special talents with children?
Cognitive Development (Piaget) and Intelligence
The topic for this week is cognitive development and intelligence from the perspective of Piaget and Vygotsky. Additionally, we will learn definitions of intelligence, the predictive value of intelligence tests, variations in IQ, the role of early intervention in intellectual development, and the development of creativity.
Topics to be covered include:
· Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives
· Role of Intelligence Testing in the Development of Educational Programs
· Case Studies Related to Intelligence
Cognitive Development
We will begin to examine cognitive development, or how the intellectual capabilities of infants transform into those of the child, adolescent, and adult. First, let us define cognition. Cognition refers to the inner processes and products of the mind that lead to “knowing.” In other words, how do we acquire, comprehend, and apply knowledge? What transformations must occur for individuals to develop increasingly sophisticated mental capacities?
JEAN PIAGET
You have likely heard the name of Swiss cognitive theorist, Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, people are not cognitive beings at birth; instead, they discover, or construct, all knowledge of the world through their own experiences. As they begin to construct knowledge, they refine and organize the information in order to effectively adapt to their environments. This theory of active construction of knowledge is known as the constructivist approach to cognitive development. This approach follows children through four invariant (fixed order) and universal (assumed to characterize all children) stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Throughout these stages, infants’ investigative behaviors gradually transform into the abstract, rational intelligence of more mature individuals.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SENSORIMOTOR
PREOPERATIONAL
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
Piaget identified specific psychological structures called schemes (organized ways of making sense of experiences) that change with age. Initially, schemes are patterns of action involving the senses and motor functions. For example, a baby may simply grab and release an object. As the baby gets older, this scheme becomes more deliberate, and she may begin to throw the object down the stairs, up in the air, or against walls. In other words, she is thinking before she acts. When there evidence of this, Piaget says the child has moved ...
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development WilheminaRossi174
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development since
how infants undergo these two areas of development play an important role in
determining their cognitive and social capabilities as adults. This essay
examines what is currently known about cognitive and social development,
how these developmental processes may differ in cultural contexts where
breastfeeding is more prevalent, and how studies can be conducted to
determine if these developmental processes occur at an earlier age or in a
different manner in such a cultural context.
Cognitive development focuses on how the processes involved in
acquiring, processing, and organizing information develop in humans (Oakley,
2004). The two most important theories of cognitive development are the
theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
Jean Piaget stated that cognitive structures are modified through the
processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process
through which new information is incorporated into an individual’s existing
cognitive structures, whereas accommodation is the process through which
new cognitive structures are formed in order to fit new information that is
encountered (Altman et al., 2017).
Piaget also theorized that there are four stages of cognitive
development. The first stage is the sensorimotor period which starts at birth
and lasts until the age of 2 where infants are learning about the world through
their sensory and motor abilities. The next stage, the preoperational period,
occurs from ages 2 to 7 and it is characterized by increased abilities in
symbolic thinking and language use. The third stage is the concrete
operational period which occurs between the ages of 7 to 12 where a child’s
ability to reason about concrete ideas significantly increases. The final stage
is the formal operational period which occurs after the age of 12,
characterized by the ability to reason about hypothetical problems and the
ability to think abstractly (Altman et al., 2017).
In contrast to Piaget, Lev Vygotsky’s theory focused on the influence
that social interactions have on cognitive development. Vygotsky stated that
there are three factors that shape a child’s cognitive development: culture,
language, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Oakley, 2004).
Vygotsky believed that culture is important in shaping cognitive development
since what knowledge a child acquires and how that knowledge is acquired is
determined by the culture that the child is a part of. Vygotsky stated that
language has an important role in cognitive development since the world is
understood and represented using language (Oakley, 2004). The third factor,
ZPD, is the distance between a child’s abilities on their own and a child’s
potential abilities that can be developed with some guidance and support
(Oakley, 2004).
Social development refers to the development of social understanding
and the acquiring of social skills. Two key areas of social development are the
devel ...
SPT 208 Final Project Guidelines and Rubric Overview .docxsusanschei
SPT 208 Final Project Guidelines and Rubric
Overview
Marketing and advertising are often used interchangeably, yet throughout this course you have learned that marketing is a much larger concept that requires a
strong understanding of consumer behavior, products and services, and often the greater economic environment. Marketing is applicable to every industry and
discipline in one way or another, but within the sport industry we have the chance to see the application of marketing concepts as if under a spotlight due to the
industry’s global reach and importance to society.
Your final project is the creation of an Opportunity and Consumer Analysis. You will select a sport team, individual, facility, or organization as the focus of your
consumer and opportunity analysis. When selecting your area of focus, think about your interests and career aspirations. As you progress through the course,
you will have the opportunity to practice the skills required for this project in several milestone activities. Your final deliverable will include a strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis of your selected focus; a consumer analysis; an analysis of successful marketing and media strategies;
and a brief 1-, 3-, and 5-year plan that allows you to explain your intended use of a proven marketing strategy and various media opportunities. Please note that
your Opportunity and Consumer Analysis will be an eligible artifact to include in your program portfolio, as it will highlight your ability to recognize consumer
characteristics and opportunities for brand improvement.
The project is divided into two milestones, which will be submitted at various points throughout the course to scaffold learning and ensure quality final
submissions. These milestones will be submitted in Modules Three and Five. The final Opportunity and Consumer Analysis will be submitted in Module Seven.
This assessment addresses the following course outcomes:
• Analyze consumer behaviors for the influence of political, cultural, and social events on consumer motivation at the local, national, or international
levels within the sport industry
• Illustrate the application of key marketing strategies in successful sport-specific marketing campaigns
• Identify proven marketing strategies that can be successfully applied to specific sport marketing scenarios to attract consumers
• Compare media opportunities for successfully communicating and marketing towards specific consumers within the sport industry
Prompt
Develop a comprehensive Opportunity and Consumer Analysis. Select a sport team, individual, facility, or organization and provide a thorough analysis of the
existing marketing strategies and consumers, and determine an opportunity for greater consumer reach. Outline a brief 1-, 3-, and 5-year plan for the marketing
opportunity.
Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed:
I. Marketing Foc.
Ssalinas_ThreeMountainsRegionalHospitalCodeofEthics73119.docx
Running head: CODE OF ETHICS 1
CODE OF ETHICS 4
Three Mountains Regional Hospital Code of Ethics
Sharlene Salinas
Professor Bradshaw
HSA4210
July 31, 2019
Three Mountains Regional Hospital Code of Ethics
Progressive developments in science and technology in the 20th century contributed to advances in healthcare and medicine that have helped many lives. Healthcare professionals are confronted with ethical dilemmas and moral questions as the context in which healthcare is provided keeps on changing. Healthcare specialists are required to be dedicated to excellence within their professional practice of promoting community, organizational, family, and individual health. Healthcare code of ethics provides a platform for shared professional values (Wocial & Tarzian, 2015). It is the responsibility of healthcare specialists to reach the best possible standards of conduct and to encourage these ethical practices to those with whom they work together. Healthcare professionals are facing challenges as the context in which healthcare is provided keeps on changing.
The Three Mountains Regional Hospital code of ethics will clarify the roles and responsibilities within the healthcare profession. The code of ethics will also guide the healthcare professionals on addressing common ethical questions. With 15,000 admissions annually, the Three Mountains Regional Hospital requires a code of ethics that will guide the healthcare professionals in the hospital in dealing with such a capacity. Healthcare professionals from the hospital will be defined by their purpose but not their job description (Turner & Epstein, 2015). The proposed code of ethics will inform individual decision-making when faced with ethical situations within a given relationship or role at the Three Mountains Regional Hospital.
Ethics are an essential part of healthcare, and they should provide value in practical situations. The proposed code of ethics will provide a structure and shape to the Three Mountains Regional Hospital’s environment and summarize the healthcare organization’s ethical position. The code of ethics will describe the ethical attitude shared by healthcare workers at Three Mountains Regional Hospital, and it will be valuable and influential on the success of the healthcare organization. The mission of the code of ethics is to guide the hospital is leading the way to a healthier community through the provision of quality care.
Code of Ethics
· Uphold the policies of the Three Mountains Regional Hospital (Merry & Walton, 2017).
· Protect the intellectual, physical, and electronic property of the hospital (Hoppe & Lenk, 2016).
· Promote a healthy, secure, and safe working environment (Merry & Walton, 2017).
· Act responsibly and honestly by avoiding perceived or actual conflicts of interest (Merry & Walton, 2017).
· Protect and respect the privacy and confidentiality of all individuals and informat.
Spring 2020Professor Tim SmithE mail [email protected]Teach.docxsusanschei
Spring 2020
Professor: Tim Smith E mail: [email protected]
Teaching Assistant: Ray Kim E mail [email protected]
Office hours: PLF South 113 TBA
EVOLUTION OF ROCK
MCY 127
Course Description:
This general education course is a study of the birth and evolution of the music form of Rock and Roll. It is a study of both the historical and musical elements of rock with a focus on the performers and the songs in the genre. Some of the objectives for this course include:
Increasing awareness of the wide range of musical styles that “add up” to form rock
Provide insight on the cultural evolution of rock and how it applies to society
Study how technological advances have influenced both the performers and composers in rock
Prerequsites:
None
Required text:
None
Required listening: Spotify playlist MCY127TS
Course Requirements and Grading:
Test 1 20%
Midterm exam 25%
Test 3 20%
Final exam 25%
Essay on live musical performance 10%
Essay assignment will consist of attending a live musical performance at the Frost School of Music (or approved off campus performance). At the conclusion of the performance, you will obtain signatures of two or more participants. You will compose an essay that will summarize the performance (ensemble, repertoire, etc.). You will compare and/or contrast the performance with details we have studied in class. The essay should be two to three pages long, computer printed, double spaced, and stapled. It will be due on Thursday, November 19.
Conduct and rules:
Rock and roll is a joyous art form. I intend for the class to be a fun and learning environment. I hope to engage you as adults, not as adolescents. However, inappropriate language or behavior to one another will not be tolerated, and will result in the student facing disciplinary action and potential removal from the class. You are adults. I am not your baby-sitter. If you fail to attend class regularly, you will find it much more difficult to excel in the course. SHOW UP AND PAY ATTENTION! It will make your life easier in the long run. Plagiarism on your essay will not be acceptable, and will result in the loss of 10% of your final grade. Cheating is rampant. While I will make every effort to curb the options students might have to copy one another on tests, I can’t stop it completely. I will have assistance from the Honor Council on test days, and cheating will result in a zero on that test. None of you can afford this. I truly believe that if you will engage the material, come to the lectures, and actively listen to the required listening material, you will not find a need to cheat.
If you are feeling overwhelmed by any of the material, please make an appointment to meet with me during office hours.
Lectures and listening:
Each class will consist of a lecture and a period of listening to music appropriate to that lecture. The music played in class will be made available to you through Blackboard in addition. You will be responsible for the material presented.
Spring 2020 – Business Continuity & Disaster R.docxsusanschei
Spring 2020 – Business Continuity & Disaster Recovery Planning (ISOL-632-50)
Incident Management
S no
Disaster Type
Plans & Precautions
Initial Action
Stabilization Strategy
1
Thunderstorm
2
Floods
3
Tornadoes
4
Severe weather such as blizzard
5
Hurricanes
6
Explosion such as bomb threats
.
Spring 2020Carlow University Department of Psychology & Co.docxsusanschei
Spring 2020
Carlow University
Department of Psychology & Counseling
Professional Counseling Program
LGBT Lives Cultures & Theories
PRC-742-G1, PY-235-DA, WS-237-DA
3 Credits; No Prerequisites
Course Syllabus- Spring 2020
Wednesday’s 6:00pm-8:30pm
Instructor: Michelle Colarusso, Ph.D., LPC, NCC Office: TBD
Cell phone: 724-396-9769 E-mail: [email protected]
Office hours: By appointment only Location: Antonian Hall 403
Carlow's Mission Statement
The mission of Carlow University, a Catholic liberal arts university, is to involve persons, primarily women, in a process of self-directed, lifelong learning which will free them to think clearly and creatively, to discover and to challenge or affirm cultural and aesthetic values, to respond reverently and sensitively to God and others, and to render competent and compassionate service in personal and professional life.
Course Description
This course will address issues related to counseling gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender clients. These include issues of sexual identity development, coming out, homophobia and heterosexism, family and relationship issues, multicultural issues, youth, aging, spirituality, HIV/AIDS, and substance abuse as well as ethical and professional issues in working with gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender clients through affirmative counseling/therapy.
Learning Outcomes and Assessment
What students will learn
How students will learn it
How students will demonstrate learning
Impact dominant culture has on LGBT individuals
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Multifaceted issues facing specific LGBT populations
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Familiarize themselves with theories of identity development
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Affirmative counseling/therapy and their knowledge and skill in providing it.
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Variety of counseling issues that have particular relevance to LGBT clients.
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Access to local and national resources available to assist in work with LGBT clients.
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Course Requirements and Resources
Methods of Involvement & Examination
Methods of Instruction
Classes will consist of didactic and experiential elements, including lectures, large and small group discussions, modeling, structured role-plays and simulations, live or video demonstrations, and student presentations in class and on CelticOnline/Schoolology. Primary methods include lecture/discussion, readings, and a variety of experiential exercises. Students will immurse themselves into the LGBTQ Cul.
SPOTLIGHT ON STRATEGY FOR TURBULENT TIMESSpotlight ARTWORK.docxsusanschei
SPOTLIGHT ON STRATEGY FOR TURBULENT TIMES
Spotlight ARTWORK Tara DonovanUntitled, 2008, polyester film
HBR.ORG
What Is
the Theory
f ̂ Fiof
y
Firm?
Focus less on competitive advantage and more on growth
that creates value, by Todd Zenger
f asked to define strategy, most execu-
tives would probably come up with
something like this: Strategy involves
discovering and targeting attractive
markets and then crafting positions that
deliver sustained competitive advan-
tage in them. Companies achieve these
positions by configuring and arranging
resources and activities to provide either
unique value to customers or common
value at a uniquely low cost. This view of strategy as
position remains central in business school curricula
around the globe: Valuable positions, protected from
imitation and appropriation, provide sustained profit
streams.
Unfortunately, investors don't reward senior
managers for simply occupying and defending po-
sitions. Equity markets are full of companies with
powerful positions and sluggish stock prices. The
retail giant Walmart is a case in point. Few people
would dispute that it remains a remarkable firm. Its
early focus on building a regionally dense network
of stores in small towns delivered a strong positional
advantage. Complementary choices regarding ad-
vertising, pricing, and information technology all
continue to support its low-cost and flexibly mer-
chandised stores.
Despite this strong position and a successful stra-
tegic rollout, Walmart's equity price has seen little
growth for most of the past 12 or 13 years. That's be-
cause the ongoing rollout was anticipated long ago,
and investors seek evidence of newly discovered
value—value of compounding magnitude. Merely
sustaining prior financial returns, even if they are
outstanding, does not significantly increase share
price; tomorrow's positive surprises must be worth
more than yesterday's.
Not surprisingly, I consistently advise MBA stu-
dents that if they're confronted with a choice be-
tween leading a poorly run company and leading a
well-run one, they should choose the former. Imag-
ine assuming the reins of GE from Jack Welch in Sep-
tember 2001 with shareholders' having enjoyed a 40-
fold increase in value over the prior two decades. The
expectations baked into the share price of a company
like that are daunting, to say the least.
To make matters worse, attempts to grow often
undermine a company's current market position.
As Michael Porter, the leading proponent of strat-
egy as positioning, has argued, "Efforts to grow blur
June 2013 Harvard Business Review 73
SPOTLIGHT ON STRATEGY FOR TURBULENT TIMES
uniqueness, create compromises, reduce fit, and
ultimately undermine competitive advantage. In
fact, the growth imperative is hazardous to strategy."
Quite simply, the logic of this perspective not only
provides little guidance about how to sustain value
creation but also discourages growth that might in
einy way move a compeiny away from i.
Sport Ticket sales staff trainingChapter 4Sales .docxsusanschei
Sport Ticket sales staff training
Chapter 4
Sales Staff
Developed not born
Skill set of a seller
Different to skill set of a manager
Sales process
Develop lifelong relationship with purchaser
Best source of increasing business
Upselling
Referrals
Sales Department
Recruit
Train
Develop
Motivate
Retain
Recommendations
Balance in house and outsourced
Communication between sales manager and sales staff
Success celebrations
Gather feedback from sales staff
Recruiting/Hiring
Personality, creativity (intangibles)
Fit with organization
Dress for success (opportunity taken seriously)
Positive attitude
Welcoming personality
Poised/confident (not over confident)
Initiative (carry conversation)
Energy, enthusiasm, commitment
Sales positions
10-20 inside sales staff
Supervisor to staff ratio 1:8
Annual training
New employee training (1 week to 1 month)
Ideal structure
8-16 Part-time
2 ½ months than ready to replace nonperforming FT
6-8 full time season ticket dedicated
3-6 full time group sales dedicated
Self-training
One book per month, mentor, seminars, practice
Sales Culture
Desired outcomes
Effectiveness
Productivity
Stability
Long term growth
Created by the sales manager (leadership)
Orlando Magic three A’s
Action
Visible displays
Find needs, wants, desires of employees
Reward accomplishments
Attitude
Believe in sales staff
Atmosphere
Visible signs of success
gong
Retaining/Motivating
Database management
Lead distribution
Reporting
Evaluation
Satisfy need of employees first
Better able to meet customer needs
Achieve organizational goals
Four types of sales employees
Competitor
Rivalries, win contests
It’s All About me
Recognized as best
Achiever Team Builder
Recognition of achievements, group success
Empathetic Seller
Cultivate relationships, not volume producers
Sales Career
Exploration
Establishment
Maintenance
Disengagement
Employee rate feeling appreciated and informed as top want
Sport Consumer Incentivization
Chapter 3
Incentives
Depend on consumption motives
Items of perceived value that add to offer
Overcome indifference or resistance
Later stage of buying/communication process
Price based incentives
Discounting core product damaging
Contingency based
Consumer action (provide info, prior purchase, etc) prior to price reduction
Attract infrequent customers
8% increase in attendance (top 10, 2004)
“cherry pickers” – only attend with promotion
MLB
14% increase, 2% watering down effect, more is better, weekdays (vs. high attendance – max total entertainment value)
Incentives continued
Rule changes, star players (consumption incentive)
Place based incentives
26 fundamental motives for sport consumption
Primary motives
Achievement
Ordinary runners (sense of accomplishment)
Perfect attendance
Vicarious achievement (enhance self esteem through success of athlete)
Sponsors – increased sales volume, exposure
Craft
Developing or observing physical skill
Winning record – highest predictor of attendance/s.
SPOTLIGHT ARTWORK Do Ho Suh, Floor, 1997–2000, PVC figures, gl.docxsusanschei
SPOTLIGHT ARTWORK Do Ho Suh, Floor, 1997–2000, PVC figures, glass plates, phenolic sheets, polyurethane resin; modules 100 x 100 x 8 cm
Installation view at Lehmann Maupin Gallery, New York
Why We Love
to Hate HR
...and What HR
Can Do About It
by Peter Cappelli
SPOTLIGHT ON RETHINKING HUMAN RESOURCES
Peter Cappelli is a
professor of management
at the Wharton School and
the author of several books,
including Will College
Pay Off? A Guide to the
Most Important Financial
Decision You’ll Ever Make
(PublicAffairs, 2015).
HBR.ORG
July–August 2015 Harvard Business Review 55
These feelings aren’t new. They’ve erupted now
and in the past because we don’t like being told how
to behave—and no other group in organizational life,
not even finance, bosses us around as systematically
as HR does. We get defensive when we’re instructed
to change how we interact with people, especially
those who report to us, because that goes right to the
core of who we are. What’s more, HR makes us per-
form tasks we dislike, such as documenting problems
with employees. And it prevents us from doing what
we want, such as hiring someone we “just know” is
a good fit. Its directives affect every person in the
organization, right up to the top, every single day.
The complaints also have a cyclical quality—
they’re driven largely by the business context. Usu-
ally when companies are struggling with labor issues,
HR is seen as a valued leadership partner. When
things are going more smoothly all around, manag-
ers tend to think, “What’s HR doing for us, anyway?”
This doesn’t mean that HR is above reproach.
Quite the contrary: It has plenty of room to improve,
and this is a moment of enormous opportunity. Little
has been done in the past few decades to examine the
value of widely used practices that are central to how
companies operate. By separating the effective from
the worthless, HR leaders can secure huge payoffs for
their organizations. But it’s important to understand
HR’s tumultuous history with business leaders and
the economy before turning our attention to what the
function should be doing now and in the future.
The “Personnel” Pendulum
How top executives feel about HR pretty reliably re-
flects what’s going on in the U.S. economy. When the
economy is down and the labor market is slack, they
see HR as a nuisance. But sentiments change when
labor tightens up and HR practices become essential
to companies’ immediate success.
Think back to the Great Depression. People would
put up with nearly anything to stay employed. Line
managers complained that personnel departments
were getting in the way of better performance, which
they thought could be achieved with the “drive” sys-
tem: threatening workers and sometimes even hit-
ting them if they failed to measure up.
Similarly, business leaders didn’t put a lot of
stock in HR during the 2001 and 2008 recessions, be-
cause employees—keenly aware of how replaceable
th.
Sponsorship Works 2018 8PROJECT DETAILSSponsorship tit.docxsusanschei
Sponsorship Works 2018 8
PROJECT DETAILS
Sponsorship title:
Audi Cup
Duration of sponsorship:
2009-present
Case study entered by:
Audi AG
Sponsor’s industry sector:
Automotive
Rights-holder:
Audi AG (Ownership Platform)
Agency:
brands and emotions GmbH
– Lead Agency, Audi Cup
Other organisations involved in the
planning, activation or evaluation:
FC Bayern Munich;
Several service providers (including event
agency, TV commercialisation,
TV production, etc.).
Campaign summary
Launched in 2009, the year of Audi’s 100th anniversary,
the Audi Cup is a pre-seasonal worldwide football
tournament. Leading teams including FC Barcelona,
Real Madrid and Manchester United meet in Munich
for the biennial Audi Cup during the summer break in
football.
The event is an owned and mainly refinanced
platform by Audi with a strong international media
presence, achieving around 2.5 billion consumer
contacts across television and online media at each
tournament in around 200 countries. With cutting-edge
technologies as an integral part of its staging and
coverage, the event provides a global opportunity to
highlight Audi’s “Vorsprung durch Technik” values.
Planning
Business needs
The Audi Cup provides an ideal platform to present
a strong, resonating connection between top-level
international football and the brand’s “Vorsprung
durch Technik” positioning. Audi has been involved in
international football for over 14 years and the launch
of the Audi Cup in 2009 established a new benchmark
in proprietary sports marketing, creating a whole new
way for Audi to implement its own rights in a highly
controlled and targeted manner.
Taking a “high-tech” approach to the world of
football broadcasting and marketing, the Audi Cup
meets the clear business need for Audi to demonstrate
Audi and the Audi Cup
A u d i a n d t h e A u d i C u p
Sponsorship Works 2018 9
A u d i a n d t h e A u d i C u p
and underpin its core brand proposition as a highly
innovative, technologically advanced automotive
company.
The development and implementation of tools
including the first ever implementation of digital overlay
of led boards in live broadcasting and the first ever live
holographic press conference in sport, a dedicated
chatbot and Alexa Skill and the Audi Player Index, not
only underline Audi’s status as a “high-tech” brand but
genuinely enhance enjoyment of the tournament for
fans, building a truly relevant connection.
Sponsorship selection
Audi’s long association with football, with its focus on
high-profile, global clubs, saw the brand develop from
a classic sponsor to an owner and organiser of various
leading platforms in its own right – the Audi Cup, Audi
Summer Tour and Audi Football Summit. With these
properties and its year-round association with the
game, Audi set itself the goal of elevating its successful
sponsorships into full ownership; Audi shifted from a
host or a marque associated with the.
SPM 4723 Annotated Bibliography You second major proje.docxsusanschei
SPM 4723
Annotated Bibliography
You second major project for the course will be an annotated bibliography. Instead of writing a
paper, an annotated bibliography requires you to research a particular legal topic or question, of
your choosing, in sports and find academic and law review articles that address that topic. You
will develop a question about a legal topic in sports and find seven law review articles to
summarize. Each article summary should be 300-350 words in length and should both explain
the contents of the article and its relevance to your question or topic. The summaries should be
written in your own words. You are required to select law review articles using LexisNexis. The
format for the annotated bibliography is explained below.
Please put your topic as the title for your paper. Next, each annotation should begin with the
APA citation for the article in bold print (do not include web links), followed by a summary of
the article (300-350 words) explaining how it addresses your question. The complete annotated
bibliography should be double-spaced, 12pt Times New Roman font with one-inch margins. You
will be submitting it through Turnitin via Canvas, do not include your name, course number,
date or UFID on your annotated bibliography (similar to the case briefs). You should start each
annotation on a separate page, and please remember to begin each annotation with the APA
citation for the article as instructed above. This assignment is due on Wednesday, April 22nd.
1.Which of the following is not a key component of the conceptual framework of accounting?
Select one:
a. internal users
b. the objective of financial reporting
c. cost constraint on useful financial reporting
d. elements of the financial statements
2.The balance sheet and income statement for Joe's Fish Hut are presented below:
Joe's Fish Hut
Balance Sheet
As at December 31
2016
2015
ASSETS
Current Assets
Cash
$180,623
$60,300
Accounts receivable
$18,900
$14,200
Inventory
$23,600
$25,300
Total Current Assets
$223,123
$99,800
Property, plant & equipment
$129,000
$184,000
Less: Accumulated depreciation
$-26,900
$-21,600
TOTAL ASSETS
$325,223
$262,200
LIABILITIES AND EQUITY
Liabilities
Current Liabilities
Accounts payable
$28,000
$41,800
Current portion of bank loan
$9,500
$9,500
Total Current Liabilities
$37,500
$51,300
Non-current portion of bank loan
$71,000
$42,000
TOTAL LIABILITIES
$108,500
$93,300
Shareholders' Equity
Common shares
$80,000
$54,400
Retained earnings
$136,723
$114,500
TOTAL SHAREHOLDERS' EQUITY
$216,723
$168,900
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND EQUITY
$325,223
$262,200
Joe's Fish Hut
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31, 2016
Sales
$137,000
COGS
$83,200
Gross Profit
$53,800
Operating Expenses
Insurance Expense
$1,600
Rent Expense
$5,380
Salaries Expense
$5,150
Telephone Expense
$840
Interest Expense
$1,340
Depreciation Expense
$5,300
Total Operating Expenses
$19,610
Operating Profit Before .
Speech Environment and Recording Requirements• You must have a.docxsusanschei
Speech Environment and Recording Requirements
• You must have an audience of at least 5 adults 18 years or older for all speeches. The audience must be live and in person, that is, physically present. Virtual attendance is not permitted. Your video recording must show the 5 individuals sitting as ENGAGED audience members. The audience should be visible before, during, and after the speech and you should be facing your audience. The camera should be placed behind your audience.
• You are required to record and post all 3 speeches in order to earn a passing grade in this course.
• The video must be of a high enough quality that the instructor is able to see your full facial expressions and gestures. Your instructor will need to be able to hear your voice very clearly. You risk a failing grade if your instructor is not able to discern facial expressions or subtle changes of vocal intonation on the recording.
• Be sure to record your presentation from head to toe. Your instructor needs to be able to see your posture and other elements.
• Be certain to record your video in landscape (wide), not portrait (tall).
• You may not stop the recording and re-record a section of your speech. What you
submit must be a complete presentation from start to finish with NO EDITING. You could record your speech a few times and then pick the best presentation to send. Just make sure you only submit one copy of your best speech.
• You will upload your speech following the YouTube directions and proper privacy guidelines. Speech capture directions and instructions are in Module 1 of the Blackboard online classroom.
• Be certain to provide a video link to your speech that is available for your instructor and college administrators to view without requiring passwords or special permissions. Submitting a link that does not immediately provide this access results in a failing grade for your speech and could result in a failing grade for the course. You cannot use Google Hangouts or other mediated communication in place of a live audience. Your live audience must be physically present at the location you deliver your speech.
• Any attempt to circumvent live speech audience requirements perceived by your instructor as deceptive, dishonest or otherwise disingenuous results in a zero for your speech with no opportunity to make it up and may result in a failing grade in the course and referral to the appropriate FSCJ administrative official for academic dishonesty.
• The video link (URL) you provide for your speech must remain posted, active and viewable until 14 calendar days following the official scheduled end of the semester, according to the official FSCJ academic calendar. Removing your speech from the URL or link you provide automatically reverts any score you have to a zero and will result in a failing grade for the course.
• Attempts to work around presenting in front of a live audience are considered academic dishonesty.
• Posting your speech on a screen or readin.
Sped4 Interview 2.10.17 Audio.m4aJodee [000008] And we are .docxsusanschei
Sped4 Interview 2.10.17 Audio.m4a
Jodee: [00:00:08] And we are looking at the collaborative process between secondary special ed teachers and transitioning and transition specialists when transitioning students with autism spectrum disorder or other disabilities from secondary to higher. OK so the first question is is describe the condition process as you understand it from the guidelines of the secondary transition plan.
Sped4: [00:00:52] OK. So first thing is a series of assessments that are appropriate for assessing it can include you know obviously interviewing the teacher not not the teacher the student and then sometimes parents are involved in that process. Then there's other batteries of tests. Things like the couter doing AZCIS things other interests inventories and things of that nature to get that. Looking at transcripts students grades grade reports in those things and taking those all that data and that assessment information and looking at that.That's my understanding and interpretation and kind of what I do.
Jodee: [00:01:46] So you know it's the responsibility of the secondary teacher special ed teacher as the case manager to interview the students. And you know one of the big pieces that we look at is the age appropriate goals. You know if you've got a student who is who is autistic academically They're very bright. They can do the work but they have absolutely zero social skills. And they want you maybe studied to be. They want to go into broadcast journalism or something along those lines. So it's like having you determined you know is it like a collaborative effort. You determine and work with the other person you know because sometimes you have to be that person and say yes might not be the best fit for you. How does that kind of playing into things.
Sped4: [00:02:51] I don't know like I don't mind doing that or being the one.
Sped4: [00:02:58] I haven't run into that exact situation but I have other situations where students wanted to go straight to university from high school and just had these visions of grandeur. But their GPA would not allow for that or they had other deficiencies and things of that nature. And so it's just it's sometimes it's like literally printing out the requirement and showing them just saying you know these aren't going to work. It's not a possibility. However it doesn't mean that you can't go on to higher education. And just providing them alternative routes like one if there is enough time if there for example is there a sophomore or a junior. You know we look at like Well is there enough time to get rid of these deficiencies. Can you take some of these courses. Can you do that to get your GPA up to get rid of the deficiencies et cetera. Is that feasible. Is that feasible with money or mom is mom and dad going to pay for that you know. And is there enough time or looking. OK well if that's not an option then community college is not necessarily a bad thing to do it right. When did yo.
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Cognitive and social development are key areas of development WilheminaRossi174
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development since
how infants undergo these two areas of development play an important role in
determining their cognitive and social capabilities as adults. This essay
examines what is currently known about cognitive and social development,
how these developmental processes may differ in cultural contexts where
breastfeeding is more prevalent, and how studies can be conducted to
determine if these developmental processes occur at an earlier age or in a
different manner in such a cultural context.
Cognitive development focuses on how the processes involved in
acquiring, processing, and organizing information develop in humans (Oakley,
2004). The two most important theories of cognitive development are the
theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
Jean Piaget stated that cognitive structures are modified through the
processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process
through which new information is incorporated into an individual’s existing
cognitive structures, whereas accommodation is the process through which
new cognitive structures are formed in order to fit new information that is
encountered (Altman et al., 2017).
Piaget also theorized that there are four stages of cognitive
development. The first stage is the sensorimotor period which starts at birth
and lasts until the age of 2 where infants are learning about the world through
their sensory and motor abilities. The next stage, the preoperational period,
occurs from ages 2 to 7 and it is characterized by increased abilities in
symbolic thinking and language use. The third stage is the concrete
operational period which occurs between the ages of 7 to 12 where a child’s
ability to reason about concrete ideas significantly increases. The final stage
is the formal operational period which occurs after the age of 12,
characterized by the ability to reason about hypothetical problems and the
ability to think abstractly (Altman et al., 2017).
In contrast to Piaget, Lev Vygotsky’s theory focused on the influence
that social interactions have on cognitive development. Vygotsky stated that
there are three factors that shape a child’s cognitive development: culture,
language, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Oakley, 2004).
Vygotsky believed that culture is important in shaping cognitive development
since what knowledge a child acquires and how that knowledge is acquired is
determined by the culture that the child is a part of. Vygotsky stated that
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understood and represented using language (Oakley, 2004). The third factor,
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and the acquiring of social skills. Two key areas of social development are the
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SPT 208 Final Project Guidelines and Rubric Overview .docxsusanschei
SPT 208 Final Project Guidelines and Rubric
Overview
Marketing and advertising are often used interchangeably, yet throughout this course you have learned that marketing is a much larger concept that requires a
strong understanding of consumer behavior, products and services, and often the greater economic environment. Marketing is applicable to every industry and
discipline in one way or another, but within the sport industry we have the chance to see the application of marketing concepts as if under a spotlight due to the
industry’s global reach and importance to society.
Your final project is the creation of an Opportunity and Consumer Analysis. You will select a sport team, individual, facility, or organization as the focus of your
consumer and opportunity analysis. When selecting your area of focus, think about your interests and career aspirations. As you progress through the course,
you will have the opportunity to practice the skills required for this project in several milestone activities. Your final deliverable will include a strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis of your selected focus; a consumer analysis; an analysis of successful marketing and media strategies;
and a brief 1-, 3-, and 5-year plan that allows you to explain your intended use of a proven marketing strategy and various media opportunities. Please note that
your Opportunity and Consumer Analysis will be an eligible artifact to include in your program portfolio, as it will highlight your ability to recognize consumer
characteristics and opportunities for brand improvement.
The project is divided into two milestones, which will be submitted at various points throughout the course to scaffold learning and ensure quality final
submissions. These milestones will be submitted in Modules Three and Five. The final Opportunity and Consumer Analysis will be submitted in Module Seven.
This assessment addresses the following course outcomes:
• Analyze consumer behaviors for the influence of political, cultural, and social events on consumer motivation at the local, national, or international
levels within the sport industry
• Illustrate the application of key marketing strategies in successful sport-specific marketing campaigns
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Develop a comprehensive Opportunity and Consumer Analysis. Select a sport team, individual, facility, or organization and provide a thorough analysis of the
existing marketing strategies and consumers, and determine an opportunity for greater consumer reach. Outline a brief 1-, 3-, and 5-year plan for the marketing
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Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed:
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Ssalinas_ThreeMountainsRegionalHospitalCodeofEthics73119.docx
Running head: CODE OF ETHICS 1
CODE OF ETHICS 4
Three Mountains Regional Hospital Code of Ethics
Sharlene Salinas
Professor Bradshaw
HSA4210
July 31, 2019
Three Mountains Regional Hospital Code of Ethics
Progressive developments in science and technology in the 20th century contributed to advances in healthcare and medicine that have helped many lives. Healthcare professionals are confronted with ethical dilemmas and moral questions as the context in which healthcare is provided keeps on changing. Healthcare specialists are required to be dedicated to excellence within their professional practice of promoting community, organizational, family, and individual health. Healthcare code of ethics provides a platform for shared professional values (Wocial & Tarzian, 2015). It is the responsibility of healthcare specialists to reach the best possible standards of conduct and to encourage these ethical practices to those with whom they work together. Healthcare professionals are facing challenges as the context in which healthcare is provided keeps on changing.
The Three Mountains Regional Hospital code of ethics will clarify the roles and responsibilities within the healthcare profession. The code of ethics will also guide the healthcare professionals on addressing common ethical questions. With 15,000 admissions annually, the Three Mountains Regional Hospital requires a code of ethics that will guide the healthcare professionals in the hospital in dealing with such a capacity. Healthcare professionals from the hospital will be defined by their purpose but not their job description (Turner & Epstein, 2015). The proposed code of ethics will inform individual decision-making when faced with ethical situations within a given relationship or role at the Three Mountains Regional Hospital.
Ethics are an essential part of healthcare, and they should provide value in practical situations. The proposed code of ethics will provide a structure and shape to the Three Mountains Regional Hospital’s environment and summarize the healthcare organization’s ethical position. The code of ethics will describe the ethical attitude shared by healthcare workers at Three Mountains Regional Hospital, and it will be valuable and influential on the success of the healthcare organization. The mission of the code of ethics is to guide the hospital is leading the way to a healthier community through the provision of quality care.
Code of Ethics
· Uphold the policies of the Three Mountains Regional Hospital (Merry & Walton, 2017).
· Protect the intellectual, physical, and electronic property of the hospital (Hoppe & Lenk, 2016).
· Promote a healthy, secure, and safe working environment (Merry & Walton, 2017).
· Act responsibly and honestly by avoiding perceived or actual conflicts of interest (Merry & Walton, 2017).
· Protect and respect the privacy and confidentiality of all individuals and informat.
Spring 2020Professor Tim SmithE mail [email protected]Teach.docxsusanschei
Spring 2020
Professor: Tim Smith E mail: [email protected]
Teaching Assistant: Ray Kim E mail [email protected]
Office hours: PLF South 113 TBA
EVOLUTION OF ROCK
MCY 127
Course Description:
This general education course is a study of the birth and evolution of the music form of Rock and Roll. It is a study of both the historical and musical elements of rock with a focus on the performers and the songs in the genre. Some of the objectives for this course include:
Increasing awareness of the wide range of musical styles that “add up” to form rock
Provide insight on the cultural evolution of rock and how it applies to society
Study how technological advances have influenced both the performers and composers in rock
Prerequsites:
None
Required text:
None
Required listening: Spotify playlist MCY127TS
Course Requirements and Grading:
Test 1 20%
Midterm exam 25%
Test 3 20%
Final exam 25%
Essay on live musical performance 10%
Essay assignment will consist of attending a live musical performance at the Frost School of Music (or approved off campus performance). At the conclusion of the performance, you will obtain signatures of two or more participants. You will compose an essay that will summarize the performance (ensemble, repertoire, etc.). You will compare and/or contrast the performance with details we have studied in class. The essay should be two to three pages long, computer printed, double spaced, and stapled. It will be due on Thursday, November 19.
Conduct and rules:
Rock and roll is a joyous art form. I intend for the class to be a fun and learning environment. I hope to engage you as adults, not as adolescents. However, inappropriate language or behavior to one another will not be tolerated, and will result in the student facing disciplinary action and potential removal from the class. You are adults. I am not your baby-sitter. If you fail to attend class regularly, you will find it much more difficult to excel in the course. SHOW UP AND PAY ATTENTION! It will make your life easier in the long run. Plagiarism on your essay will not be acceptable, and will result in the loss of 10% of your final grade. Cheating is rampant. While I will make every effort to curb the options students might have to copy one another on tests, I can’t stop it completely. I will have assistance from the Honor Council on test days, and cheating will result in a zero on that test. None of you can afford this. I truly believe that if you will engage the material, come to the lectures, and actively listen to the required listening material, you will not find a need to cheat.
If you are feeling overwhelmed by any of the material, please make an appointment to meet with me during office hours.
Lectures and listening:
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Incident Management
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Disaster Type
Plans & Precautions
Initial Action
Stabilization Strategy
1
Thunderstorm
2
Floods
3
Tornadoes
4
Severe weather such as blizzard
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Hurricanes
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Spring 2020
Carlow University
Department of Psychology & Counseling
Professional Counseling Program
LGBT Lives Cultures & Theories
PRC-742-G1, PY-235-DA, WS-237-DA
3 Credits; No Prerequisites
Course Syllabus- Spring 2020
Wednesday’s 6:00pm-8:30pm
Instructor: Michelle Colarusso, Ph.D., LPC, NCC Office: TBD
Cell phone: 724-396-9769 E-mail: [email protected]
Office hours: By appointment only Location: Antonian Hall 403
Carlow's Mission Statement
The mission of Carlow University, a Catholic liberal arts university, is to involve persons, primarily women, in a process of self-directed, lifelong learning which will free them to think clearly and creatively, to discover and to challenge or affirm cultural and aesthetic values, to respond reverently and sensitively to God and others, and to render competent and compassionate service in personal and professional life.
Course Description
This course will address issues related to counseling gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender clients. These include issues of sexual identity development, coming out, homophobia and heterosexism, family and relationship issues, multicultural issues, youth, aging, spirituality, HIV/AIDS, and substance abuse as well as ethical and professional issues in working with gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender clients through affirmative counseling/therapy.
Learning Outcomes and Assessment
What students will learn
How students will learn it
How students will demonstrate learning
Impact dominant culture has on LGBT individuals
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Multifaceted issues facing specific LGBT populations
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Familiarize themselves with theories of identity development
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Affirmative counseling/therapy and their knowledge and skill in providing it.
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Variety of counseling issues that have particular relevance to LGBT clients.
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Access to local and national resources available to assist in work with LGBT clients.
Readings, Experiential Activities, Class Discussions
Class Participation, Reflection Journals, Exam
Course Requirements and Resources
Methods of Involvement & Examination
Methods of Instruction
Classes will consist of didactic and experiential elements, including lectures, large and small group discussions, modeling, structured role-plays and simulations, live or video demonstrations, and student presentations in class and on CelticOnline/Schoolology. Primary methods include lecture/discussion, readings, and a variety of experiential exercises. Students will immurse themselves into the LGBTQ Cul.
SPOTLIGHT ON STRATEGY FOR TURBULENT TIMESSpotlight ARTWORK.docxsusanschei
SPOTLIGHT ON STRATEGY FOR TURBULENT TIMES
Spotlight ARTWORK Tara DonovanUntitled, 2008, polyester film
HBR.ORG
What Is
the Theory
f ̂ Fiof
y
Firm?
Focus less on competitive advantage and more on growth
that creates value, by Todd Zenger
f asked to define strategy, most execu-
tives would probably come up with
something like this: Strategy involves
discovering and targeting attractive
markets and then crafting positions that
deliver sustained competitive advan-
tage in them. Companies achieve these
positions by configuring and arranging
resources and activities to provide either
unique value to customers or common
value at a uniquely low cost. This view of strategy as
position remains central in business school curricula
around the globe: Valuable positions, protected from
imitation and appropriation, provide sustained profit
streams.
Unfortunately, investors don't reward senior
managers for simply occupying and defending po-
sitions. Equity markets are full of companies with
powerful positions and sluggish stock prices. The
retail giant Walmart is a case in point. Few people
would dispute that it remains a remarkable firm. Its
early focus on building a regionally dense network
of stores in small towns delivered a strong positional
advantage. Complementary choices regarding ad-
vertising, pricing, and information technology all
continue to support its low-cost and flexibly mer-
chandised stores.
Despite this strong position and a successful stra-
tegic rollout, Walmart's equity price has seen little
growth for most of the past 12 or 13 years. That's be-
cause the ongoing rollout was anticipated long ago,
and investors seek evidence of newly discovered
value—value of compounding magnitude. Merely
sustaining prior financial returns, even if they are
outstanding, does not significantly increase share
price; tomorrow's positive surprises must be worth
more than yesterday's.
Not surprisingly, I consistently advise MBA stu-
dents that if they're confronted with a choice be-
tween leading a poorly run company and leading a
well-run one, they should choose the former. Imag-
ine assuming the reins of GE from Jack Welch in Sep-
tember 2001 with shareholders' having enjoyed a 40-
fold increase in value over the prior two decades. The
expectations baked into the share price of a company
like that are daunting, to say the least.
To make matters worse, attempts to grow often
undermine a company's current market position.
As Michael Porter, the leading proponent of strat-
egy as positioning, has argued, "Efforts to grow blur
June 2013 Harvard Business Review 73
SPOTLIGHT ON STRATEGY FOR TURBULENT TIMES
uniqueness, create compromises, reduce fit, and
ultimately undermine competitive advantage. In
fact, the growth imperative is hazardous to strategy."
Quite simply, the logic of this perspective not only
provides little guidance about how to sustain value
creation but also discourages growth that might in
einy way move a compeiny away from i.
Sport Ticket sales staff trainingChapter 4Sales .docxsusanschei
Sport Ticket sales staff training
Chapter 4
Sales Staff
Developed not born
Skill set of a seller
Different to skill set of a manager
Sales process
Develop lifelong relationship with purchaser
Best source of increasing business
Upselling
Referrals
Sales Department
Recruit
Train
Develop
Motivate
Retain
Recommendations
Balance in house and outsourced
Communication between sales manager and sales staff
Success celebrations
Gather feedback from sales staff
Recruiting/Hiring
Personality, creativity (intangibles)
Fit with organization
Dress for success (opportunity taken seriously)
Positive attitude
Welcoming personality
Poised/confident (not over confident)
Initiative (carry conversation)
Energy, enthusiasm, commitment
Sales positions
10-20 inside sales staff
Supervisor to staff ratio 1:8
Annual training
New employee training (1 week to 1 month)
Ideal structure
8-16 Part-time
2 ½ months than ready to replace nonperforming FT
6-8 full time season ticket dedicated
3-6 full time group sales dedicated
Self-training
One book per month, mentor, seminars, practice
Sales Culture
Desired outcomes
Effectiveness
Productivity
Stability
Long term growth
Created by the sales manager (leadership)
Orlando Magic three A’s
Action
Visible displays
Find needs, wants, desires of employees
Reward accomplishments
Attitude
Believe in sales staff
Atmosphere
Visible signs of success
gong
Retaining/Motivating
Database management
Lead distribution
Reporting
Evaluation
Satisfy need of employees first
Better able to meet customer needs
Achieve organizational goals
Four types of sales employees
Competitor
Rivalries, win contests
It’s All About me
Recognized as best
Achiever Team Builder
Recognition of achievements, group success
Empathetic Seller
Cultivate relationships, not volume producers
Sales Career
Exploration
Establishment
Maintenance
Disengagement
Employee rate feeling appreciated and informed as top want
Sport Consumer Incentivization
Chapter 3
Incentives
Depend on consumption motives
Items of perceived value that add to offer
Overcome indifference or resistance
Later stage of buying/communication process
Price based incentives
Discounting core product damaging
Contingency based
Consumer action (provide info, prior purchase, etc) prior to price reduction
Attract infrequent customers
8% increase in attendance (top 10, 2004)
“cherry pickers” – only attend with promotion
MLB
14% increase, 2% watering down effect, more is better, weekdays (vs. high attendance – max total entertainment value)
Incentives continued
Rule changes, star players (consumption incentive)
Place based incentives
26 fundamental motives for sport consumption
Primary motives
Achievement
Ordinary runners (sense of accomplishment)
Perfect attendance
Vicarious achievement (enhance self esteem through success of athlete)
Sponsors – increased sales volume, exposure
Craft
Developing or observing physical skill
Winning record – highest predictor of attendance/s.
SPOTLIGHT ARTWORK Do Ho Suh, Floor, 1997–2000, PVC figures, gl.docxsusanschei
SPOTLIGHT ARTWORK Do Ho Suh, Floor, 1997–2000, PVC figures, glass plates, phenolic sheets, polyurethane resin; modules 100 x 100 x 8 cm
Installation view at Lehmann Maupin Gallery, New York
Why We Love
to Hate HR
...and What HR
Can Do About It
by Peter Cappelli
SPOTLIGHT ON RETHINKING HUMAN RESOURCES
Peter Cappelli is a
professor of management
at the Wharton School and
the author of several books,
including Will College
Pay Off? A Guide to the
Most Important Financial
Decision You’ll Ever Make
(PublicAffairs, 2015).
HBR.ORG
July–August 2015 Harvard Business Review 55
These feelings aren’t new. They’ve erupted now
and in the past because we don’t like being told how
to behave—and no other group in organizational life,
not even finance, bosses us around as systematically
as HR does. We get defensive when we’re instructed
to change how we interact with people, especially
those who report to us, because that goes right to the
core of who we are. What’s more, HR makes us per-
form tasks we dislike, such as documenting problems
with employees. And it prevents us from doing what
we want, such as hiring someone we “just know” is
a good fit. Its directives affect every person in the
organization, right up to the top, every single day.
The complaints also have a cyclical quality—
they’re driven largely by the business context. Usu-
ally when companies are struggling with labor issues,
HR is seen as a valued leadership partner. When
things are going more smoothly all around, manag-
ers tend to think, “What’s HR doing for us, anyway?”
This doesn’t mean that HR is above reproach.
Quite the contrary: It has plenty of room to improve,
and this is a moment of enormous opportunity. Little
has been done in the past few decades to examine the
value of widely used practices that are central to how
companies operate. By separating the effective from
the worthless, HR leaders can secure huge payoffs for
their organizations. But it’s important to understand
HR’s tumultuous history with business leaders and
the economy before turning our attention to what the
function should be doing now and in the future.
The “Personnel” Pendulum
How top executives feel about HR pretty reliably re-
flects what’s going on in the U.S. economy. When the
economy is down and the labor market is slack, they
see HR as a nuisance. But sentiments change when
labor tightens up and HR practices become essential
to companies’ immediate success.
Think back to the Great Depression. People would
put up with nearly anything to stay employed. Line
managers complained that personnel departments
were getting in the way of better performance, which
they thought could be achieved with the “drive” sys-
tem: threatening workers and sometimes even hit-
ting them if they failed to measure up.
Similarly, business leaders didn’t put a lot of
stock in HR during the 2001 and 2008 recessions, be-
cause employees—keenly aware of how replaceable
th.
Sponsorship Works 2018 8PROJECT DETAILSSponsorship tit.docxsusanschei
Sponsorship Works 2018 8
PROJECT DETAILS
Sponsorship title:
Audi Cup
Duration of sponsorship:
2009-present
Case study entered by:
Audi AG
Sponsor’s industry sector:
Automotive
Rights-holder:
Audi AG (Ownership Platform)
Agency:
brands and emotions GmbH
– Lead Agency, Audi Cup
Other organisations involved in the
planning, activation or evaluation:
FC Bayern Munich;
Several service providers (including event
agency, TV commercialisation,
TV production, etc.).
Campaign summary
Launched in 2009, the year of Audi’s 100th anniversary,
the Audi Cup is a pre-seasonal worldwide football
tournament. Leading teams including FC Barcelona,
Real Madrid and Manchester United meet in Munich
for the biennial Audi Cup during the summer break in
football.
The event is an owned and mainly refinanced
platform by Audi with a strong international media
presence, achieving around 2.5 billion consumer
contacts across television and online media at each
tournament in around 200 countries. With cutting-edge
technologies as an integral part of its staging and
coverage, the event provides a global opportunity to
highlight Audi’s “Vorsprung durch Technik” values.
Planning
Business needs
The Audi Cup provides an ideal platform to present
a strong, resonating connection between top-level
international football and the brand’s “Vorsprung
durch Technik” positioning. Audi has been involved in
international football for over 14 years and the launch
of the Audi Cup in 2009 established a new benchmark
in proprietary sports marketing, creating a whole new
way for Audi to implement its own rights in a highly
controlled and targeted manner.
Taking a “high-tech” approach to the world of
football broadcasting and marketing, the Audi Cup
meets the clear business need for Audi to demonstrate
Audi and the Audi Cup
A u d i a n d t h e A u d i C u p
Sponsorship Works 2018 9
A u d i a n d t h e A u d i C u p
and underpin its core brand proposition as a highly
innovative, technologically advanced automotive
company.
The development and implementation of tools
including the first ever implementation of digital overlay
of led boards in live broadcasting and the first ever live
holographic press conference in sport, a dedicated
chatbot and Alexa Skill and the Audi Player Index, not
only underline Audi’s status as a “high-tech” brand but
genuinely enhance enjoyment of the tournament for
fans, building a truly relevant connection.
Sponsorship selection
Audi’s long association with football, with its focus on
high-profile, global clubs, saw the brand develop from
a classic sponsor to an owner and organiser of various
leading platforms in its own right – the Audi Cup, Audi
Summer Tour and Audi Football Summit. With these
properties and its year-round association with the
game, Audi set itself the goal of elevating its successful
sponsorships into full ownership; Audi shifted from a
host or a marque associated with the.
SPM 4723 Annotated Bibliography You second major proje.docxsusanschei
SPM 4723
Annotated Bibliography
You second major project for the course will be an annotated bibliography. Instead of writing a
paper, an annotated bibliography requires you to research a particular legal topic or question, of
your choosing, in sports and find academic and law review articles that address that topic. You
will develop a question about a legal topic in sports and find seven law review articles to
summarize. Each article summary should be 300-350 words in length and should both explain
the contents of the article and its relevance to your question or topic. The summaries should be
written in your own words. You are required to select law review articles using LexisNexis. The
format for the annotated bibliography is explained below.
Please put your topic as the title for your paper. Next, each annotation should begin with the
APA citation for the article in bold print (do not include web links), followed by a summary of
the article (300-350 words) explaining how it addresses your question. The complete annotated
bibliography should be double-spaced, 12pt Times New Roman font with one-inch margins. You
will be submitting it through Turnitin via Canvas, do not include your name, course number,
date or UFID on your annotated bibliography (similar to the case briefs). You should start each
annotation on a separate page, and please remember to begin each annotation with the APA
citation for the article as instructed above. This assignment is due on Wednesday, April 22nd.
1.Which of the following is not a key component of the conceptual framework of accounting?
Select one:
a. internal users
b. the objective of financial reporting
c. cost constraint on useful financial reporting
d. elements of the financial statements
2.The balance sheet and income statement for Joe's Fish Hut are presented below:
Joe's Fish Hut
Balance Sheet
As at December 31
2016
2015
ASSETS
Current Assets
Cash
$180,623
$60,300
Accounts receivable
$18,900
$14,200
Inventory
$23,600
$25,300
Total Current Assets
$223,123
$99,800
Property, plant & equipment
$129,000
$184,000
Less: Accumulated depreciation
$-26,900
$-21,600
TOTAL ASSETS
$325,223
$262,200
LIABILITIES AND EQUITY
Liabilities
Current Liabilities
Accounts payable
$28,000
$41,800
Current portion of bank loan
$9,500
$9,500
Total Current Liabilities
$37,500
$51,300
Non-current portion of bank loan
$71,000
$42,000
TOTAL LIABILITIES
$108,500
$93,300
Shareholders' Equity
Common shares
$80,000
$54,400
Retained earnings
$136,723
$114,500
TOTAL SHAREHOLDERS' EQUITY
$216,723
$168,900
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND EQUITY
$325,223
$262,200
Joe's Fish Hut
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31, 2016
Sales
$137,000
COGS
$83,200
Gross Profit
$53,800
Operating Expenses
Insurance Expense
$1,600
Rent Expense
$5,380
Salaries Expense
$5,150
Telephone Expense
$840
Interest Expense
$1,340
Depreciation Expense
$5,300
Total Operating Expenses
$19,610
Operating Profit Before .
Speech Environment and Recording Requirements• You must have a.docxsusanschei
Speech Environment and Recording Requirements
• You must have an audience of at least 5 adults 18 years or older for all speeches. The audience must be live and in person, that is, physically present. Virtual attendance is not permitted. Your video recording must show the 5 individuals sitting as ENGAGED audience members. The audience should be visible before, during, and after the speech and you should be facing your audience. The camera should be placed behind your audience.
• You are required to record and post all 3 speeches in order to earn a passing grade in this course.
• The video must be of a high enough quality that the instructor is able to see your full facial expressions and gestures. Your instructor will need to be able to hear your voice very clearly. You risk a failing grade if your instructor is not able to discern facial expressions or subtle changes of vocal intonation on the recording.
• Be sure to record your presentation from head to toe. Your instructor needs to be able to see your posture and other elements.
• Be certain to record your video in landscape (wide), not portrait (tall).
• You may not stop the recording and re-record a section of your speech. What you
submit must be a complete presentation from start to finish with NO EDITING. You could record your speech a few times and then pick the best presentation to send. Just make sure you only submit one copy of your best speech.
• You will upload your speech following the YouTube directions and proper privacy guidelines. Speech capture directions and instructions are in Module 1 of the Blackboard online classroom.
• Be certain to provide a video link to your speech that is available for your instructor and college administrators to view without requiring passwords or special permissions. Submitting a link that does not immediately provide this access results in a failing grade for your speech and could result in a failing grade for the course. You cannot use Google Hangouts or other mediated communication in place of a live audience. Your live audience must be physically present at the location you deliver your speech.
• Any attempt to circumvent live speech audience requirements perceived by your instructor as deceptive, dishonest or otherwise disingenuous results in a zero for your speech with no opportunity to make it up and may result in a failing grade in the course and referral to the appropriate FSCJ administrative official for academic dishonesty.
• The video link (URL) you provide for your speech must remain posted, active and viewable until 14 calendar days following the official scheduled end of the semester, according to the official FSCJ academic calendar. Removing your speech from the URL or link you provide automatically reverts any score you have to a zero and will result in a failing grade for the course.
• Attempts to work around presenting in front of a live audience are considered academic dishonesty.
• Posting your speech on a screen or readin.
Sped4 Interview 2.10.17 Audio.m4aJodee [000008] And we are .docxsusanschei
Sped4 Interview 2.10.17 Audio.m4a
Jodee: [00:00:08] And we are looking at the collaborative process between secondary special ed teachers and transitioning and transition specialists when transitioning students with autism spectrum disorder or other disabilities from secondary to higher. OK so the first question is is describe the condition process as you understand it from the guidelines of the secondary transition plan.
Sped4: [00:00:52] OK. So first thing is a series of assessments that are appropriate for assessing it can include you know obviously interviewing the teacher not not the teacher the student and then sometimes parents are involved in that process. Then there's other batteries of tests. Things like the couter doing AZCIS things other interests inventories and things of that nature to get that. Looking at transcripts students grades grade reports in those things and taking those all that data and that assessment information and looking at that.That's my understanding and interpretation and kind of what I do.
Jodee: [00:01:46] So you know it's the responsibility of the secondary teacher special ed teacher as the case manager to interview the students. And you know one of the big pieces that we look at is the age appropriate goals. You know if you've got a student who is who is autistic academically They're very bright. They can do the work but they have absolutely zero social skills. And they want you maybe studied to be. They want to go into broadcast journalism or something along those lines. So it's like having you determined you know is it like a collaborative effort. You determine and work with the other person you know because sometimes you have to be that person and say yes might not be the best fit for you. How does that kind of playing into things.
Sped4: [00:02:51] I don't know like I don't mind doing that or being the one.
Sped4: [00:02:58] I haven't run into that exact situation but I have other situations where students wanted to go straight to university from high school and just had these visions of grandeur. But their GPA would not allow for that or they had other deficiencies and things of that nature. And so it's just it's sometimes it's like literally printing out the requirement and showing them just saying you know these aren't going to work. It's not a possibility. However it doesn't mean that you can't go on to higher education. And just providing them alternative routes like one if there is enough time if there for example is there a sophomore or a junior. You know we look at like Well is there enough time to get rid of these deficiencies. Can you take some of these courses. Can you do that to get your GPA up to get rid of the deficiencies et cetera. Is that feasible. Is that feasible with money or mom is mom and dad going to pay for that you know. And is there enough time or looking. OK well if that's not an option then community college is not necessarily a bad thing to do it right. When did yo.
Sped Focus Group.m4aJodee [000001] This is a focus group wi.docxsusanschei
Sped Focus Group.m4a
Jodee: [00:00:01] This is a focus group with the secondary special education teachers. So anybody feel free to chime in and we just talked about the secondary transition plan and theoretical principles of Situation and support. So the first question is How does political correctness influence transition process. So think about some of the terminology that's changed. For example we don't refer to kids with cognitive impairment as being mentally retarded. So how does that PC influence the transition process. And anybody can feel free to speak up if they would like.
TS5: [00:00:49] Well I guess I'll start because I'm probably the least politically correct person around. I think you make an example of the fact of you know you know with. What you can and cannot say Well not everybody is up to date on the current lingo and everybody apparently might may be in denial about where their child is at cognitively when using certain terms they may expect more from their or their child than they're actually capable because we're not using terms of people understand or that people use. Obviously I'm not talking about in a hurtful way but you know I mean I have a student now that he's I guess they went out of their way to label him. You know he has a label of autism. But I keep telling these people on my autism is not his problem his cognitive is his problem as long as that IEP keeps talking about autism then that seems to be the direction of where they want to go with the services. And and I keep saying that autism is not the problem. So that's just my 2 cents on.
Jodee: [00:02:12] How has that worked so far just to kind of pair off your response on that TS5 how has it like you're able to see that it's not the Autism that's a problem. How do you stear that to the correct path and have deal with this and what the kid is capable of doing regarding transition.
Sped5: [00:02:34] Well I was fortunate in this area where I think it was an issue of the mom was in denial that it wasn't all the other teachers were like no. This is what this is what he needs. You know because of the IEP I'm trying to get him. You know support all the time and it's just a matter of when they look at the IEP and says why is it that it will be this and this and I'm like I didn't write the IEPP I didn't put down autism. I'll just tell you what I see now what I have and that's what it is. And so it wasn't until at an an IEP meeting that the other teachers who see them every day too are like no this is where he's at. He needs the support he needs this because of x y z. So you know that's just for example.
Jodee: [00:03:25] Okay TS7 I'm going to kind of put you on the spot on for a minute when we talked a couple of days ago about that one student what were some of the things that you might have encountered in working with the parents on regarding transitioning him. And you know just to give a bit with a bit of background history it was a young man diagnosed with.
Specialized Terms 20.0 Definitions and examples of specialized.docxsusanschei
Specialized Terms
20.0
Definitions and examples of specialized terms for adaptive behavior assessments including content and statistical terms are proficient.
Limitations of Standardized Assessments
20.0
Substantial explanation of at least two limitations of standardized assessments is provided.
Consultative Role of Special Education Teacher
20.0
The description of consultative role of the special education teacher in helping parents/ guardians understand the process of assessments and terminology is expertly addressed.
Aesthetic Quality
5.0
Design is pleasing. Skillful handling of color, text and visuals creates a distinctive and effective presentation. Overall, effective and functional audio, text, or visuals are evident.
Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation, grammar, and language use)
5.0
Submission is virtually free of mechanical errors.
Organization
5.0
The content is well-organized and logical. There is a sequential progression of ideas that relate to each other. The content is presented as a cohesive unit and provides the audience with a clear sense of the main idea.
Documentation of Sources (citations, footnotes, references, bibliography, etc., as appropriate to assignment and style)
5.0
Sources are documented completely and correctly, as appropriate to assignment and style, and format is free of error.
Total Percentage
100
.
Special notes Media and the media are plural and take plural verb.docxsusanschei
Special notes: Media and the media are plural and take plural verbs. The use of personal pronouns "we" and "you" are unacceptable in academic writing except when otherwise indicated. The use of the first person "I" is not called for in this assignment.
Write a 700- to 1,050-word paper in which you answer the following questions:
· What were the major developments in the evolution of mass media during the last 120 years or so? Discuss at least five forms of major mass media in order of development. Choose from movies, recorded music, radio, television, video games, internet streaming, and social media. Newspapers may be included but only those developments in the last 120 years or so. We are not requesting the history of mass media, mass media developments before 1900, and identification of communications devices that are person to person and not mass media such as the telegraph and telephone.
· What innovations did each provide to consumers (what was new about them)? How did each medium change the lives and behavior of people after its introduction?
· What is meant by the term media convergence, and how has it affected everyday life?
· Conclude with a reflection on why media literacy is important for responsible media consumption today.
Format your essay according to appropriate course-level APA guidelines. Spelling and grammar check your work.
Note: your first paper will be annotated with regard to formatting, spelling, grammar, and usage, for which you will not be penalized, but you are responsible for applying these notes to subsequent assignments.
.
SPECIAL ISSUE ON POLITICAL VIOLENCEResearch on Social Move.docxsusanschei
SPECIAL ISSUE ON POLITICAL VIOLENCE
Research on Social Movements and Political Violence
Donatella della Porta
Published online: 15 July 2008
# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2008
Abstract Attention to extreme forms of political violence in the social sciences has been
episodic, and studies of different forms of political violence have followed different
approaches, with “breakdown” theories mostly used for the analysis of right-wing radicalism,
social movement theories sometimes adapted to research on left-wing radical groups, and
area study specialists focusing on ethnic and religious forms. Some of the studies on extreme
forms of political violence that have emerged within the social movement tradition have
nevertheless been able to trace processes of conflict escalation through the detailed exam-
ination of historical cases. This article assesses some of the knowledge acquired in previous
research approaching issues of political violence from the social movement perspective, as
well as the challenges coming from new waves of debate on terrorist and counterterrorist
action and discourses. In doing this, the article reviews contributions coming from research
looking at violence as escalation of action repertoires within protest cycles; political
opportunity and the state in escalation processes; resource mobilization and violent
organizations; narratives of violence; and militant constructions of external reality.
Keywords Political violence . Social movements
Attention to extreme forms of political violence in the social sciences has been episodic, with
some peaks in periods of high visibility of terrorist attacks, but little accumulation of results.
There are several reasons for this. First, some of the research has been considered to be more
oriented towards developing antiterrorist policies than to a social science understanding of the
phenomenon. In fact, “many who have written about terrorism have been directly or indirectly
involved in the business of counterterrorism, and their vision has been narrowed and distorted
by the search for effective responses to terrorism…. [S]ocial movement scholars, with very few
exceptions, have said little about terrorism” (Goodwin 2004, p. 259). Second, studies of
different forms of political violence have followed different approaches, with “breakdown”
theories mostly used for the analysis of right-wing radicalism, social movement theories
sometimes adapted to research on left-wing radical groups, and area study specialists focusing
on ethnic and religious forms. Third, and most fundamentally, there has been a tendency to reify
Qual Sociol (2008) 31:221–230
DOI 10.1007/s11133-008-9109-x
D. della Porta (*)
Department of Political and Social Sciences, European University Institute,
Badia Fiesolana, Via dei Roccettini 9, 50016 San Domenico di Fiesole Firenze, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
definitions of terrorism on the basis of political actors’ decisions to use violence (Tilly 200.
SPECIAL ISSUE CRITICAL REALISM IN IS RESEARCHCRITICAL RE.docxsusanschei
SPECIAL ISSUE: CRITICAL REALISM IN IS RESEARCH
CRITICAL REALISM IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH
John Mingers
Kent Business School, University of Kent,
Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NZ UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Alistair Mutch
Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street,
Nottingham NG1 4BU UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Leslie Willcocks
London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street,
London WC2A 2AE UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Introduction
There has been growing interest in a range of disciplines
(Ackroyd and Fleetwood 2000; Danermark et al. 2002;
Fleetwood 1999; Fleetwood and Ackroyd 2004), not least
information systems (Dobson 2001; Longshore Smith 2006;
Mingers 2004b; Mutch 2010b; Volkoff et al. 2007; Wynn and
Williams 2012) in ideas derived from the philosophical tradi-
tion of critical realism. Critical realism offers exciting pros-
pects in shifting attention toward the real problems that we
face and their underlying causes, and away from a focus on
data and methods of analysis. As such, it offers a robust
framework for the use of a variety of methods in order to gain
a better understanding of the meaning and significance of
information systems in the contemporary world.
Although the term critical realism has been used in a number
of different traditions, we are primarily concerned with that
developed from the foundational work of Roy Bhaskar in the
philosophy of science, later extended in the social arena by
authors such as Archer and Sayer (Archer et al. 1998; Bhaskar
1978, 1979; Mingers 2004b; Sayer 2000). In this tradition,
the benefits of CR are seen as:
• CR defends a strongly realist ontology that there is an
existing, causally efficacious, world independent of our
knowledge. It defends this against both classical positi-
vism that would reduce the world to that which can be
empirically observed and measured, and the various
forms of constructivism that would reduce the world to
our human knowledge of it. Hence it is realist.
• CR recognizes that our access to this world is in fact
limited and always mediated by our perceptual and theo-
retical lenses. It accepts epistemic relativity (that knowl-
edge is always local and historical), but not judgmental
relativity (that all viewpoints must be equally valid).
Hence it is critical in a Kantian sense.
• CR accepts the existence of different types of objects of
knowledge—physical, social, and conceptual—which
have different ontological and epistemological charac-
teristics. They therefore require a range of different
research methods and methodologies to access them.
Since a particular object of research may well have
different characteristics, it is likely that a mixed-method
research strategy (i.e., a variety of methods in the same
research study) will be necessary and CR supports this.
In this introduction, we will first introduce the basic concepts
of critical realism as a philosophy of science.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
TESDA TM1 REVIEWER FOR NATIONAL ASSESSMENT WRITTEN AND ORAL QUESTIONS WITH A...
Running head DETOXIFICATION FROM ALCOHOL AND OPIATES 1.docx
1. Running head: DETOXIFICATION FROM ALCOHOL AND
OPIATES 1
5
DETOXIFICATION FROM ALCOHOL AND OPIATES
Research Paper Outline: Detoxification from Alcohol and
Opiates
Grand Canyon University: PCN-527-0500
December 06, 2017
I. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DRUG
A. History of Alcohol
B. History of Opiates
II. PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY OF THE DRUG
A. Psychopharmacology of Alcohol
1. Effects of alcohol on mood
2. Effects of alcohol on thinking
3. Effects of alcohol on behavior
4. Effects of alcohol on sensation
B. Psychopharmacology of Opiates
1. Effects of alcohol on mood
2. Effects of alcohol on thinking
3. Effects of alcohol on behavior
2. 4. Effects of alcohol on sensation
III. CURRENT TRENDS OF ISSUES
A. Current trends of issues of alcohol
1. Alcohol addiction
2. Binge drinking
3. Addiction
4. Physical symptom of withdrawal
5. Treatment
B. Current trends or issues of opiates
1. Types of opiates
2. Addiction
3. Physical symptoms of withdrawal
4. Treatment
IV. SOCIETAL CONCERNS OR ISSUES RELATED TO THE
TOPIC
A. Stigma of being an alcoholic
1. Physical symptoms
2. Disruption in functioning
3. Other’s perceptions of addiction
B. Stigma of being addicted to opiates
1. Physical Symptoms
2. Disruption in functioning
3. Other’s perception of addiction
V. SIGNIFICANCE OR RELEVANCE ON THE COUNSELING
PROFESSION
A. Relevance of alcohol addiction and treatment on the
counseling profession
1. Different option for treatment
2. Treatment after detoxification
B. Relevance of opiate addiction and treatment on the
counseling profession
1. Different option for treatment
2. Treatment after detoxification
VI. ANY FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
A. Future implications of alcohol detoxification
3. B. Future implications of opiate detoxification
References
Carlebach, S., Wake, D., & Hamilton, S. (2011). Experiences of
home detoxification for alcohol
dependency. Nursing Standard, 26(10), 41-47.
Green, L., & Gossop, M. (1988). Effects of information on the
opiate withdrawal syndrome. British Journal Of Addiction,
83(3), 305-309. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1988.tb00472.x
Ison, J., Day, E., Fisher, K., Pratt, M., Hull, M., & Copello, A.
(2006). Self-detoxification from
opioid drugs. Journal Of Substance Use, 11(2), 81-88.
doi:10.1080/14659890500143697
Masson, C. L., Barnett, P. G., Sees, K. L., Delucchi, K. L.,
Rosen, A., Wong, W., & Hall, S. M. (2004). Cost and cost-
effectiveness of standard methadone maintenance treatment
compared to enriched 180-day methadone detoxification.
Addiction, 99(6), 718-726. doi:10.1111/j.1360-
0443.2004.00728.x
Perdomo Gutiérrez, R. E. (2011). Clinical case of rapid opiate
detoxification under anesthesia. Anestesia Pediatrica E
Neonatale, 9(1), 1-10.
Van den Berg, J. F., Van den Brink, W., Kist, N., Hermes, J. J.,
& Kok, R. M. (2015). Social
factors and readmission after inpatient detoxification in older
alcohol-dependent patients.
The American Journal On Addictions, (7), 661.
doi:10.1111/ajad.12287
Wulffson, R. M. (2014). Detoxification and substance abuse.
Salem Press Encyclopedia
Of Health.
4. Cognitive Development (Piaget) and Intelligence
The topic for this week is cognitive development and
intelligence from the perspective of Piaget and Vygotsky.
Additionally, we will learn definitions of intelligence, the
predictive value of intelligence tests, variations in IQ, the role
of early intervention in intellectual development, and the
development of creativity.
Topics to be covered include:
· Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and
Vygotskian Perspectives
· Role of Intelligence Testing in the Development of
Educational Programs
· Case Studies Related to Intelligence
Cognitive Development
We will begin to examine cognitive development, or how the
intellectual capabilities of infants transform into those of the
child, adolescent, and adult. First, let us define cognition.
Cognition refers to the inner processes and products of the mind
that lead to “knowing.” In other words, how do we acquire,
comprehend, and apply knowledge? What transformations must
occur for individuals to develop increasingly sophisticated
mental capacities?
JEAN PIAGET
You have likely heard the name of Swiss cognitive theorist,
Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, people are not cognitive
beings at birth; instead, they discover, or construct, all
knowledge of the world through their own experiences. As they
begin to construct knowledge, they refine and organize the
information in order to effectively adapt to their environments.
This theory of active construction of knowledge is known as the
constructivist approach to cognitive development. This
approach follows children through four invariant (fixed order)
and universal (assumed to characterize all children) stages:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational. Throughout these stages, infants’ investigative
5. behaviors gradually transform into the abstract, rational
intelligence of more mature individuals.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SENSORIMOTOR
PREOPERATIONAL
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
Piaget identified specific psychological structures called
schemes (organized ways of making sense of experiences) that
change with age. Initially, schemes are patterns of action
involving the senses and motor functions. For example, a baby
may simply grab and release an object. As the baby gets older,
this scheme becomes more deliberate, and she may begin to
throw the object down the stairs, up in the air, or against walls.
In other words, she is thinking before she acts. When there
evidence of this, Piaget says the child has moved from a
sensorimotor approach to a cognitive approach, which uses
mental representations (images and concepts) to develop
efficient thinking habits. This advancement in thinking relies on
adaptation and organization. Adaptation involves building
schemes through direct interaction with the environment, while
organization is an internal process that connects schemes to
create a powerfully interrelated cognitive system.
Piaget’s Impact
Although follow-up research has changed the way we look at
some aspects of Piaget’s theory, it is important to note the
major impact his theory had on educational practices. Teacher
training and learning procedures have reflected three
educational principles derived from his view: discovery learning
(providing exploration experiences to guide learning rather than
verbally offering facts), sensitivity to children’s readiness to
learn (introducing new activities when children are ready, not to
speed up development), and acceptance of individual
differences (using knowledge of each child’s specific rate of
6. development to plan small group activities).
CHALLENGES AND EXTENSIONS TO PIAGET’S THEORIES
At present, most experts agree that cognition is less stage-like
than Piaget suggested. They instead embrace the understanding
that children are continuously modifying their thinking and
obtaining new skills. Moreover, researchers typically disagree
on whether cognitive development is general or specific. These
challenges have led researchers to extend or modify Piaget’s
work. Those who believe differently than Piaget regarding the
limited cognitive capabilities of infants have proposed the core
knowledge perspective.
CORE KNOWLEDGE PERSPECTIVE
The core knowledge perspective is a second set of theories
related to cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, who believed
infants come into the world only with sensorimotor reflexes,
those who embrace this perspective believe that infants are
innately equipped with core domains of thought that support
rapid cognitive development. In other words, infants are
prewired to make sense of certain stimuli. Each core domain is
essential for survival and develops independently, resulting in
uneven, domain-specific changes.
PHYSICAL KNOWLEDGE AND NUMERICAL KNOWLEDGE
Two core domains have been studied at length in infancy:
physical knowledge and numerical knowledge. Physical
knowledge is the understanding of objects and their effects on
one another. Numerical knowledge is the capacity to keep track
of multiple objects and to add and subtract small quantities.
Observation of infants has shown understanding in these areas
occurring quite early, supporting the idea that some knowledge
must be innate. Children gradually build on that knowledge and
it becomes more intricate as through exploration, play, and
social interaction. They are viewed as naïve theorists, who
create explanations of events based on innate knowledge. Their
explanations, or theories, are tested with experience and revised
if needed. These revisions lead to increased reasoning about
cause and effect situations. While this is an intriguing idea
7. about how cognitive skills are able to emerge early and rapidly
develop, this theory has not offered clarity on how children
make the necessary revisions that prompt cognitive change.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
The sociocultural theory is the third set of theories related to
cognitive development and is founded in the work of Lev
Vygotsky. Vygotsky believed that infants are born with
elementary perceptual, attention, and memory capacities, which
develop in the first two years through interaction with others.
Vygotsky did not view cognitive development as individualistic,
but placed a significant emphasis on culture or community.
Unlike Piaget, who favored independent discovery leading to
construction of knowledge, Vygotsky asserted that acquisition
of knowledge is a consequence of social interactions.
Specifically, learning takes place within the zone of proximal
development, which is a range of tasks too difficult for the child
to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled
peers. When these more knowledgeable individuals question,
prompt, and suggest strategies for mastering a specific task
within the zone of proximal development, the child is drawn
into more mature thinking processes. Support during learning
can gradually be adjusted, based on the child’s needs, a concept
known as scaffolding. Also, due to his emphasis on social
experience and language, Vygotsky saw make-believe play as a
major zone of proximal development for preschoolers.
VYGOTSKY’S IMPACT
When applied in the classroom, Vygotsky’s theory teaches us to
highlight collaboration. While we again see that children should
be active participants in learning, we now go beyond individual
discovery (Piaget) to discovery through teacher guidance and
peer partnerships. In preschool, there should be many
opportunities for make-believe play. In all grades, there should
be opportunities for talk, as this dialogue prompts reflection on
thought processes, which, in turn leads to increased cognitive
awareness.
8. Knowledge Check
1
Question 1
Which theory on cognitive development places a large emphasis
on language and social interaction as the foundation for
learning?
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Core Knowledge Perspective
I don't know
One attempt
Submit answer
You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 1.
Case Study
‹ 1/2 ›
· STUDY 1
To highlight how children’s drawings can help identify
adjustment difficulties at school.
As noted in the text, a variety of factors—the realization that
pictures can serve as symbols, improved planning and spatial
understanding, and the emphasis the child’s culture places on
artistic expression—influence the development of children’s
artful representations.
According to Harrison, Clarke, and Ungerer (2007), drawings
can also provide insight into relationships with adults, as well
as children’s overall adjustment. In one study, researchers
recruited 125 six-year-olds and collected the following
information:
· Participants completed a 30-minute interview that addressed
general perceptions of themselves, their school, and their
teachers.
· Participants completed the School Liking and Avoidance
Scale. Using a three-point scale (yes=3, no=2, sometimes=1),
children were asked such questions as, “Is school fun?” “Do you
9. enjoy school?” “Do you ask your parents to let you stay home
from school?” “Does school make you feel like crying?” To
assess participants’ feelings about their teacher, they were
asked: “Do you like to see your teacher when you get to
school?” “Is your teacher nice to you?” “Does your teacher
smile at you?” “Does your teacher play or read with you?”
· Participants were asked to draw a picture of themselves and
their teacher at school. Drawing materials were provided but no
further instructions were given. Researchers recorded any
spontaneous comments, and once participants completed their
drawings, they were asked to identify the people and objects in
the picture. Pictures were scored on the following dimensions,
which are commonly used to assess child/family drawings:
· Creativity—going beyond the instructions and adding lively,
colorful, or imaginative features.
· Pride/happiness—showing an emotional connectedness to the
teacher, such as holding hands or doing something fun with the
teacher.
· Vulnerability—using overwhelming, exaggerated, distorted, or
displaced body images.
· Emotional distance/isolation—using expressions of anger,
negative affect, physical distance from the teacher, or physical
barriers between the child and teacher.
· Tension/anger—showing rigid and constricted features or
scribbling out the teacher’s face.
· Role reversal—representing the child as larger, more
powerful, or more potent than the teacher.
· Bizarreness/dissociation—including unusual signs or symbols,
angry facial features, or morbid fantasy themes.
· Teachers rated their relationship quality with each child on
five dimensions: conflict/anger, warmth/positive emotions, open
communication, dependency, and troubled feelings.
· Teachers rated participants’ overall school adjustment by
identifying the prevalence of problem behaviors (for example,
acting out, aggression, learning problems) and
strengths/competencies (for example, leadership, frustration
10. tolerance, social skills).
Results
Findings revealed significant relationships among children’s
reports, children’s drawings, teacher-rated relationship quality,
and teacher-rated school adjustment. That is, children who
reported negative feelings about their teacher also included
negative themes in their drawings, such as scribbling out the
teacher’s face. Their teachers, in turn, were likely to report
strained teacher–child relationships and problematic classroom
behavior. Taken together, these findings suggest that children’s
artistic representations of relationships with teachers are an
important tool for identifying adjustment difficulties at school.
Definitions of Intelligence
How do you view intelligence? When you consider a highly
intelligent person, what behaviors stand out to you? It is
probably not surprising to learn that experts disagree on the
attributes that make up intelligence and that the definition of
intelligence has evolved over time. You may recall that the first
intelligence test was created by Alfred Binet and his colleague,
Theodore Simon, in 1905 in response to educators’ needs to
identify students who were unlikely to benefit from standard
classroom instruction. Binet was asked to develop an impartial
means of assigning students to classes, one which focused on
mental aptitude and not disruptive behavior. Factors such as
memory and reasoning skills were considered and compared to
children of the same ages.
PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
FACTOR ANALYSIS
OTHER APPROACHES
Louis Thurstone, in contrast, viewed intelligence as less of a
single, general ability and more of a set of distinct abilities. His
factor analysis on more than 50 intelligence tests suggested that
independent, individual factors of intelligence exist. He called
these factors primary mental abilities, and categorized these
abilities as follows: verbal comprehension, reasoning,
perceptual speed, numerical ability, word fluency, associative
11. memory, and spatial visualization.
Eventually, both Spearman and Thurstone recognized each
other’s perspectives, and current theorists combine both
approaches when designing tests. Subtest scores are used to
determine an individual’s specific strengths and weaknesses
(Thurstone’s original theory), but can also be combined into an
overall general intelligence score (Spearman’s original theory).
However, many researchers believe that merely combining these
two perspectives is not enough, as factors on intelligence tests
have only partial value if we cannot recognize the cognitive
processes accountable for those factors. If we are able to do
that, we will better understand what skills must be reinforced to
improve a particular child’s performance. To facilitate this,
psychometric and information-processing approaches were
combined and componential analyses conducted, looking for
relationships involving components of information processing
and children’s intelligence test performance. While this helps to
detect cognitive skills that contribute to intelligence, this
approach does not include cultural and situational factors that
may affect intelligence.
STERNBERG
GARDNER
Measuring Intelligence
Although we have discussed some limitations to intelligence
testing, they are often helpful in identifying highly gifted
children and diagnosing learning problems. Standardized
intelligence tests utilize the scores of a large, representative
sample of individuals as a standard for interpreting individual
scores. Scores produce an intelligence quotient, or IQ, which
indicates the extent to which the number of items passed (raw
score) deviates from the average performance of individuals of
the same age. Group-administered standardized tests are useful
for instructional planning, while individually administered tests
consider both the child’s answers and behaviors, which paints a
more accurate picture of the child’s abilities. Two of these
individual tests – the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth
12. Edition, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–IV
(WISC–IV) – are used most often.
APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
Aptitude and achievement tests are similar to intelligence tests.
Aptitude tests assess a child’s propensity for excelling in a
specific type of activity, such as music or language. On the
other hand, achievement tests measure the attainment of
particular knowledge and skills, such as reading comprehension
or concepts covered within a particular class. Achievement test
are often given by teachers to assess their students’
understanding of a particular subject area. There are even tests
to measure the intelligence of infants, although these present
unique challenges, as babies are unable to answer questions or
follow directions. Tests performed with infants typically
measure perceptual and motor responses; however, more recent
tests also attempt to determine early language, cognition, and
social behavior.
Ethnic and Socioeconomic Impact on IQ scores
We know that many factors affect child development and that
both heredity and environment shape a child’s unique qualities.
What are the roles of nature versus nurture in regards to
determining IQ? You will not be surprised to learn that there
has been much debate regarding this question, as researchers are
concerned with locating the cause of IQ disparities between and
among certain ethnicities. Either heredity or environmental
factors must be responsible for the variations in test
performance.
HEREDITY
Heritability estimates, or measures which researchers use to
correlate the IQs of family members who share genes, reveal
that heredity does play a role in IQ test performance. Adoption
studies have also supported these findings, as children in the
study eventually became more similar in IQ to their biological
mothers and less similar to their adoptive parents. However,
within the same studies, it was noted that the IQ of children
were adopted into privileged homes benefited from a rise in IQ
13. in comparison with non-adopted children who remained in
disadvantaged homes.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
This reminds us that environmental factors also contribute to
individual differences in intelligence, as do family beliefs about
intellectual success and expectations for children’s educational
attainment. Other factors, such as communication styles, lack of
familiarity with test content, reactions to testing conditions, and
fear of being judged on the basis of negative stereotypes can
lead test scores to underestimate minority children’s
intelligence. An approach to testing, known as dynamic
assessment, seems to discover what a child can attain with
social support, thus reducing bias in testing.
USE OF TESTING‹ 1/2 ›
· Intervention Programs for Lower Achieving Students
Because research shows a correlation between socioeconomic
status and performance in intelligence tests, intervention
programs for economically disadvantaged students have been
implemented. The majority of these programs begin as early as
preschool, with the hopes of offsetting learning challenges
before formal schooling begins. You may have heard of Project
Head Start, which is one of the largest federal programs,
offering academic support, as well as nutritional and health
service and promoting parental involvement. Research on early
intervention programs indicates that, although instantaneous
gains in IQ tend to rapidly dissipate, enduring benefits are
noted in school adjustment, attitudes, and motivation. A
program in which high-quality intervention starts early, is
intensive, emphasizes parent involvement, and focuses on the
whole child is likely to have a more far-reaching impact in all
areas, including IQ.
Knowledge Check
1
Question 1
Which type of standardized test provides us with knowledge
14. about a child’s potential proficiency with a particular talent?
Aptitude tests
Achievement tests
Intelligence tests
I don't know
One attempt
Submit answer
You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 1.
Case Study
Research studies provide examples various types of intelligence
testing and the use of testing results. The first case study
examines the relationship of emotional intelligence and
successful intelligence to leadership skills in gifted students.
The second case study inspects the relationship among low birth
weight, social disadvantage, and children’s IQ scores at ages
six, 11, and 17.
‹ 1/2 ›
· STUDY 1
Emotional Intelligence, Successful Intelligence, and Leadership
Skills
Emotional intelligence is positively associated with self-esteem,
empathy, prosocial behavior, cooperation, leadership skills, and
life satisfaction. In addition, Sternberg’s theory underscores the
importance of analytical, creative, and practical skills—skills
that are often overlooked on intelligence tests—for life success.
To examine the relationship among emotional intelligence,
successful intelligence, and leadership skills, Chan (2007)
recruited 498 gifted students in grades 4 through 12 and
collected the following information:
(1) Participants completed a leadership rating scale, which
measures leadership self-efficacy, leadership flexibility, and
goal orientation (related to leadership and achievement). (2)
Participants completed an emotional intelligence scale that
assesses social skills, empathy, management of emotions, and
utilization of emotions. (3) Participants completed Sternberg’s
15. Successful Intelligence Questionnaire, which measures
analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
Results
Results indicated that both emotional intelligence and
successful intelligence predicted leadership skills. That is,
participants who scored high in emotional and successful
intelligence scored higher in overall leadership skills than
participants who scored low in these areas. When looking at
specific aspects of emotional and successful intelligence,
practical abilities and management of emotions were especially
strong predictors of leadership skills. These findings suggest
that the abilities to apply intellectual skills in everyday
situations and to manage and regulate emotions are important
leadership qualities. No significant age or gender differences
were found.
Overview
During the first two decades of life, the human body
continuously and dramatically changes, a process regulated and
controlled by a number of biological and environmental factors.
Heredity, nutrition, infectious disease, and parental affection all
contribute to physical growth and overall health. Stimulation of
the brain is vital during periods in which it is growing most
rapidly in order to enhance cognitive development. Both Piaget
and Vygotsky have created theories centered around cognitive
development that have impacted our view of the way children
acquire, comprehend, and apply knowledge. As children grow
older, puberty causes their bodies to drastically change, which
is also accompanied by psychological changes, as teenagers
strive to adjust to what is happening in their bodies.
Information-processing research seeks to understand how
children develop the attention, memory, and self-management
skills to succeed with complex tasks. Those who study this
approach compare the human mind to a computer, or an
intricate, symbol-manipulating system through which
information flows. Attention to task is essential to thinking
because it helps an individual determine which information
16. needs to be considered. Development of attentional strategies
occurs in phases and, over time, children gain an increased
capacity for planning. As the ability to sustain attention grows,
memory also improves, and the implementation of memory
strategies increases a child’s likelihood of transferring
information from the working memory to the long-term memory.
Children also develop metacognition, which is another form of
knowledge that influences how well children remember and
solve problems. Fundamental discoveries about information
processing have been applied to children’s mastery of academic
skills, particularly in the areas of reading and mathematics.
Identifying differences in cognitive skills between weak and
strong learners can lead to strategies and interventions to
increase performance. In addition, intelligence tests are helpful
in identifying highly gifted children and diagnosing learning
problems. The use of various types of intelligence testing has
led to specific educational programs for diverse groups of
students.
Key Terms
ADAPTATION
COGNITION
COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH
CORE KNOWLEDGE PERSPECTIVE
DEFERRED IMITATION
EGOCENTRISM
MENTAL REPRESENTATION
INTENTIONAL (GOAL DIRECTED) BEHAVIOR
OPERATIONS
ORGANIZATION
SCAFFOLDING
SCHEMES
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
ACHIEVEMENT TEST
APTITUDE TEST
COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
17. CREATIVITY
DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT
FACTOR ANALYSIS
GIFTED
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ)
THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Sources
Brainerd, C.J., Forrest, T.J., Karibian, D., & Reyna, V. F.
(2006). Development of the false-memory illusion.
Developmental Psychology, 42, 962–979.
Breslau, N., Dickens, W. T., Flynn, J. R., Peterson, E. L., &
Lucia, V.C. (2006). Low birth weight and social disadvantage:
Tracking their relationship with children’s IQ during the period
of school attendance. Intelligence, 34, 351–362.
Chan, D. W. (2007). Leadership and intelligence. Roeper
Review, 29, 183–189.
Friedman, N. P., Haberstick, B. C., Willcutt, E. G., Miyake, A.,
Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2007). Greater
attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive
functioning in late adolescence. Psychological Science, 18,
893–900.
All graphics are public domain images or stock images from
123RF.
Play
from Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development
Introduction
This entry reviews the main different types of play, and the
kinds of developmental benefits they may bring to children. The
ubiquity of play in childhood (and in most species of mammals
when young) strongly suggests its benefits for development, but
what these benefits are, and how important or essential they are,
are still debated. Classic perspectives on the development and
function of play can be found in the writings of Piaget and
Vygotsky. Let us begin by tackling the issue of what constitutes
play, and then turn to how it undergoes age-related changes.
Defining play
18. Play is often defined as activity that is both done for its own
sake, and characterized by ‘ means rather than ends’ (i.e., the
process of the play is more important than any end point or
goal). These criteria contrast play with, for example,
exploration (which may lead into play as a child gets more
familiar with a new toy or environment), with work (which has
a definite goal), and fighting (different from play fighting as
discussed later). Additional characteristics of play are
flexibility (objects being put in new combinations, roles acted
out in new ways), positive affect (children often smile and
laugh in play, and say they enjoy it), and pretence (use of
objects and actions in non-literal ways).
Main types of play
Although classifications differ, the following main types of play
are well recognized: object play, pretend play and sociodramatic
play, and physical activity play (exercise play; rough-and-
tumble play). Of these, object play and physical activity play
are seen widely in other species of mammals. Pretend and
sociodramatic play are only seen in humans, apart from some
possibly very elementary forms of pretence in great apes.
Besides play, there is the related concept of games. Games with
rules are more organized forms of play in which there is some
goal (e.g., winning the game) and are not reviewed further.
Object play
This starts in infancy and may help children develop creative
problem-solving skills. Researchers such as Jerome Bruner and
Kathy Sylva have reported experiments with children in which
they are given a chance to play with objects, then solve a task.
Those with the play experience solved the task better. However,
subsequent research has suggested that instruction can often be
equally effective (Johnson, Christie, & Yawkey, 1999). The
benefits of play need to be balanced against those of instruction,
bearing in mind the ages of the children, the nature of the task,
and the specificity of the learning expected - whether for
specific skills or a more generally inquisitive and creative
attitude.
19. Pretend play
This develops from about 15 months, with simple actions such
as ‘ pretending to sleep’ or ‘ putting dolly to bed,’ developing
into longer story sequences and role play (Fig. 1). Much early
pretend play can be with parents, and older siblings. In Western
societies especially, it is common for parents to model or ‘
scaffold’ early pretend play actions. By 3 to 4 years, pretend
play becomes common with same-age peers.
Pretend play among children is seen very widely in different
societies. It is often imitative of adult roles (e.g., in rural
societies, children may play at ‘ herding cattle’ with stones and
at ‘ pounding maize’ with sticks and pebbles). Such play might
be considered as ‘ practice’ for the adult activities concerned.
However, rather more ambitious developmental benefits for
pretend play have been put forward.
Leslie (1987) argued that pretend play is an early indicator of
theory of mind abilities. In simple object substitution pretence,
the knowledge or representation that ‘ this is a banana’ becomes
‘ this banana is a telephone.’ Correspondingly, in theory of
mind, the representation that ‘ this is a banana’ is related to the
representation that ‘ X believes that the banana is a telephone.’
Leslie argued that this similarity suggested that pretence might
be very important in theory of mind acquisition. However, this
early pretend play before 3 years is often very imitative, and it
is not clear whether a young child who talks into a banana is
actually having the cognitive representations that Leslie
describes, or is simply imitating what older children or adults
do. The nature of any relationship between pretend play and
theory of mind is still disputed.
Figure 1. Pretend play. Photograph by John Walmsley.
Sociodramatic play
Defined in terms of social play with others, sustained role
taking, and a narrative line, this is something that children from
about 3 years of age engage in a lot. Such play can be quite
complex, involving an understanding of others’ intent and role,
20. sophisticated language constructions, and the development of
sometimes novel (sometimes less novel!) story lines. Smilansky
(1968) suggested that sociodramatic play assists language
development, cognitive development, creativity, and role
taking. She also claimed that pretend and sociodramatic play
were less frequent and less complex in disadvantaged children.
This led her and others to develop play tutoring (intervention by
an adult) to raise levels of these kinds of play; adults would
provide suitable props, visits, etc. and encourage the
sociodramatic play of children in nurseries and kindergartens,
such that subsequently they became more able to sustain this
play themselves.
Smilansky's ideas about the value of sociodramatic play were
tested by a number of experimental studies, including play-
tutoring studies. In these, a group or class of children that
received play tutoring were compared with those who did not.
Generally, the play-tutored children improved more on measures
of cognition, language, and creativity, apparently supporting
Smilansky's views.
A number of critiques were made of these studies. Many of
them pointed to flaws due to selective interpretation of results,
effects of experimental bias, and the use of inappropriate
control groups. For example, in the traditional play-tutoring
study, the play-tutored children received more stimulation and
adult contact generally, so one cannot really conclude that it is
the extra play that brought about the developmental benefits.
Further studies took account of these criticisms. This step
included balancing play-tutoring with skills tutoring (e.g.,
coloring, picture dominoes) and assessing outcomes blind to the
child's treatment condition. Doing so failed to reveal many
differences (P. K. Smith, 1988), which suggests that benefits of
socio drama tic play need not be essential for development.
Nevertheless, play-tutoring does work out as equal to skills
tutoring in many domains, and it is generally enjoyable and
sociable for children in the preschool years, so there are sound
reasons to encourage it in the nursery curriculum.
21. Table 1. Some criteria distiguishing play fighting and real
fighting.
Criterion
Play fighting
Real fighting
Facial expression
Smiling, laughing
Frowning, tearful
Restraint
Kicks and blows are not hard or do not make contact
Kicks and blows are hard or make contact
Role-reversal
Voluntarily take it in turns to be ‘ on top’ or be ‘ chased'
Aims to be ‘ on top’ or to chase the other
How encounter starts and finishes
Starting by invitation and ending with continued play or activity
together
Starting with challenge and ending in separation
One kind of pretend play, often not encouraged in nurseries, is
war play, which is pretend play with toy guns or weapons, or
military action figures. Many educators believe that this play
encourages real aggression, though others emphasize its pretend
nature and feel that no real harm results from it.
Physical activity play
This refers to playful activity involving large body activity,
particularly exercise play that includes running, climbing, and
other large body or large muscle activity, as well as rough-and-
tumble play, that covers play fighting and play chasing. These
forms of play have been reviewed by Pellegrini & Smith (1998).
Exercise play
This increases in frequency from toddlers to preschool children,
peaks at early primary school ages, and then declines. Young
children seem to need opportunities for physical exercise more
than older children, and are more likely to get restless after long
sedentary periods and to run around when released from them.
Boys do more of this kind of play than girls. It is often
22. hypothesized to support physical training of muscles, for
strength and endurance, and skill and economy of movement.
Another hypothesis is that exercise play encourages younger
children to take breaks from being overloaded on cognitive
tasks (the cognitive immaturity hypothesis). The argument here
is that younger children have less mature cognitive capacities,
so benefits of concentrating on a cognitively demanding task
decrease after a shorter time than for older children. The ‘ need’
to exercise thus helps children ‘ space out’ these cognitive
demands.
Figure 2. Rough-and-tumble play. Photograph by John
Walmsley.
Rough-and-tumble play
This seems to increase from toddlers through preschool and
primary school children, to peak at late primary age, and then
decline in frequency. It takes up some 10 percent of playground
time, though varying by the nature of the surface, physical
conditions, etc. Boys do more than girls, especially play
fighting. Rough-and-tumble play looks like real fighting, but
can be distinguished from it by several criteria (Table 1; Fig.
2).
Most children can distinguish playful from real fighting, and
from 8 years give similar cues to those described in Table 1. In
one study, English and Italian children were found to be
accurate in judging videotapes of play fighting and real
fighting, irrespective of which nationality they were watching.
During the primary school years, only about 1% of rough-and-
tumble episodes usually turn into real fighting, although many
teachers and lunchtime supervisors think it is as much as about
30%. However, ‘ rejected’ children (those disliked by many
peers and seldom liked much) more often respond to rough-and-
tumble aggressively (around 25% of episodes). So, it is possible
that teachers or lunchtime supervisors are making general
judgments about children, based on these ‘ rejected’ children
who may be taking up a lot of their supervisory time.
23. Rough-and-tumble is often between friends. By early
adolescence, however, there appears to be some change, with
dominance/status becoming important in choosing play partners,
as well as friendship, with a greater risk of play fights turning
into real fights. It is hypothesized that rough-and-tumble play in
younger children may (in addition to benefits of exercise play)
provide practice in fighting/hunting skills, at least in earlier
human societies. By adolescence, however, it may involve
dominance relationships (e.g., using rough-and-tumble play to
establish or maintain dominance in the peer group).
What do children learn from play?
Evolutionary arguments suggest that the propensity to play has
been selected for, so we can expect there to be benefits to
playing, and that these may vary by species, and by types of
play. There can be a lot of incidental benefits to play such that
it keeps children active and provides them with opportunities to
encounter new situations. With human children, and with object,
pretend, and sociodramatic play, there may be a balance to draw
between benefits of playing and of instruction. Instruction can
be more focused on a precise goal, but play is often more
enjoyable for young children and, even if less efficient for a
precise goal, may foster a more generally inquisitive and
creative approach to problem-solving.
Conclusions
Among the theoretical issues in play research remaining
unresolved, two are currently especially noteworthy. The first
relates to rough-and-tumble play. We know that this is primarily
friendly and non-exploitative in preadolescents, but how does
this change as children move into adolescence? Does the
function of this form of play then change and, in particular, is it
used for purposes related to dominance, especially for boys?
The second issue relates to pretend play. An earlier phase of
research queried the findings from play tutoring studies, but,
more recently, pretend play has been proposed as an important
component of developing a theory of mind. Greater conceptual
clarity and empirical evidence are called for here, together with
24. a willingness to learn from the problems encountered in the
earlier studies (e.g., experimenter bias).
Amongst practical issues, the issue of war play continues to be
debated in early education. There have been moves to ban war
play in many nursery schools; however, there is also a
recognition that such play may be generally harmless in itself
and a rather natural play format, especially for boys (Holland,
2003). Regarding educational practice through the school years,
there has been a general movement toward shortening or
eliminating playground breaks. However, leaving aside social
benefits of playtime, the benefits for physical activity and for
providing breaks between instruction (cf., the cognitive
immaturity hypothesis), argue for retaining playground breaks.
More systematic study is still needed in these areas.
Questions
1. What value does physical activity play have in providing
spacing for concentration on school-based tasks?
2. How does rough-and-tumble play change in form and
function from the primary to secondary school ages?
3. Does young children's war play have any connection with
later aggressiveness?
4. Does pretend play have any important role in helping young
children develop a theory of mind?
See also
· Cross-cultural comparisons
· Cross-species comparisons
· Theories of the child's mind
· Social development
· Aggressive and prosocial behavior
· Peers and siblings
· Sex differences
· Anthropology
· Jeromes s. Bruner
· Jean Piaget
· Lev S. Vygotsky
· Donald Winnicott.
26. looks at cultural issues, sex differences and the history of child
development.
Editor(s): Brian Hopkins
Edition: 1st
Articles: 113
Images: 277
People: 21
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Terms of usePrivacy policyContactAbout Credo
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT and: CULTURAL
TOOLS SCAFFOLDING GUIDED PARTICIPATION
in SOCIAL COGNITION
from Key Concepts in Developmental Psychology
MEANING
Although Vygotsky devoted only limited space to the zone of
proximal (i.e. next) development in his description of socio-
cognitive theory, this concept has become the best-known part
of his account. The ZPD (as it is always referred to) expresses
Vygotsky's belief that children's cognitive development occurs
essentially as a result of interacting with more knowledgeable
and competent others, who are willing to provide guidance and
support in problem solving situations and will sensitively adjust
their help in such a way that the child is challenged to
participate in activities just beyond his or her current level of
understanding. The ZPD is thus –
27. the region between what children already know and what they
are capable of learning under guidance.
It is in this region that children are most receptive to new
learning; it is there that any new intellectual skill is first of all
performed jointly with a competent adult before it is in due
course taken over by the child and internalized. It is the region
where children are not quite capable of managing on their own
but where the adult can stretch their abilities by suitably pacing
demands so that the child can gradually assume responsibility
for performing the task in a solo capacity.
The ZPD is an expression of the basic proposition that Vygotsky
set out to convey, namely that cognitive development is not a
process that occurs spontaneously nor can it merely be
explained by the child's interaction with the physical
environment. It occurs because children are embedded in a
social context, surrounded by people of greater expertise willing
to share their knowledge with the child. Cognitive development
can thus be seen as a progression
from intermental to intramental, from joint regulation to self-
regulation. The adult acts as tutor, the child as apprentice, but
the interaction of the two is of a dynamic, mutually adjustive
nature, for the child is no mere passive participant but an active
partner in the learning process, albeit a junior one. Cognition is
socially created, and the ZPD is a means of bringing this about.
According to Vygotsky, the ZPD has one further use, namely in
the assessment of intelligence. Vygotsky was convinced that
children's potential is best demonstrated when working with a
more competent person than when working on their own. Such
an assertion goes, of course, directly counter to the generally
accepted view, as seen in psychometric and other assessment
procedures, that children's true capacities can only be revealed
by tests administered to them in isolation. However, Vygotsky
argued that children's ability to profit from help can tell us
more about their eventual capacities than their efforts at
unsupported problem solving. As he put it, it is in the ZPD that
the 'buds of development' are to be found rather than the 'fruits',
28. and it is the former that he considered to be of greater
diagnostic value with respect to an individual's future progress.
ORIGINS
Although Vygotsky became aware of Piaget's writings, he did
not formulate his ideas in direct opposition to them – as an
effort, that is, to correct the latter's view of children as lone
learners. Rather, Vygotsky (1896–1934) was very much a child
of his time and place – a Russian steeped in Marxian theory who
saw human nature as a socio-cultural product and childhood as
the time when the accumulated wisdom of previous generations
is handed on to the new generation.
The ZPD was conceived by him as the primary setting in which
such handing on is accomplished; the significance of these
encounters, therefore, extends beyond the cognitive benefits
derived by individual children: they also play an essential role
in bringing the child in contact with the culture, the continuity
of which is thereby ensured. To explain this process Vygotsky
used the concept of CULTURAL TOOLS, these being –
the psychological and technological devices perfected in the
course of each society's history for the purpose of supporting
and extending our understanding of the world.
Psychological tools include language, writing, counting systems
and scientific theories; among technological tools are books,
clocks, calendars, calculators and computers. All these serve to
channel our thinking in particular culturally valued directions:
clocks and calendars, for example, ensure that we organize our
ideas in a time dimension, the importance of which we set out to
convey to children from an early age.
However, by far the most important cultural tool is language,
for it is the preeminent means of passing on society's
experience. Children first encounter language as an integral part
of their social exchanges with their caretakers, who sensitively
(though usually quite unconsciously) adapt both the complexity
and the content of their speech to the child's ability to
comprehend, thus facilitating the eventual acquisition of
language in children themselves (see motherese). Language thus
29. begins in a social setting and, according to Vygotsky, is also
initially used solely for social purposes, that is, to influence the
behaviour of others. Eventually its function becomes extended:
private speech (or what Piaget called egocentric speech)
appears, whereby children talk to themselves in order to
regulate their own behaviour, to be replaced subsequently by
internal speech which forms the beginning of thought. Thus,
what was in the first place behaviour that took place between
child and others is transformed in the course of development to
an internalized activity: the intermental becomes the
intramental; an essentially social function evolves into the
principal tool for cognitive functioning.
Vygotsky did not produce any fully fledged theory, nor did he
leave behind a coherent body of research, and it was not until
many years after his early death that his two major
books, Thought and language (1962) and Mind in
society (1978), were translated into English and began to attract
international attention. Even in his own country his work was
neglected when his writings were suppressed during the
Stalinist purges – an ironic fate to overcome a convinced
Marxist who firmly believed that human behaviour is moulded
by social organization and that the historical forces shaping our
society need to be taken into account if we are to understand
how children's development takes place. Indeed his aim was not
merely to throw light on the nature of individual development;
he was also convinced that by understanding the processes
responsible for children becoming adults one can help to create
a better socialist society. His vision was thus much wider than
that of any other child psychologist: it extended beyond
psychology to history, sociology, politics, economics, education
and linguistics, all of which he regarded as relevant to the study
of individual development. No wonder his theory is variously
characterized as socio-cultural, socio-historical and socio-
cognitive.
CURRENT STATUS
In the past few decades Vygotsky's writings have attracted
30. enormous attention, and most of all serious consideration has
been given to his belief that we need to think of the child-in-
context as the basic unit rather than the child-in-isolation
(see context). He is also responsible for stimulating a
considerable amount of research on topics such as the analysis
of parent–child joint problem solving (e.g. Wood, Bruner &
Ross, 1976), peer tutoring (e.g. Foot & Howe, 1998), the role of
private (egocentric) speech (e.g. Bivens & Berk, 1990) and
cross-cultural comparisons of socialization and training
practices (e.g. Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu & Mosier, 1993). The
notion of the ZPD in particular has been the starting point for a
lot of further work.
However, Vygotsky's conception of the ZPD has also been
seriously criticized. Much of this has been directed at the
following features:
· Vagueness regarding processes. The ZPD has been condemned
for using a unidimensional concept to represent a multifaceted
phenomenon (Paris & Cross, 1988). It does not specify the many
and diverse processes that socially supported learning involves,
nor does it provide a guide to the variations in zones that one
can expect across different domains, settings and teachers.
· The failure to consider developmental aspects. Vygotsky
conceived of a prototype child, who functions in the ZPD in the
same way at the age of 2 as at the age of 12. The roles of adult
and child remain fixed; the appearance of new motives, needs
and abilities are neglected, as are children's changing
definitions of what constitutes their social context.
· The disregard of children's individuality. Although Vygotsky
stressed the active part played by the child in the ZPD, he paid
more attention to the adult's contribution. At any one age
children differ in what they bring to a social interchange, but
Vygotsky had nothing to say about individual differences in
such aspects as learning style, motivation and emotional
regulation, nor about the various relationship qualities that
distinguish different adult–child dyads.
· Vagueness concerning the precise means whereby learning is
31. produced. Just what are the processes taking place between
child and partner that result in children taking over
responsibility for more and more parts of the task and
inernalizing them as skills of their own? Vygotsky did not go
into detail; it has been left to others to pursue this line of
enquiry.
One attempt to provide an answer to this last question is built
around the concept of SCAFFOLDING, first put forward
by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976). Scaffolding is –
the process whereby a more expert partner offers help to a child
in problem solving by adjusting both the amount and kind of
help to the child's level of performance.
In order to determine precisely what adults actually do in a joint
task in order to help children become independent problem
solvers, Wood and his colleagues observed the teaching
techniques adopted by mothers when their 3- to 4-year-old
children were confronted by a construction task that they could
not initially cope with on their own. They observed a great
range of actions employed by the mothers to keep the children
on task and simplify the problem to an appropriate degree, but
their use appeared to follow two rules: first, when a child is
struggling the tutor should immediately offer more help;
second, when the child is succeeding the tutor should give less
help and fade into the background. By offering support that is
always contingent on what the child is achieving, the child is
given considerable autonomy and yet also has the opportunity at
every step of relying on assistance, this diminishing as the child
increasingly takes over responsibility for completing the task. A
scaffold is thus put in place, but used in a far more flexible
manner than this metaphor might suggest, in that the two
contingency rules mean that the adult's behaviour is constantly
modified in the light of what the child is achieving, thus leading
the child step by step to eventual success.
Such a notion of scaffolding certainly expresses the essence of
what Vygotsky had in mind for the ZPD, and has been used in a
large number of studies investigating a range of problem
32. solving tasks. Yet this concept too is not without its critics (e.g.
Stone, 1993), mainly because it pays insufficient attention to
the communicative processes taking place in the adult–child
interaction; also because it does not allow for the fact that the
effectiveness of adults' actions is dependent on the particular
relationship they have with the child. Another approach, that
based on the concept of GUIDED PARTICIPATION, has
attempted to correct these deficiencies.
Guided participation is a term proposed by Barbara Rogoff
(1990, 2003) as one of the mechanisms employed to advance a
socio-cultural view of human development. Children, that is,
become immersed in the practices of their particular culture
from the moment of birth onwards; everything they experience
transmits to them the accumulated beliefs and values of their
society, and the main setting in which this occurs is in the
child's exchanges with its caretakers, teachers and other
concerned adults. Thus, as Rogoff (1998) put it, 'Cognitive
development occurs as new generations collaborate with older
generations in varying forms of interpersonal engagement and
institutional practices.' Guided participation may therefore be
defined as –
the process by which children develop through their
involvement in the practices of their community.
By its use Rogoff wanted to emphasize that adult and child play
essentially complementary roles in the latter's development,
namely guidance by the adult and participation by the child. On
the one hand the adult acts as guide to the culturally valued
practices the child is expected to adopt – a role that can be
played in many ways, some didactic as in structured teaching
situations (which Vygotsky mainly concentrated on), others
informal as when the child is given the opportunity to observe
and join an adult in performing some activity. On the other hand
the child acts as apprentice – not merely as passive bystander,
that is, but as an active contributor to the activity that is the
joint focus of the partner's attention. Thus guided participation
is not some particular method of support for learning, nor does
33. it depend on some conscious, previously formulated goal. A lot
of joint teaching-learning is of an informal nature, and Rogoff
uses a wealth of observations from different cultures to
illustrate its role in enabling children to participate in the
activities of their society and to advance from their present to a
more advanced level of understanding.
The general theme conveyed by Vygotsky, Rogoff and other
socio-cultural theorists, as signalled by the concepts they
employ such as the ZPD and guided participation, is that
cognitive growth can only be understood if we acknowledge the
social origins of mental processes and recognize that cognitive
functions, especially in the early years, extend beyond the skin.
This is in marked contrast to the customary individualistic
assumption of psychologists – an assumption difficult to
abandon despite the lipservice now paid to the importance of
context, but well illustrated by the complete failure to take up
Vygotsky's suggestion that intellectual assessment should take
into account children's performance in joint sessions. Vygotsky
was convinced that thinking is not just something that goes on
inside an individual's head but is an activity that can be shared
– indeed of necessity has to be shared in the early stages of
development. As Rowe and Wertsch (2002) have put it, 'Study
of the "I" is thus abandoned in favour of study of the social,
cultural and historically situated ways by which "we" create
"I's".'
Further reading
· Faulkner, D., Littleton, K., & Woodhead, M. (Eds.)
(1998). Learning relationships in the classroom.
London: Routledge. Written mainly from an educational point
of view, this collection contains a lot of material relevant to the
concepts described above.
· Fernyhough, C. (1997). Vygotsky's sociocultural approach:
theoretical issues and implications for current research. In Hala,
S. (Ed.), The development of social cognition.
Hove: Psychology Press. A concise account of the main themes
in Vygotsky's theory.
35. Vygotsky, Lev
in Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia
(b. Orsche, Russia 1896; d. USSR, 1934) Russian psychologist
Lev Vygotsky helped to establish the science of child
development. His work on...
566 words from ABC-CLIO
Full text Article
Introduction
in Curriculum Connections Psychology: Cognitive Development
Psychology forms part of the Curriculum Connections series.
Each of the six volumes of the set covers a particular aspect of
psychology: History of
416 words from Brown Bear Books Ltd
Full text Article
Reflections
in Key Thinkers in Psychology
While both Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget were concerned with
the development of cognitive capacities, their approaches
differed in...
264 words from Sage UK
Full text Article
Lev S., Vygotsky (1896–1934)
in Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development
Vygotsky was born in 1896 in Orsha (Belarus) to a middle-class
Jewish family, the second of eight children. He grew up in
Gomel...
719 words from Cambridge University Press
Full text Article
36. Lev Semionovich Vygotsky (1896-1934)
in Key Thinkers in Psychology
Suppressed on the orders of Stalin, the work of Vygotsky was
almost unknown in the West until the 1960s. Its first appearance
was in the now...
4011 words from Sage UK
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Cognitive Development (Piaget) and
Intelligence
The topic for this week is cognitive development and
intelligence from the perspective of Piaget
and Vygotsky. Additionally, we will learn definitions of
intelligence, the predictive value of
intelligence tes
ts, variations in IQ, the role of early intervention in intellectual
development, and
the development of creativity.
Topics to be covered include:
37. ·
Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and
Vygotskian
Perspectives
·
Role of Intelligence Testing in
the Development of Educational
Programs
·
Case Studies Related to Intelligence
Cognitive Development
We will begin to examine cognitive development, or how the
intellectual capabilities of infants
transform into those of the child, adolescent, and adult. Fi
rst, let us define cognition. Cognition
refers to the inner processes and products of the mind that lead
to “knowing.” In other words,
how do we acquire, comprehend, and apply knowledge? What
transformations must occur for
individuals to develop increasing
ly sophisticated mental capacities?
JEAN PIAGET
You have likely heard the name of Swiss cognitive theorist,
Jean Piaget. According to Piaget,
people are not cognitive beings at birth; instead, they discover,
or construct, all knowledge of the
38. world through
their own experiences. As they begin to construct knowledge,
they refine and
organize the information in order to effectively adapt to their
environments. This theory of active
construction of knowledge is known as the constructivist
approach to cognitive
development.
This approach follows children through four invariant (fixed
order) and universal (assumed to
characterize all children) stages: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and formal
operational. Throughout these stages, infants’ inv
estigative behaviors gradually transform into
the abstract, rational intelligence of more mature individuals.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF C
OGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SENSORIMOTOR
PREOPERATIONAL
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
Cognitive Development (Piaget) and
Intelligence
The topic for this week is cognitive development and
intelligence from the perspective of Piaget
and Vygotsky. Additionally, we will learn definitions of
intelligence, the predictive value of
intelligence tests, variations in IQ, the role of early intervention
39. in intellectual development, and
the development of creativity.
Topics to be covered include:
Vygotskian
Perspectives
Educational
Programs
se Studies Related to Intelligence
Cognitive Development
We will begin to examine cognitive development, or how the
intellectual capabilities of infants
transform into those of the child, adolescent, and adult. First,
let us define cognition. Cognition
refers to the inner processes and products of the mind that lead
to “knowing.” In other words,
how do we acquire, comprehend, and apply knowledge? What
transformations must occur for
individuals to develop increasingly sophisticated mental
capacities?
JEAN PIAGET
You have likely heard the name of Swiss cognitive theorist,
Jean Piaget. According to Piaget,
people are not cognitive beings at birth; instead, they discover,
or construct, all knowledge of the
world through their own experiences. As they begin to construct
knowledge, they refine and
organize the information in order to effectively adapt to their
environments. This theory of active
construction of knowledge is known as the constructivist
approach to cognitive development.
This approach follows children through four invariant (fixed
order) and universal (assumed to
characterize all children) stages: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and formal
40. operational. Throughout these stages, infants’ investigative
behaviors gradually transform into
the abstract, rational intelligence of more mature individuals.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SENSORIMOTOR
PREOPERATIONAL
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
FORMAL OPERATIONAL