RUBRICAll Major Elements Included 1.Clear & Limiting Title (tel.docx

RUBRIC
All Major Elements Included: 1.Clear & Limiting Title (telling
title) 2. Appropriate level of Detail and
Technicality (based on your audiences
own knowledge of the product or process) 3. Visuals that assist
in understanding (must have a purpose) 4. A Clear Descriptive
Sequence (spatial,
functional, chronological)--
Levels of Achievement:
Partially Meets Requirements 10 (10.00%) points
Meets All Requirements 20 (20.00%) points
Introduction: 1. Does the document begin with the definition of
the product or process? 2. Does the introduction state the
objective of the description (what you hope to accomplish)? 3.
Does the introduction contain only what the user needs to
know?--
Body: 1. Does the body provide a clear and logical sequence? 2.
Are the connections between the parts explained clearly?--
Conclusion: Does the conclusion provide a brief summary if
necessary, or explain the interrelation of parts-briefly, or one
complete operating cycle, or a summary of major stages as
applicable to your type of description (see the outlines on pages
420 and 424).--
Mechanics: 1. Grammatically Correct 2. Spelling is Correct 3.
Word Choice is Correct 4. Sentences are not convoluted--

Precision: 1. clear, concise, and to the point without excess
verbiage (words)2. is neither excessive in length nor
excessively short 3. does not give information the audience does
not need or want--
Tone and Style are Appropriate to Audience: 1. purpose
statement lists specific audience 2. language is correct for
audience (not high in tone nor elementary in understanding) 3.
is objective--
Name:Technical Definitions Rubric
Picking Up the Slack
Ethical Case Study By Chloe Wilson
Greg and Natalie have been in business classes together since
freshman year. While
they’re not close friends, they have always enjoyed each other’s
company in class and
have been in the same social circle as they’ve moved from
lower division courses to where
they are now: senior capstone. Greg and a few of his friends
invite Natalie to join their
group at the start of the term, and they begin to work on their
project.

Fairly quickly, though, Greg realizes that Natalie isn’t pulling
her weight. Any aspect of the
project that’s assigned to her has to be redone by other members
of the group, she
doesn’t pay attention in meetings, and she consistently shows
up late or hung over. Greg
and his other group mates think that Natalie needs to step it up
and take this project
seriously, but they ultimately agree it would be more trouble
than it’s worth to confront her
about it. They decide to just push through and let her do her
own thing. Natalie continues
to participate marginally in discussions, planning, and writing,
but makes it clear through
her actions that their final presentation is not her biggest
priority.
After Greg’s group gives its final presentation, the members are
asked to write an
evaluation on their teammates that the professor will use to
determine individual grades.
When it comes to most of his teammates, Greg easily gives them
all A’s and B’s for their
participation and contributions to the project. However, when
Greg comes to Natalie’s
evaluation, he is faced with a dilemma. It’s their last big
project before graduation, and if
he were to evaluate her in a harsh way, it could negatively
affect her cumulative GPA. He
doesn’t want to throw her under the bus; however, her apathy
and poor work ethic put a
huge burden on everyone else’s shoulders, and Greg had to
personally sacrifice a lot of
time and effort to make up for her mistakes or tasks that she left
undone.

Ethical Question: What should Greg do? Is it worth giving her
an honest evaluation, just so
the professor will give her the grade she deserves? Or is giving
her a bad evaluation petty
and unnecessary, considering that they are all about to graduate
and their group received
an A, regardless of her performance?
Source: Wilson, C. (March 11, 2013). Picking Up the Slack (Big
Q). Markkula Center for
Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. Retrieved from
http://www.scu.edu/r/
ethicscenter/ethicsblog/thebigq/15667/ Picking-Up-the-
Slack#sthash.rIt9MhNt.dpuf
A Framework For Thinking Ethically
Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University
This document is designed as an introduction to thinking
ethically. We all have an image of our better
selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best."
We probably also have an image of what
an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical
government, or an ethical society should be. Ethics
really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as
individuals, creating ethical organizations and
governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the
way it treats everyone.
What is Ethics?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us

how human beings ought to act in the
many situations in which they find themselves-as friends,
parents, children, citizens, businesspeople,
teachers, professionals, and so on.
It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
• Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important
information for our ethical choices.
Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel
bad when they do something
wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing
something wrong. And often our
feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing if it
is hard.
• Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but
ethics applies to everyone. Most religions
do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address
all the types of problems we
face.
• Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does
incorporate many ethical standards,
but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become
ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian
regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone and
designed to serve the interests
of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time designing or
enforcing standards in some
important areas, and may be slow to address new problems.
• Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some
cultures are quite ethical, but others
become corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the
United States was to slavery before
the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a

satisfactory ethical standard.
• Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide
important data to help us make
better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what
we ought to do. Science may
provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics
provides reasons for how humans
ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or
technologically possible, it may not
be ethical to do it.
Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard
There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical
standards we are to follow:
1. On what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we
face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted
social practice, or science, what are they
based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us
answer this critical question. They have
suggested at least five different sources of ethical standards we
should use.
Five Sources of Ethical Standards
The Utilitarian Approach
Some ethicists emphasize that the ethical action is the one that
provides the most good or does the
least harm, or, to put it another way, produces the greatest
balance of good over harm. The ethical
corporate action, then, is the one that produces the greatest
good and does the least harm for all who
are affected-customers, employees, shareholders, the

community, and the environment. Ethical warfare
balances the good achieved in ending terrorism with the harm
done to all parties through death, injuries,
and destruction. The utilitarian approach deals with
consequences; it tries both to increase the good
done and to reduce the harm done.
The Rights Approach
Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that the ethical action
is the one that best protects and
respects the moral rights of those affected. This approach starts
from the belief that humans have a
dignity based on their human nature per se or on their ability to
choose freely what they do with their
lives. On the basis of such dignity, they have a right to be
treated as ends and not merely as means to
other ends. The list of moral rights -including the rights to make
one's own choices about what kind of
life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, to a degree of
privacy, and so on-is widely debated;
some now argue that non-humans have rights, too. Also, it is
often said that rights imply duties-in
particular, the duty to respect others' rights.
The Fairness or Justice Approach
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the
idea that all equals should be treated
equally. Today we use this idea to say that ethical actions treat
all human beings equally-or if unequally,
then fairly based on some standard that is defensible. We pay
people more based on their harder work
or the greater amount that they contribute to an organization,
and say that is fair. But there is a debate
over CEO salaries that are hundreds of times larger than the pay
of others; many ask whether the huge
disparity is based on a defensible standard or whether it is the
result of an imbalance of power and
hence is unfair.

The Common Good Approach
The Greek philosophers have also contributed the notion that
life in community is a good in itself and our
actions should contribute to that life. This approach suggests
that the interlocking relationships of society
are the basis of ethical reasoning and that respect and
compassion for all others-especially the
vulnerable-are requirements of such reasoning. This approach
also calls attention to the common
conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone. This
may be a system of laws, effective police
and fire departments, health care, a public educational system,
or even public recreational areas.
The Virtue Approach
A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical actions ought to
be consistent with certain ideal virtues
that provide for the full development of our humanity. These
virtues are dispositions and habits that
enable us to act according to the highest potential of our
character and on behalf of values like truth and
beauty. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, tolerance,
love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control,
and prudence are all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of
any action, "What kind of person will I
become if I do this?" or "Is this action consistent with my
acting at my best?"
Putting the Approaches Together
Each of the approaches helps us determine what standards of
behavior can be considered ethical. There
are still problems to be solved, however.
• The first problem is that we may not agree on the content of
some of these specific approaches. We

may not all agree to the same set of human and civil rights.
We may not agree on what constitutes the common good. We
may not even agree on what is a
good and what is a harm.
• The second problem is that the different approaches may not
all answer the question "What is ethical?"
in the same way. Nonetheless, each approach gives us important
information with which to determine
what is ethical in a particular circumstance. And much more
often than not, the different approaches
do lead to similar answers.
Making Decisions
Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to
ethical issues and a practiced method for
exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing the
considerations that should impact our
choice of a course of action. Having a method for ethical
decision making is absolutely essential. When
practiced regularly, the method becomes so familiar that we
work through it automatically without
consulting the specific steps.
The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the
more we need to rely on discussion and
dialogue with others about the dilemma. Only by careful
exploration of the problem, aided by the insights
and different perspectives of others, can we make good ethical
choices in such situations.
We have found the following framework for ethical decision
making a useful method for exploring ethical
dilemmas and identifying ethical courses of action.
A Framework for Ethical Decision Making

Recognize an Ethical Issue
1. Could this decision or situation be damaging to someone or
to some group? Does this decision
involve a choice between a good and bad alternative, or perhaps
between two "goods" or
between two "bads"?
2. Is this issue about more than what is legal or what is most
efficient? If so, how?
Get the Facts
3. What are the relevant facts of the case? What facts are not
known? Can I learn more about the
situation? Do I know enough to make a decision?
4. What individuals and groups have an important stake in the
outcome? Are some concerns more
important? Why?
5. What are the options for acting? Have all the relevant persons
and groups been consulted? Have
I identified creative options?
Evaluate Alternative Actions
6. Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:
• Which option will produce the most good and do the least
harm? (The Utilitarian Approach)
• Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake?
(The Rights Approach)
• Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (The
Justice Approach)
• Which option best serves the community
as a whole, not just some members?
(The Common Good Approach)

• Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to
be? (The Virtue Approach)
Make a Decision and Test It
7. Considering all these approaches, which option best
addresses the situation?
8. If I told someone I respect-or told a television audience-
which option I have chosen, what would
they say?
Act and Reflect on the Outcome
9. How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care
and attention to the concerns of all
stakeholders?
10. How did my decision turn out and what have I learned from
this specific situation?
Source:
Velasquez, Manuel, et al. "A Framework for Ethical Decision
Making." Markkula Center
for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University, 1 Aug. 2015,
www.scu.edu/ethics/
ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/a-framework-for-
ethical-decision-
making/. Accessed 7 Feb. 2017.
ETHICAL ESSAY GUIDELINES MILLIE SHAW

POINTS VALUE
100 Points (10% of your grade)
SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS
Write an essay in which you examine an ethical dilemma from a
variety of ethical decision making
approaches, discuss your own approach to ethical decision
making which arises from your core beliefs,
and determine the action that the actors in the ethical dilemma
should take.
- 600 to 800 Words (about 3 to 4 pages); Please no more than 4
pages
- 4 Source Citations (Include Case Study, The Framework
article, and 2 additional sources)
- Academic Level Writing: Proper word usage, clear and
effective phrasing, correct spelling, syntax,
grammar, etc.
- MLA Format
- Document Settings: 1 inch margins, Double Spaced, legible 12
point font (i.e. Times New
Roman)
- Page Header: Name and Page Number in the upper right corner
of every page
- Title Block:
- Name, Instructor’s Name, Course Number and Section, Date in
the upper left corner of the
first page only
- Essay Title is centered on the first page
- Citations:

- In-Text Citations
- Works Cited
INSTRUCTIONS
BEFORE YOU START WRITING: PREPARE YOURSELF AND
THINK ABOUT THE ISSUES
- Read A Framework For Thinking Ethically and determine the
questions asked/concerns addressed by
each of the five approaches to ethical decision making
(Utilitarian, Rights, Fairness/Justice, Common
Good, and Virtue)
- Read the case study, Picking Up The Slack, and make sure you
understand the ethical dilemma that
Greg is facing
- Find 2 additional sources of information about ethics, ethical
decision making, ethical dilemmas, etc.
(Check the “Additional Sources” folder in the Ethics
Assignment on eCampus)
- Think about your own approach to ethical decision making and
how you would resolve the ethical
dilemma if you were in Greg’s position.
- Identify your core beliefs and values and the origin of these
elements. Determine specific
instances or examples from your personal history that led you to
these values and beliefs.
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23002/Case%20Study%20Picking%20up%20the%20Slack.pdf
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23002/Ethics%20Lecture%20Notes.pdf
23002/Ethical%20Essay%20Glossary%20of%20Terms(1).pdf
WRITE YOUR ESSAY
Step 1: Write the Introduction (1 Paragraph)
1. Begin with a sentence that orients the reader to the topic of
your essay.
- Write as if you do not know who will be reading your essay
and assume your reader has not
read the case study.
2. Provide a brief summary of the case study so the reader has a
full understanding of the issue
(remember the reader has not read the case study). Summarize
the situation with fairness to all
parties.
3. Clearly state the ethical dilemma that will be analyzed in the
essay (topic sentence).
4. Next, clearly state your purpose (this is your thesis

statement).
5. Finally, tell your reader what will follow in the body of your
essay (this is your preview of main points).
Step 2: Develop the Body of the Essay (6 - 7 paragraphs)
- For the first part of the body (5 Paragraphs)
- Analyze the ethical dilemma using the five approaches to
ethical decision making from the
Framework for Thinking Ethically article (1 paragraph per
approach - i.e. Utilitarian, Common
Good, etc.). For each paragraph:
1. Identify and explain the approach.
2. Discuss considerations, implications, and consequences of
the approach as applied to
the dilemma. (Assume your reader has no knowledge of these
approaches so explain
the key concepts of each. A sufficient discussion of the
approach would consist of at
least three sentences. Find this information in the Framework
Article and in your
additional sources)
3. For each approach, you must clearly state the decision that
Greg would make if he
were to use that approach.
- For the second part of the body (1 - 2 Paragraphs)
1. Identify the approach you would use if you were involved in
a situation like this.
- “If I were in Greg’s shoes . . .” Analyze the situation using the
ethical standard that you would
apply to this situation.

- Discuss the implications and consequences if you made a
decision based on this standard.
2. Discuss your core beliefs and the origin of those beliefs that
led you to that approach.
- How does this ethical standard align with your core beliefs
and personal values?
- Clarify the beliefs and values that guide your ethical thinking,
ethical conduct, and decision-
making.
Step 3: Write the Conclusion
1. Restate the thesis.
2. Provide a summary and closure.
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Important Reminders
For the body of your essay, follow these writing guidelines:
- Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that effectively
states the purpose of the paragraph.
- Develop sentences that are logical and clear. Ideas should
flow logically. Paragraphs should be
unified and work together to support the thesis.
- Make paragraphs coherent by using effective and appropriate
transitions between ideas and
paragraphs.

Pre-Submission Checklist
The essay is spell-checked and edited.
The essay is academic in tone, word choice, sentence structure,
and overall quality.
Sentence structure is correct, coherent, and varied.
The essay follows MLA guidelines.
The essay is well-organized.
Main ideas are fully developed, supported, and show critical
thinking.
Ideas flow logically; transitions link the main ideas and aid the
reader’s ability to follow the
arguments.
Facts are distinguished from opinions.
Opinions are supported and qualified.
Opposing views are represented fairly.
In-text citations give credit to outside sources of information.
The in-text citations from the body of the paper are fully cited
in the Works Cited.
The Works Cited page is formatted using MLA formatting
guidelines.
The introduction engages and orients the reader.
Relevant background information is provided so the audience
has a clear understanding of the
situation, understands the ethical dilemma, and knows why an
ethical decision is required.
The purpose of the essay is clear to the reader; the thesis is
clearly stated.
The rest of the paper is previewed for the reader.
Each of the approaches is discussed fully and applied to the
ethical dilemma.
The action Greg would take is identified for every approach.
The author discusses the action he/she would take if placed in
Greg’s position.
The author’s core beliefs and values are identified and applied

to the ethical dilemma.
The conclusion provides closure and restates the thesis.
At least four outside sources are integrated smoothly in the
essay. The essay includes
correctly formatted in-text citations.
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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All
rights reserved.
Technical Communication
Fourteenth Edition
John M. Lannon

Laura J. Gurak
Chapter 13
Designing Pages and Documents
*
Even the most basic word processing programs offer powerful
design tools that make the writing and designing of a document
happen almost simultaneously. Workplace writers often make
design decisions as they are writing, sometimes without giving
adequate consideration to page layout, font choices, headings,
white space, and so forth.
But readers have come to expect documents that look
professional and are visually inviting and accessible. In class,
it’s important to emphasize that a reader’s first impression of
any document—online or on paper—may in fact be a purely
visual, aesthetic judgment. Poor formatting is a sure way to
alienate readers. Students need to recognize that although page
design and formatting choices may seem obvious, these
decisions must be made carefully.
rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
Explain why document design is important in the workplace
Describe how digital and print documents differ
Discuss the everyday design skills technical communicators
need to have
Consider a variety of techniques for designing a reader-friendly
document

rights reserved.
Learning Objectives (continued)
Develop an audience and use profile to guide your design
Explain how digital documents have special design
requirements
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Page Design
Page design, the layout of words and graphics, determines the
look of a document.
Well-designed pages invite readers into the document, guide
them through the material, and help them understand and
remember the information.
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Page Design in
Workplace Documents
An audience’s first impression tends to involve a purely visual,
aesthetic judgment: “Does this look like something I want to
read, or like too much work?”
Having decided at a glance whether your document is visually
appealing, logically organized, and easy to navigate, readers
will draw conclusions about the value of your information, the
quality of your work, and your overall credibility.

rights reserved.
Page Design for Print and
Digital Documents
Today, pages come in all forms, including hard copy (printed),
PDF, Web-based, e-book formats, small-screen sizes, and more.
Despite this proliferation of formats, the most common
technical and workplace documents continue to take the shape
of a printed page, designed to be read in portrait mode, similar
to the pages of a book.
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Design Skills Needed by
Technical Communicators
In smaller organizations, technical writers are often responsible
for writing and designing the document. Therefore, you’ll need
to be familiar with:
A word processing program for designing basic documents
A desktop publishing program, or DTP for designing complex
documents, particularly longer ones that contain more visuals
and require sophisticated layout, page flows, and formatting
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Design Skills Needed by Technical Communicators (continued)
You’ll also need to be familiar with styles and templates.
Styles are pre-formatted options in word processing and DTP
programs that make it easy for you to maintain a consistent look

and feel across particular features of your document.
Templates, on the other hand, apply to the entire document, for
example pre-set templates in word processing and DTP
programs for résumés, brochures, letters, sales proposals, etc.
rights reserved.
Design Skills Needed by Technical Communicators (continued)
Finally, you may need to be familiar with your company’s style
guide or create a style sheet.
Style guides are documents that describe an organization’s rules
for document design and language use, in order to help ensure a
consistent look across a company’s various documents and
publications.
Style sheets, on the other hand, specify the design elements of a
particular document, such as a complex document created by a
team.
rights reserved.
Creating a Design that Works
for Your Readers
Approach your design decisions to achieve a consistent look, to
highlight certain material, and to aid navigation. You will need
to think about four design categories:
Shaping the page
Styling the words and letters
Adding emphasis
Using headings for access and orientation.

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Shaping the Page
In shaping a page, consider its look, feel, and overall layout.
Consider the following:
Use a Grid. Readers make sense of a page by looking for a
consistent underlying structure:
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Shaping the Page (continued)
Provide Page Numbers. Use lowercase Roman numerals for
front matter (ii, iii, iv). Number the first text page and
subsequent pages with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3).
Use White Space. Sometimes, what is not on the page (white
space) can make a big difference. Areas of text surrounded by
white space draw the reader’s eye to those areas.
Provide Ample Margins. Small margins crowd the page and
make the material look difficult. On an 8½-by-11-inch page,
leave margins of at least 1 or 1½ inches.
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Keep Line Length Reasonable. Long lines tire the eyes. Short
lines look choppy. A reasonable line length is sixty to seventy
characters per line for an 8½-by-11-inch single-column page.
Keep Line Spacing Consistent. In general, single-space within
paragraphs and double-space between paragraphs.
Tailor Each Paragraph to Its Purpose. Use a long paragraph for
clustering material that is closely related. Use a short one to

make complex material easier to digest.
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Make Lists for Easy Reading. Whenever you find yourself
writing a series of related items within a paragraph, consider
using a list instead.
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Guidelines for Shaping the Page
Picture the document’s overall look and feel when you make
design choices about pages.
Select an appropriate grid pattern.
Use white space to make pages easier to navigate.
Use adequate margins.
Keep line lengths easy on the eye.
For PDF documents, use white space to break up text and make
it easier for people to read on a screen.
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Styling the Words and Letters
After shaping the page, decide on the appropriate typefaces,
type sizes, and capitalization. Consider the following:
Select an Appropriate Typeface. Typeface,

or font, refers to all the letters and characters in
one particular style (e.g. Times, Arial, Helvetica).
In selecting a typeface, consider the document’s
purpose. For visual unity, use different sizes and
versions (bold, italic, small caps) of the same
typeface throughout your document.
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Styling the Words and Letters (continued)
Use Type Sizes That Are Easy to Read. Use
10 to 12 point types sizes, depending on the typeface. Use
different sizes for other elements like headings, titles, and
captions for emphasis.
Use Full Caps Sparingly. Uppercase letters are hard read and
look like the writer is shouting at you.
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Guidelines for Styling the
Words and Letters
Use a serif font (such as Times New Roman) for formal
documents such as reports, legal communication, and letters.
Use a sans serif font (such as Helvetica) for captions, most

visuals (charts, graphs, and tables), and engineering
specifications.
Create visual unity by using the same typeface throughout.
Keep fonts at sizes that people can read.
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Adding Emphasis
Once you have selected the appropriate font, you can use
different features, such as boldface or italics, to highlight
important elements such as headings, special terms, key points,
or warnings.
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Guidelines for Adding Emphasis
Use indentation to set off examples, explanations, or any
material that should be differentiated from body copy.
Use ruled horizontal lines to separate sections in a long
document.
Use ruled lines, broken lines, or ruled boxes, to set off crucial
information such as a warning or a caution.
Use boldface for emphasizing a single sentence or brief
statement.
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Guidelines for Adding Emphasis
Use Small type sizes for captions, credit lines, and labels for
visuals.

Avoid large type sizes and dramatic typefaces—unless you
really need to convey forcefulness.
Use color in some documents, but sparingly.
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Using Headings for
Access and Orientation
Headings announce how a document is organized, point readers
to what they need, and divide the document into accessible
blocks or “chunks.” Consider the following:
Lay Out Headings by Level. Like a good road map, your
headings should clearly announce the large and small segments
in your document.
Decide How to Phrase Your Headings. Depending on your
purpose, you can phrase headings as short phrases, statements,
or questions.
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Using Headings for Access and Orientation (continued)
Make Headings Visually Consistent and Grammatically Parallel.
All headings at the same level must look the same and use the
same linguistic format (for example, if the first major level
heading is phrased as a question, all others should be).
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Guidelines for Using Headings

Ordinarily, use no more than four levels of headings (section,
major topic, minor topic, subtopic).
Divide logically.
Insert one additional line of space above each heading.
Never begin the sentence right after the heading with “this,”
“it,” or some other pronoun referring to the heading.
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Guidelines for Using Headings (continued)
Never leave a heading floating as the final line of a page.
Use running heads (headers) or feet (footers) in long
documents.
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Audience Considerations
in Page Design
In deciding on a format, know your audience and their intended
use of your information:
If people will use your document for reference only, make sure
you provide plenty of headings.
If readers will follow a sequence of steps, show that sequence in
a numbered list.
If readers need a warning, highlight the warning so that it
cannot possibly be overlooked.
If readers have asked for a one-page report or résumé, save
space by using a 10 point type size.

rights reserved.
Audience Considerations
in Page Design (continued)
If readers need to evaluate something, give them a checklist of
criteria.
If readers will be encountering complex information or difficult
steps, design the page so that it is easy to read.
In addition, keep in mind cultural expectations. Ignoring a
culture’s design conventions can be interpreted as disrespect.
rights reserved.
Designing Digital Documents
Pay special attention to these additional considerations when
designing digital documents:
Adobe Acrobat and PDF files: PDF (Portable Document Format)
documents, which are readable via Adobe Acrobat, are like
photographs of print pages and therefore are difficult to alter.
They can now be edited, but edits appear as handwritten/typed
comments on top of the page not incorporated into the page.
Also, PDFs cannot be redesigned without permission of the
writer and an advanced version of Adobe.
rights reserved.
Designing Digital Documents (continued)
Web Pages: Unlike typical print and PDF pages, Web pages
must be designed to accommodate the shape of a screen. Most
computer screens are more “landscape” than “portrait”—wider

than they are high. Also, content must be written in smaller,
more discrete chunks than in print documents.
Tablets, Smartphones, and E-readers: Today’s workplace
documents might be read on a large computer screen, a smaller
laptop, a tablet, a phone, or an e-reader. Keep in mind screen
size when writing and designing for these environments.
rights reserved.
Review Questions
1. What is page design and why is it important?
2. What design skills will you need to learn to compete in
today’s workplace?
3. What are the four design categories that you need to consider
when designing a document?
4. What are five considerations you need to keep in mind when
shaping a page?
5. What is white space, and why is it important?
6. What are three considerations you need to keep in mind when
styling words and letters?
Answers
1. Page design, the layout of words and graphics, determines the
look of a document. Well-designed pages invite readers into the
document, guide them through the material, and help them
understand and remember the information.
2. Using word processing and desktop publishing programs,
using styles and templates, and using style guides and style
sheets.
3. Shaping the page, styling the words and letters, adding
emphasis, and using headings for access and orientation.
4. Any five of the following: Using a grid, providing page
numbers, using white space, providing ample margins, keeping

line length reasonable, keeping line space consistent, tailoring
each paragraph to its purpose, and making lists for easy reading.
5. White space refers to the areas of a page that contain no text
or illustrations. Areas of text surrounded by white space draw
the reader’s eye to those areas.
6. Selecting a typeface, using type sizes that are easy to read,
and using full caps sparingly.
*
rights reserved.
Review Questions (continued)
7. What are five ways to add emphasis within a document?
8. What are three considerations you need to keep in mind when
using headings for access and orientation?
9. What are three considerations to keep in mind when
designing for your audience?
10. In what ways do Web pages differ in design from print
pages?
Answers (continued)
7. Any five of the following: Using indentation, using ruled
horizontal lines, using ruled lines/broken lines/ruled boxes,
using boldface, using italics, using small type sizes, avoiding
large type sizes, and using color.
8. Lay out headings by level, decide how to phrase your
headings, and make headings visually consistent and
grammatically parallel.
9. Any three of the following: 1) If people will use your
document for reference only, make sure you provide plenty of
headings; 2) If readers will follow a sequence of steps, show
that sequence in a numbered list; 3) If readers need a warning,
highlight the warning so that it cannot possibly be overlooked;

4) If readers have asked for a one-page report or résumé, save
space by using a10 point type size; 5) If readers need to
evaluate something, give them a checklist of criteria; 6) If
readers will be encountering complex information or difficult
steps, design the page so that it is easy to read; 7) Keep in mind
cultural expectations.
10. As opposed to print pages, computer screens are more
“landscape” than “portrait,” and content must be written in
smaller, more discrete chunks than in print documents.
*
rights reserved.
Fourteenth Edition
John M. Lannon
Laura J. Gurak
Chapter 10
Organizing for Readers
*
Because students already have studied decisions about purpose,
audience, and content, they can now appreciate how decisions
about organization can help writers connect with their
audience—how decisions about what to say are related to
decisions on how to organize.
The intention here is to show that a well-organized document
doesn’t just happen—it evolves from a careful plan. Students
will recognize the typical shape of workplace documents—

introduction, body, conclusion—since they are essential to the
kinds of academic writing they have encountered previously.
rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
Work from an introduction-body-conclusion structure
Create informal and formal outlines
Prepare a storyboard for a long document
Shape effective paragraphs
Chunk information into discrete units
Provide overviews of longer documents
Organize information for global audiences
rights reserved.
Organizing
Instead of forcing readers to make sense of unstructured
information, we shape this material for their understanding.
Consider the following:
What relationships do the collected data suggest?
What should I emphasize?
In which sequence will readers approach the material?
What belongs where?
What do I say first? Why?
What comes next?
How do I end the document?
rights reserved.

The Typical Shape of
Workplace Documents
Useful documents typically follow this pattern:
The introduction attracts the reader’s attention, announces the
writer’s viewpoint, and previews what will follow.
The body delivers on the introduction, explaining and
supporting the writer’s viewpoint, achieving unity by remaining
focused on that viewpoint and coherence by carrying a line of
thought throughout.
The conclusion can reemphasize key points, take a position,
predict an outcome, offer a solution, or
suggest further study.
rights reserved.
Outlining
Even basic documents require at least an introduction-body-
conclusion outline done in your head and/or a few ideas jotted
down in list form. This is an informal outline.
Longer documents require a more detailed outline so that you
can visualize your document overall and ensure that ideas flow
logically from point to point. This is a formal outline.
rights reserved.
Outlining (continued)
Start by searching through the information you have gathered
and creating a random list of key topics your document should
include.
Then reorganize the list into an introduction, body, and

conclusion and decide how to divide each of these parts into
subtopics.
rights reserved.
The Formal Outline
In planning a long document, an author or
team rarely begins with a formal outline. But eventually in the
writing process, a long or complex document calls for much
more than
a simple list. It calls for a formal outline using either
alphanumeric or decimal notation:
Alphanumeric notation refers to the use of letters and numbers
in an outline.
Decimal notation refers to the use of numbers only, separated
by decimal points.
rights reserved.
The Formal Outline (continued)
In alphanumeric notation, the introduction, body, and
conclusion use Roman numerals (I, II, III); major topics use
capital letters (A, B, C); major subtopics use Arabic numbers
(1, 2, 3); and minor subtopics use lower-case letters (a, b, c).
Each level is indented:
rights reserved.

In decimal notation, the introduction, body, and conclusion use
a section number and a zero (2.0), major topics use the section
number and a major topic number (2.1), and so on, with an
additional number to indicate each level. Each level is indented:
rights reserved.
You may wish to expand your topic outline into a sentence
outline, in which each sentence serves as a topic sentence for a
paragraph in the document.
Not until you finish the final draft of a long document do you
compose the finished outline. This outline serves as a model for
your table of contents, as a check on your reasoning, and as a
way of revealing to readers a clear line of thinking.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Outlining
List key topics and subtopics to be included in your document.
Set up a standard outline.
Consider using your word processing program’s outlining tool.
Place key topics and subtopics where they fit within your
standard outline.
Use alphanumeric or decimal notation consistently throughout
the outline.
rights reserved.

Guidelines for Outlining (continued)
Avoid excessive subtopics.
Refine your outline as you write your document.
rights reserved.
Storyboarding
Another method of organizing (usually used to organize Web
sites) is to use a storyboard, a sketch of the finished document:
rights reserved.
Paragraphing
Paragraphing means that each supporting paragraph within the
larger introduction, body, and conclusion structure is similarly
structured:
Each paragraph must contain an “introduction,”
or topic sentence, which introduces an idea, judgment, or
opinion.
The “body” of each paragraph consists of sentences that are
logically connected to each other to create unity and coherence.
The “conclusion” of each paragraph is a restatement of the
topic sentence or a smooth transition into the next paragraph.
rights reserved.
Chunking
Each organizing technique discussed in this chapter is a way of

chunking information: breaking it down into discrete, digestible
units, based on the users’ needs and the document’s purpose.
Web sites especially rely on the concept of chunked
information. When writing for the Web, use smaller chunks than
you would in print, because readers expect to read smaller
pieces of information online.
rights reserved.
Providing an Overview
For longer document, consider giving readers an immediate
preview, or overview, of its contents by answering their initial
questions:
What is the purpose of this document?
Why should I read it?
What information can I expect to find here?
rights reserved.
Organizing for Global Audiences
Different cultures have varying expectations as to how
information should be organized. Keep these considerations in
mind:
Digression: North Americans usually do not
tolerate digressions that interrupt the logical flow of
paragraphs, but some cultures consider digression a sign of
intelligence or politeness.
Directness: Especially with bad new messages, North Americans
prefer to gently lead into bad news, but some cultures prefer to
get the bad news over with immediately.

rights reserved.
Review Questions
1. Why is organizing information important?
2. What are the three main parts of workplace documents, and
what is the function of each part?
3. How do you create an informal outline?
4. What is a formal outline?
5. What is the difference between alphanumeric notation and
decimal notation?
6. What is a storyboard?
Answers
1. It shapes complex material for reader understanding.
2. The introduction (attracts the reader’s attention, announces
the writer’s viewpoint, and previews what will follow); the
body (delivers on the introduction, explaining and supporting
the writer’s viewpoint, achieving unity by remaining focused on
that viewpoint and coherence by carrying a line of thought
throughout); the conclusion (can reemphasize key points, take a
position, predict an outcome, offer a solution, or suggest further
study).
3. Start by searching through the information you have gathered
include. Then reorganize the list into an introduction, body, and
subtopics.
4. A formal outline is a more detailed outline that helps writers
visualize a document overall and ensure that ideas flow
logically from point to point.
5. Alphanumeric notation refers to the use of letters and
numbers in an outline. Decimal notation refers to the use of
numbers only, separated by decimal points.
6. A storyboard is a sketch of the finished document.

*
rights reserved.
7. What is paragraphing, and how should paragraphs be
organized?
8. What is chunking and how is it useful?
9. What is an overview and when should you provide one?
10. What are two ways you might organize a document
differently for some global audiences?
Answers (continued)
7. Paragraphing is structuring each supporting paragraph within
the larger introduction, body, and conclusion structure
similarly.
8. Chunking is breaking down information into discrete,
digestible units. It considerably helps with a document’s
readability.
9. An overview gives readers an immediate preview of a
document. It is typically only used for long and complex
documents.
10. You might consider allowing digressions and writing more
indirectly.
*
*
Because students already have studied decisions about purpose,
audience, and content, they can now appreciate how decisions
about organization can help writers connect with their

audience—how decisions about what to say are related to
decisions on how to organize.
The intention here is to show that a well-organized document
doesn’t just happen—it evolves from a careful plan. Students
will recognize the typical shape of workplace documents—
introduction, body, conclusion—since they are essential to the
kinds of academic writing they have encountered previously.
Answers
1. It shapes complex material for reader understanding.
2. The introduction (attracts the reader’s attention, announces
the writer’s viewpoint, and previews what will follow); the
body (delivers on the introduction, explaining and supporting
the writer’s viewpoint, achieving unity by remaining focused on
that viewpoint and coherence by carrying a line of thought
throughout); the conclusion (can reemphasize key points, take a
position, predict an outcome, offer a solution, or suggest further
study).
3. Start by searching through the information you have gathered
include. Then reorganize the list into an introduction, body, and
subtopics.
4. A formal outline is a more detailed outline that helps writers
visualize a document overall and ensure that ideas flow
logically from point to point.
5. Alphanumeric notation refers to the use of letters and
numbers in an outline. Decimal notation refers to the use of
numbers only, separated by decimal points.
6. A storyboard is a sketch of the finished document.
*
Answers (continued)
7. Paragraphing is structuring each supporting paragraph within
the larger introduction, body, and conclusion structure

similarly.
8. Chunking is breaking down information into discrete,
digestible units. It considerably helps with a document’s
readability.
9. An overview gives readers an immediate preview of a
document. It is typically only used for long and complex
documents.
10. You might consider allowing digressions and writing more
indirectly.
*
rights reserved.
Fourteenth Edition
John M. Lannon
Laura J. Gurak
Chapter 7
Thinking Critically about the Research Process
*
Chapter 7 presents an overview of critical thinking in designing
a legitimate inquiry: asking the right questions, focusing on
essential sources, and evaluating and interpreting findings.
Additionally, the chapter discusses secondary and primary
sources and offers guidelines for finding and using them. This
chapter (along with Chapters 8 and 9) can serve as the basis for
the semester’s major writing assignment, either the formal

analytical report discussed in Chapter 21 or the proposal
discussed in Chapter 22.
“The Purpose of Research” is especially important to lower-
level students, who too often equate research with high-school
papers about life on Mars or the Bermuda Triangle. Students
need to understand that research is not just an academic
exercise, but that it is done for a purpose and the information
uncovered will be put to practical use.
For any research project, students should follow a well-defined
schedule for completing the various. If students work
collaboratively to write a document, direct them to create a
timeline that includes both individual and team deadlines.
Planning helps avoid the last-minute all-nighter, and the poor
writing that inevitably results.
An early orientation to the electronic information services
offered in your library will also help students avoid costly
mistakes, both in the quality of their work and the time they
must spend searching for information. Librarians are experts in
how information is created, vetted, and made available online
and in print; they can teach your students not only about how to
find and evaluate information, but also how scholarly
publication and the peer process review work. Arrange for a
library session to teach your students how to use search tools
such as the library catalog, article databases and indexes, and
online and print reference resources to find books and journal
articles. If your campus library has access to web conferencing
tools such as Adobe Connect or Blackboard Collaborate, a
library session can be offered to your online class. Librarians
are also available to meet with students for one-on-one or small
group consultations. Software programs will never replace these
information professionals, and forging a strong relationship
with one of the librarians in your campus library will prove
beneficial for both your students and you.

Your students will already be familiar with the advantages of
electronic searches. Ten or fifteen years of an index can be
reviewed in minutes. Searches can be customized: for example,
narrowed to specific dates or topics. They can also be
broadened: a keyword search can uncover material that a hard
copy search might overlook; Web pages can link to all sorts of
material—much of which exists in no hard copy form.
Take a few minutes of class time to ask students about the
drawbacks of electronic sources, a topic they may not have
considered before. These include the fact that databases rarely
contain entries published before the mid-1960s and that
material, especially on the Internet, can change or disappear
overnight or be highly unreliable. Also, given the researcher’s
potential for getting lost in cyberspace, a thorough electronic
search calls for a preliminary conference with a trained
librarian.
You might mention that even the best trial lawyers (or their
assistants) spend a good deal of time in the library or on the
Internet doing homework before presenting data to the jury.
Emphasize the importance of knowing where and how to find
the information one needs when one needs it.
Finally, students should be encouraged (or required) to compose
questionnaires or plan interviews as part of their research for
long reports. Your advice about the rough drafts of interview
questions or sample questionnaires will be helpful. This is a
good occasion to hold individual conferences. Peer review of
questions or questionnaires can also be a powerful way to help
students see alternative strategies.
rights reserved.

Learning Objectives
Define and refine a research question to guide your work
Approach your research topic from a variety of angles
Explore your research topic in sufficient depth
Evaluate and interpret your sources
Differentiate between primary and secondary research
rights reserved.
Conduct secondary research using online and traditional sources
Perform primary research using interviews, surveys, and other
techniques
rights reserved.
The Research Process
Major decisions in the workplace are based on careful research,
with the findings recorded in a written report.
These decisions require you to think critically about each step
of the process and about the information you gather for your
research.
rights reserved.
The Research Process (continued)
Following are the procedural stages in the research process:

rights reserved.
The Research Process (continued)
Following are the critical thinking stages in the research
process:
rights reserved.
Asking the Right Questions
The answers you uncover will only be as good as the questions
you ask:
rights reserved.
Exploring a Balance of Views
Instead of settling for the most comforting or convenient
answer, pursue the best answer. Consider a balance of
perspectives from
up-to-date and reputable sources:
rights reserved.
Achieving Adequate
Depth in Your Search
Balanced research examines a broad range

of evidence; thorough research, however, examines that
evidence in sufficient depth. There are three levels of
information:
At the surface level are publications from the popular media,
designed for general readers.
At the moderate level are trade, business, and technical
publications, designed for moderately informed to specialized
readers.
At the deepest level is specialized literature, designed for
practicing professionals.
rights reserved.
Achieving Adequate Depth in
Your Search (continued)
Do research at all three levels to achieve adequate depth:
rights reserved.
Evaluating Your Findings
Not all findings have equal value. Some information might be
distorted, incomplete, misleading, or biased. Ask yourself these
questions as you evaluate your sources:
Is this information accurate, reliable, and relatively unbiased?
Do the facts verify the claim?
How much of the information is useful?
Is this the whole or the real story?
Do I need more information?

rights reserved.
Interpreting Your Findings
Once you have decided which of your findings seem legitimate,
you need to decide what they all mean by asking these
questions:
What are my conclusions and do they address my original
research question?
Do any findings conflict?
Are other interpretations possible?
Should I reconsider the evidence?
What, if anything, should be done?
rights reserved.
Primary versus
Secondary Sources
Primary research means getting information directly from the
source by conducting interviews and surveys and by observing
people, events, or processes in action.
Secondary research is information obtained second hand by
reading what other researchers have compiled in books and
articles in print or online.
rights reserved.
Primary versus
Secondary Sources (continued)
Combine primary and secondary research. Start with secondary
research, but expand on what others have already learned and

add credibility to your research by conducting primary research.
rights reserved.
Exploring Secondary Sources
Secondary sources include:
Web sites
Online news outlets and magazines
Blogs and wikis
Books in the library
Journal, magazine, and newspaper articles
Government publications
Other public records
rights reserved.
Online Secondary Sources
To find various sites on the Web, use two basic tools: subject
directories and search engines.
* Subject directories are indexes compiled by editors and others
who sift through Web sites and compile the most useful links.
* Search engines, such as Yahoo! and Google, scan for Web
sites containing key words. When using search engines, be sure
to adequately refine your search to avoid too many results.
rights reserved.
Online Secondary Sources (continued)
Google. It’s fine to start with a Google search just to brainstorm
ideas and develop approaches to get started. But you quickly

will need to narrow down your findings and do some deeper
digging.
Wikipedia. Although Wikipedia pages can provide a good
starting point, the content may not be completely accurate. Use
a Wikipedia entry to get an overview of the topic, and to help
you locate other sources.
rights reserved.
Online Secondary Sources (continued)
Other online secondary sources include:
General, commercial, and academic Web sites
Government Web sites
Online news outlets and magazines
Blogs
Wikis
Facebook, Twitter, and online groups
Digital libraries
Periodical databases
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Researching
on the Internet
Expect limited results from any one search engine or subject
directory.
When using a search engine, select keywords or search phrases
that are varied and technical rather than general.
When using Wikipedia or other online encyclopedias, check out
the footnotes and other citations.

rights reserved.
Guidelines for Online Research (continued)
Consider the domain type (where the site originates).
Identify the site’s purpose and sponsor.
Look beyond the style of a site.
Assess the currency of a site’s materials.
Save or print what you need before it changes or disappears.
Assess the author’s credentials and assertions.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Online Research (continued)
Use bookmarks and hotlists for quick access to favorite Web
sites.
Save or print what you need before it changes or disappears.
Download only what you need; use it ethically; obtain
permission; and credit your sources.
rights reserved.
Traditional Secondary Sources
Traditional secondary research tools are still
of great value. Most hard-copy secondary sources are carefully
reviewed and edited before they are published.
Locate hard-copy sources by using your library’s online public
access catalog (OPAC) or other search tool. This catalog can be
accessed through the Internet or at workstations in the library.

rights reserved.
Traditional Secondary Sources (continued)
Traditional secondary sources include:
Books and periodicals
Reference works (bibliographies, indexes, encyclopedias,
dictionaries, handbooks, almanacs, directories, and abstracts)
Access tools for government publications
Gray literature (pamphlets, brochures, and other documents not
found at the library, but which may be useful).
rights reserved.
Exploring Primary Sources
Primary sources include unsolicited inquiries, informational
interviews, surveys, and observations or experiments:
Unsolicited inquiries include letters, phone calls, or email
inquiries to experts or others who can clarify or supplement
information you already have.
Informational interviews allow you to uncover highly original
information by spending time with an expert and asking
pertinent questions. But be careful that expert opinion can be
biased or inaccurate too.
rights reserved.
Exploring Primary Sources (continued)
Surveys help you form impressions of the concerns, preferences,
attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions of a large, identifiable group (a
target population) by studying representatives of that group (a

sample).
Observations and experiments offer proof to back up
assumptions about a topic. They should be your final step,
because you now know exactly what to look for.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Informational Interviews
Planning the interview
Know exactly what you’re looking for from whom.
Do your homework.
Make arrangements by phone, letter, or email.
Preparing the questions
Make each question clear and specific.
Avoid loaded questions.
Save the most difficult, complex, or sensitive questions for last.
Write out each question on a separate notecard.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Informational Interviews (continued)
Conducting the interview
Make a courteous start.
Respect cultural differences.
Let the respondent do most of the talking.
Be a good listener.
Stick to the interview plan.
Ask for clarification if needed.
Repeat major points in your own words and ask if your
interpretation is correct.
Be ready with follow-up questions.

Keep note-taking to a minimum.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Informational Interviews (continued)
Concluding the interview
Ask for closing comments.
Request permission to contact your respondent again, if new
questions arise.
Invite the respondent to review your version for accuracy.
Thank your respondent and leave promptly.
As soon as possible, write a complete summary (or record one
verbally).
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Surveys
Define the survey’s purpose and target population.
Identify the sample group.
Define the survey method.
Decide on the types of questions.
Develop an engaging introduction and provide appropriate
information.
Make each question unambiguous.
Avoid biased questions.

rights reserved.
Guidelines for Surveys (continued)
Make it brief, simple, and inviting.
Have an expert review your questionnaire before use, whenever
possible.
rights reserved.
Review Questions
1. What are the four procedural stages of the research process?
2. What are the five critical thinking stages in the research
process?
3. What are the three levels of depth in the research process?
4. What is the difference between evaluating findings and
interpreting findings?
5. What are primary and secondary research?
Answers
1. Searching for information, recording your findings,
documenting your sources, and writing the document.
2. Asking the right questions, exploring a balance of views,
achieving adequate depth in your search, evaluating your
findings, and interpreting your findings.
3. Surface level (publications from the popular media, designed
for general readers), moderate level (trade, business, and
technical publications, designed for moderately informed to
specialized readers), deepest level (specialized literature,
designed for practicing professionals).
4. Evaluating is deciding which sources are good to use in your
research; interpreting is figuring out what the sources you
choose mean.

5. Primary research means getting information directly from the
people, events, or processes in action. Secondary research is
information obtained second hand by reading what other
researchers have compiled in books and articles in print or
online.
*
rights reserved.
6. What are the two ways of locating online secondary sources?
7. What cautions should you observe when using Google and
Wikipedia?
8. What are five other online secondary sources?
9. What tool should you use to locate traditional secondary
sources at the library?
10. What are the four types of primary sources?
Answers (continued)
6. Subject directories and search engines.
7. When using Google, make sure you narrow your search
sufficiently; when using Wikipedia, use it only as a jumping-off
point.
8. Any five of the following: General, commercial, and
academic Web sites; Government Web sites; Online news
outlets and magazines; Blogs; Wikis; Facebook, Twitter, and
online groups; Digital libraries; Periodical databases.
9. Your library’s online public access catalog (OPAC) or other
search tool.
10. Unsolicited inquiries, informational interviews, surveys, and
observations and experiments.

*
*
Chapter 7 presents an overview of critical thinking in designing
a legitimate inquiry: asking the right questions, focusing on
essential sources, and evaluating and interpreting findings.
Additionally, the chapter discusses secondary and primary
sources and offers guidelines for finding and using them. This
chapter (along with Chapters 8 and 9) can serve as the basis for
the semester’s major writing assignment, either the formal
analytical report discussed in Chapter 21 or the proposal
discussed in Chapter 22.
“The Purpose of Research” is especially important to lower-
level students, who too often equate research with high-school
papers about life on Mars or the Bermuda Triangle. Students
need to understand that research is not just an academic
exercise, but that it is done for a purpose and the information
uncovered will be put to practical use.
For any research project, students should follow a well-defined
schedule for completing the various. If students work
collaboratively to write a document, direct them to create a
timeline that includes both individual and team deadlines.
Planning helps avoid the last-minute all-nighter, and the poor
writing that inevitably results.
An early orientation to the electronic information services
offered in your library will also help students avoid costly
mistakes, both in the quality of their work and the time they
must spend searching for information. Librarians are experts in
how information is created, vetted, and made available online
and in print; they can teach your students not only about how to
find and evaluate information, but also how scholarly
publication and the peer process review work. Arrange for a
library session to teach your students how to use search tools

such as the library catalog, article databases and indexes, and
online and print reference resources to find books and journal
articles. If your campus library has access to web conferencing
tools such as Adobe Connect or Blackboard Collaborate, a
library session can be offered to your online class. Librarians
are also available to meet with students for one-on-one or small
group consultations. Software programs will never replace these
information professionals, and forging a strong relationship
with one of the librarians in your campus library will prove
beneficial for both your students and you.
Your students will already be familiar with the advantages of
electronic searches. Ten or fifteen years of an index can be
reviewed in minutes. Searches can be customized: for example,
narrowed to specific dates or topics. They can also be
broadened: a keyword search can uncover material that a hard
copy search might overlook; Web pages can link to all sorts of
material—much of which exists in no hard copy form.
Take a few minutes of class time to ask students about the
drawbacks of electronic sources, a topic they may not have
considered before. These include the fact that databases rarely
contain entries published before the mid-1960s and that
material, especially on the Internet, can change or disappear
overnight or be highly unreliable. Also, given the researcher’s
potential for getting lost in cyberspace, a thorough electronic
search calls for a preliminary conference with a trained
librarian.
You might mention that even the best trial lawyers (or their
assistants) spend a good deal of time in the library or on the
Internet doing homework before presenting data to the jury.
Emphasize the importance of knowing where and how to find
the information one needs when one needs it.
Finally, students should be encouraged (or required) to compose

questionnaires or plan interviews as part of their research for
long reports. Your advice about the rough drafts of interview
questions or sample questionnaires will be helpful. This is a
good occasion to hold individual conferences. Peer review of
questions or questionnaires can also be a powerful way to help
students see alternative strategies.
Answers
1. Searching for information, recording your findings,
documenting your sources, and writing the document.
2. Asking the right questions, exploring a balance of views,
achieving adequate depth in your search, evaluating your
findings, and interpreting your findings.
3. Surface level (publications from the popular media, designed
for general readers), moderate level (trade, business, and
technical publications, designed for moderately informed to
specialized readers), deepest level (specialized literature,
designed for practicing professionals).
4. Evaluating is deciding which sources are good to use in your
research; interpreting is figuring out what the sources you
choose mean.
5. Primary research means getting information directly from the
people, events, or processes in action. Secondary research is
information obtained second hand by reading what other
researchers have compiled in books and articles in print or
online.
*
Answers (continued)
6. Subject directories and search engines.
7. When using Google, make sure you narrow your search
sufficiently; when using Wikipedia, use it only as a jumping-off
point.
8. Any five of the following: General, commercial, and
academic Web sites; Government Web sites; Online news

outlets and magazines; Blogs; Wikis; Facebook, Twitter, and
online groups; Digital libraries; Periodical databases.
9. Your library’s online public access catalog (OPAC) or other
search tool.
10. Unsolicited inquiries, informational interviews, surveys, and
observations and experiments.
*
rights reserved.
Fourteenth Edition
John M. Lannon
Laura J. Gurak
Chapter 18
Technical Descriptions, Specifications, and Marketing
Materials
*
This chapter discusses descriptions, specifications, and
technical marketing materials. All of these involve some level
of description. Your students may be surprised to know that
there are entire jobs with the specialized purpose of creating
just one of these kinds materials.
As students examine these specific forms of technical writing, it
is important to keep in mind rhetorical strategy. Our subject,
our intention, and what we know of our readers’ needs dictate
our direction and the amount of detail we include.

Descriptions in particular fit well with upcoming assignments
related to Chapters 19-22, as sometimes these types of
documents (instructions, reports, proposals) need to include
descriptions.
Many students (especially in lower level courses) initially have
trouble generating finite descriptive details. One good
classroom exercise for overcoming this problem is a variation of
brainstorming. Bring to class some mundane and somewhat
complex items, such as a coleus plant or a staple remover or a
paper punch. Place the item on a table at the front of the class
with a ruler positioned conspicuously nearby. Ask the class to
write a short piece, on the spot, describing the item or
mechanism to someone who has never seen such a thing. After
much sweating and grumbling, most students will produce a
short piece that is somewhat disorganized and so general as to
be meaningless—except for one or two vivid details. Now ask
the class as a group to begin assigning descriptive details to the
item. Sooner or later, one of them will think to pick up the ruler
and measure specific parts. As the details appear, write them all
out on the board. Record everything—even those subjective
descriptions such as “pretty” and “ugly.” Within ten minutes,
you should have enough material to fill your chalkboard. Now,
ask the class to weed out the subjective from the objective.
Next, ask them to classify the objective details by dividing the
assortment into groups, according to shared characteristics (for
the plant: leaves, stem, potting soil, pot; for the staple remover:
prongs, plastic finger grips, spring mechanism). Finally, arrange
the various classes of detail in the most logical sequence for
description (for the plant: from bottom to top, or vice versa; for
the staple remover, from finger grips to plastic exterior to
hollow metal prongs, including pointed tips and arms, to the
coil-spring extensor mechanism). Now decide as a group on the
intended audience: Who is it? Why does he or she need the
information (to be able to recognize the plant; to manufacture
the staple remover, to understand its function)?

After completing this exercise, students should understand what
you mean by descriptive details; they should know how to
classify data, how to choose the best descriptive sequence, and
how to select the appropriate details to fill the reader’s specific
needs.
rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
Understand the role of audience and purpose in technical
description
Differentiate between product and process descriptions
Appreciate the need for objectivity in technical descriptions
Recognize the main components of technical descriptions
Write a product description of a complex mechanism
rights reserved.
Write a process description of how something works or happens
Write a set of specifications to ensure safety and/or customer
satisfaction
Write a technical marketing document to sell a product or
service
rights reserved.
Descriptions
A description is creating a picture with words and images. More

specifically, a technical description conveys information about
a product or mechanism to someone who will use it, operate it,
assemble it, or manufacture it, or to someone who needs to
know more about it.
rights reserved.
Considering Audience
and Purpose
The audience for a description can be anyone who needs to see
up close what something does or what something is.
The purpose of a description is to not only answer “What is it?”
or “What does it entail?” as a definition does, but also to answer
“What does it look like?” “What are its parts?” “What does it
do?” “How does it work?” or “How does it happen?”
rights reserved.
Types of Technical Descriptions
Technical descriptions divide into two basic types: product
descriptions and process descriptions:
Anyone learning to use a particular device (say, a stethoscope)
relies on product description.
Anyone wanting to understand the steps or stages in a complex
event (say, how lightning is produced) relies on process
description.
rights reserved.

Objectivity in
Technical Descriptions
Any description can be subjective (based on feeling) or
objective (based on fact).
Except in the case of marketing materials, technical descriptions
need to be objective in order to present an impartial view,
filtering out personal impressions and focusing on details any
viewer could observe.
To remain objective, provide details that are visual, not
emotional. Also focus on using precise and informative
language.
rights reserved.
Elements of Descriptions
Following are the key parts of technical descriptions:
Clear and limiting title. An effective title promises exactly what
the document will deliver—no more and no less.
Appropriate level of detail and technicality. Give enough detail
to convey a clear picture, but do not burden readers needlessly.
Visuals. Use drawings, diagrams, or photographs
generously—with captions and labels that help readers interpret
what they are seeing.
rights reserved.
Elements of a Usable Description (continued)
Clearest descriptive sequence. There are
three types of sequences to use in a technical description:

spatial sequence (the way an item appears as a static object),
functional sequence (the order in which an item’s parts
operate), or chronological sequence (the order in which an
item’s parts are assembled or in which stages occur).
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Descriptions
Take a look at the product or process.
Analyze your audience.
Analyze your purpose.
Maintain objectivity.
Be concise.
Include all necessary parts.
Incorporate visuals.
rights reserved.
Specifications
A specification is an exacting type of description that prescribes
standards for performance, safety, and quality. They ensure
compliance with codes, standards, and laws, and they spell out
the following:
Methods for manufacturing, building, or installing a product
Materials and equipment to be used
Size, shape, and weight of the product
Specific testing, maintenance, and inspection procedures
rights reserved.

and Purpose
Specifications must be clear enough for identical interpretation
by a broad audience with varied purposes.
Each of these parties—the customer, the designer, the
contractor or manufacturer, the supplier, the workforce, and the
inspectors—needs to understand and agree on exactly what is to
be done and how it is to be done.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Specifications
Analyze your audience.
Know the minimum governmental and industry standards.
Focus on consistency, quality, and safety.
Use a standard format when applicable. Include a brief
introduction or descriptive title.
List all parts and materials.
Refer to other documents or specs, as needed.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Specifications (continued)
Use a consistent terminology.
Include retrieval aids.
Keep it simple.
Check your use of technical terms.
rights reserved.

Technical Marketing Materials
Technical marketing materials are designed to sell products or
services. Common types of technical marketing materials
include:
Web pages
Brochures
Fact sheets
Letters
Large color documents
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Technical Marketing Materials
Research the background and experience of decision makers.
Situate your product in relation to others of its class.
Emphasize the special appeal of this product or service.
Use upbeat, dynamic language.
Use visuals and color.
Provide technical specifications, as needed.
Consider including a FAQ list.
rights reserved.
Review Questions
1. What is a technical description?
2. What seven questions does a technical description answer?
3. What is a product description?
4. What is a process description?
5. What is the most important practice to keep in mind when

writing a description?
6. What are two ways to maintain objectivity?
7. What are the four elements of an effective technical
description?
Answers
1. A description is creating a picture with words and images.
More specifically, a technical description conveys information
about a product or mechanism to someone who will use it,
operate it, assemble it, or manufacture it, or to someone who
needs to know more about it.
2. The purpose of a description is to not only answer “What is
it?” or “What does it entail?” as a definition does, but also to
answer “What does it look like?” “What are its parts?” “What
does it do?” “How does it work?” or “How does it happen?”
3. A product description provides anyone learning to use a
particular device (say, a stethoscope) with the information they
need.
4. A process description provides anyone wanting to understand
the steps or stages in a complex event (say, how lightning is
produced) with the information they need.
5. Being objective.
6. To remain objective, provide details that are visual, not
language.
7. A clear and limiting title, an appropriate level of detail and
technicality, visuals, and the clearest descriptive sequence.
*
rights reserved.
8. What are specifications?
9. What is the most important characteristic of a set of

specifications?
10. What are technical marketing materials, and what are some
examples of technical marketing materials?
Answers (continued)
8. A specification is an exacting type of description that
prescribes standards for performance, safety, and quality.
9. Specifications must be clear enough for identical
interpretation by a broad audience with varied purposes.
10. Technical marketing materials are designed to sell products
or services. Common types of technical marketing materials
include: Web pages, brochures, fact sheets, letters, and large
color documents.
*
*
This chapter discusses descriptions, specifications, and
technical marketing materials. All of these involve some level
of description. Your students may be surprised to know that
there are entire jobs with the specialized purpose of creating
just one of these kinds materials.
As students examine these specific forms of technical writing, it
is important to keep in mind rhetorical strategy. Our subject,
our intention, and what we know of our readers’ needs dictate
our direction and the amount of detail we include.
Descriptions in particular fit well with upcoming assignments
related to Chapters 19-22, as sometimes these types of
documents (instructions, reports, proposals) need to include
descriptions.
Many students (especially in lower level courses) initially have
trouble generating finite descriptive details. One good
classroom exercise for overcoming this problem is a variation of
brainstorming. Bring to class some mundane and somewhat

complex items, such as a coleus plant or a staple remover or a
paper punch. Place the item on a table at the front of the class
with a ruler positioned conspicuously nearby. Ask the class to
write a short piece, on the spot, describing the item or
mechanism to someone who has never seen such a thing. After
much sweating and grumbling, most students will produce a
short piece that is somewhat disorganized and so general as to
be meaningless—except for one or two vivid details. Now ask
the class as a group to begin assigning descriptive details to the
item. Sooner or later, one of them will think to pick up the ruler
and measure specific parts. As the details appear, write them all
out on the board. Record everything—even those subjective
descriptions such as “pretty” and “ugly.” Within ten minutes,
you should have enough material to fill your chalkboard. Now,
ask the class to weed out the subjective from the objective.
Next, ask them to classify the objective details by dividing the
assortment into groups, according to shared characteristics (for
the plant: leaves, stem, potting soil, pot; for the staple remover:
prongs, plastic finger grips, spring mechanism). Finally, arrange
the various classes of detail in the most logical sequence for
description (for the plant: from bottom to top, or vice versa; for
the staple remover, from finger grips to plastic exterior to
hollow metal prongs, including pointed tips and arms, to the
coil-spring extensor mechanism). Now decide as a group on the
intended audience: Who is it? Why does he or she need the
information (to be able to recognize the plant; to manufacture
the staple remover, to understand its function)?
After completing this exercise, students should understand what
you mean by descriptive details; they should know how to
classify data, how to choose the best descriptive sequence, and
how to select the appropriate details to fill the reader’s specific
needs.
Answers
1. A description is creating a picture with words and images.
More specifically, a technical description conveys information

about a product or mechanism to someone who will use it,
operate it, assemble it, or manufacture it, or to someone who
needs to know more about it.
2. The purpose of a description is to not only answer “What is
it?” or “What does it entail?” as a definition does, but also to
answer “What does it look like?” “What are its parts?” “What
does it do?” “How does it work?” or “How does it happen?”
3. A product description provides anyone learning to use a
particular device (say, a stethoscope) with the information they
need.
4. A process description provides anyone wanting to understand
the steps or stages in a complex event (say, how lightning is
produced) with the information they need.
5. Being objective.
6. To remain objective, provide details that are visual, not
language.
7. A clear and limiting title, an appropriate level of detail and
technicality, visuals, and the clearest descriptive sequence.
*
Answers (continued)
8. A specification is an exacting type of description that
prescribes standards for performance, safety, and quality.
9. Specifications must be clear enough for identical
interpretation by a broad audience with varied purposes.
10. Technical marketing materials are designed to sell products
or services. Common types of technical marketing materials
include: Web pages, brochures, fact sheets, letters, and large
color documents.
*
rights reserved.

Fourteenth Edition
John M. Lannon
Laura J. Gurak
Chapter 17
Technical Definitions
*
Discussions about definition provide a good forum for
reviewing awareness of the audience information needs covered
in Chapter 2. How much and how often one defines will depend
on how one views the readers and their information needs.
Students need to understand the distinction between specialized
terms that are overtly technical and more general and familiar
terms whose meanings people think they understand.
To avoid problems with plagiarism or with copying from one
source, you might require a minimum of four to six references
for the expanded definition students choose. With lower-level
groups, you might wish to spend one period with the class
examining reference materials in your library databases as well
as key Web sources and answering questions that arise during
their brief research exercise. Stress the importance of credible
sources.
At this time in the semester, students working on analytical
reports due at semester’s end should have a pretty definite idea
of their final topics, after consultation with you. Therefore, the
term they choose to define can often be a primary term in that
report, such as a definition of biological insect control for the
report “The Feasibility of Using Biological Control on Bark
Beetles.”

rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
Determine when audience and purpose indicate the need for
definition
Describe the legal, ethical, societal, and global implications of
definitions
Differentiate between parenthetical, sentence, and expanded
definitions
Identify the various ways to expand a definition
rights reserved.
Write an expanded definition
Place definitions effectively in your document
rights reserved.
Definitions
Definitions explain terms or concepts that are specialized and
may be unfamiliar to people who lack expertise in a particular
field.
Precision is particularly important in specialized fields, in
which field-specific terminology is common and undefined
terms may prevent the overall document from making sense.
rights reserved.

and Purpose
Definitions answer one of two questions: “What, exactly, is it?”
or “What, exactly, does it entail?” The first question spells out
what makes an item, concept, or process unique. The second
question spells out for your audience how they are affected by
the item defined.
The purpose of a definition is to answer the question “Why does
my audience need to understand this term?”
rights reserved.
Legal, Ethical, Societal, and
Global Implications
Keep the following implications in mind:
Legal: An inaccurate or misleading definition could lead to
legal problems if it causes injury or harm.
Ethical: An intentionally faulty or self-serving definition may
damage a company’s ethical image.
Societal: Poorly considered definitions may mislead the public
and have societal ramifications.
Global: Definitions that fail to consider a global audience can
appear self-serving and damage a
company’s global image.
rights reserved.
Types of Definitions

Definitions fall into three categories:
Parenthetical definitions: Provide a definition within
parentheses immediately after a term:
Sentence definitions: State the term, indicate
the broader class to which this item belongs, and describe the
features that distinguish it, all in the form of a single sentence:
rights reserved.
Types of Definitions (continued)
Expanded definitions: Use a variety of techniques to provide a
detailed definition in the form of a paragraph or several pages:
rights reserved.
Methods for Expanding Definitions
Following are the most common techniques for expanding
definitions:
Etymology: Providing the origin of the term.
History: Explaining the history of the term.
Negation: Showing what a term does not mean.
Operating Principle: Describing how the item works.
Analysis of Parts: Breaking the item down into its individual
parts.
Visuals: Showing what the item looks like.

rights reserved.
Methods for Expanding Definitions
Comparison and Contrast: Describing what the item is similar to
and/or different from.
Required Conditions: Explaining the conditions that make the
item work or not work.
Examples: Showing situations in which the item is used.
rights reserved.
Placing Definitions in a Document
Brief definitions should be placed in parentheses or in the
document’s margin.
Sentence definitions should be part of the running text or, if
they are numerous, listed in a glossary.
Expanded definitions should be placed either near the beginning
of a long document or in an appendix.
rights reserved.

Placing Definitions in a Document (continued)
Use a glossary if your report contains numerous terms that may
not be understood by all audience members.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Definitions
Decide on the level of detail you need.
Classify the item precisely.
Differentiate the item accurately.
Avoid circular definitions.
Expand your definition selectively.
Use visuals to clarify your meaning.
Know “how much is enough.”
Consider the legal implications of your definition.
rights reserved.
Guidelines for Definitions (continued)
Consider the ethical implications of your definition.
Place your definition in an appropriate location.
Cite your sources as needed.
rights reserved.
Review Questions
1. What is a definition?

2. What is the most important aspect of a definition?
3. What two questions does a definition answer?
4. What is a parenthetical definition?
5. What is a sentence definition?
6. What is an expanded definition?
7. What are the nine most common ways to expand a definition?
Answers
1. Definitions explain terms or concepts that are specialized and
may be unfamiliar to people who lack expertise in a particular
field.
2. Precision.
3. A definition answers the questions “What, exactly, is it?” or
“What, exactly, does it entail?”
4. Parenthetical definitions provide a definition within
parentheses immediately after a term.
5. Sentence definitions state the term, indicate the broader class
to which this item belongs, and describe the features that
distinguish it, all in the form of a single sentence.
6. Expanded definitions use a variety of techniques to provide a
detailed definition in the form of a paragraph or several pages.
7. Etymology, history, negation, operating principle, analysis of
parts, visuals, comparison and contrast, required conditions, and
examples.
*
rights reserved.
8. Where should you place brief definitions in a document?
9. Where should you place sentence definitions in a document?
10. Where should you place expanded definitions in a
document?

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