The document provides an overview of routing and switching fundamentals, detailing packet forwarding processes, routing tables, and different types of routing protocols. It explains Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF), static routing techniques, and memory types used in networking devices, emphasizing the significance of routing metrics and administrative distances. Additionally, it covers the mechanics of load balancing in CEF and discusses floating static routes and their role in network path selection.

1. Routing basics/CEF
May 4, 2016
Dmitry Figol
CCIE R&S #53592
dmitry@dmfigol.me

2. Intro to routing and switching
Routing
• Finding the optimal way towards destination
Switching
• Moving packet between interfaces
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3. Packet forwarding
When the packet comes in, the router does the following:
0. Checks and removes L2 header, gets destination IP
1. Routing process
2. Switching process
3. L2 encapsulation
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4. Routing process
• Find the longest match based on destination IP in routing
table (RIB)
• The goal is to find outgoing interface and Next Hop IP
address (if applicable)
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5. Routing table - example
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6. Routing table (cont.)
• Recursive Lookup
• Contains useless information for forwarding:
• For example, Administrative Distance and Metric
• Single lookup has linear complexity O(n)
• Stored in RAM
• Verification: show ip route [ip-address [mask]]
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7. Routing table (cont.)
Metric (maximum is 232-1 = 4294967295):
• Used to choose the best route within a single routing protocol
(*not always true)
Administrative distance (0..255):
• Used to choose the best route between routing protocols
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8. Routing table (cont.) - AD
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Route Source Value
Connected 0
Static 1
EIGRP summary 5
eBGP 20
EIGRP internal 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
IS-IS 115
Route Source Value
RIP 120
EGP 140
ODR 160
EIGRP external 170
iBGP 200
NHRP 250
DHCP learned 254
Unknown* (Not installed) 255

9. Routing protocols
• Static
• Dynamic:
• IGP:
• Distance-vector(RIP, EIGRP)
• Link-state (OSPF, IS-IS)
• EGP:
• Path-vector (BGP)
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10. Switching process
• Process-switching
• Fast-switching
• Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF)
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11. L2 Encapsulation
Knowing outgoing interface and Next Hop address is not always
enough for “packet rewrite”
• Point-to-point links (PPP, HDLC) – no additional information
required
• Point-to-multipoint links (Ethernet, Frame-relay, ATM) – L2
Destination Address is required (from ARP cache, Frame-
Relay/ATM mappings)
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12. Traffic types
Data plane – traffic through the device
Control plane – traffic to the device:
• Routing protocols hello/updates
• BPDU
• FHRP and others
Management plane – part of control plane:
• SSH/Telnet
• SNMP
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13. Processors: CPU and ASIC
• Central processing unit (CPU) is the brains of the network device
• Handles control plane
• Can do anything
• Can’t do packet forwarding with high throughput*
*Note: DPDK project enables x86 multi-core processors to forward 200+ Gbps
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14. Processors: CPU and ASIC
• Application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) is circuit with
transistors
• Very fast, but dumb
• Designed specifically to move packets
• Expensive
• Not possible to program new features
• Responsible for data plane
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15. Memory: RAM, CAM and TCAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the most common type of memory
• Value is accessed by pointer (memory address)
• Cheap
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16. Memory: RAM, CAM and TCAM
Content-addressable memory (CAM)
• Value is accessed by a key, not a pointer
• Very fast
• Expensive
• High power consumption
• O(1) constant time lookup
• Used in switches for MAC address table
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17. Memory: RAM, CAM and TCAM
Ternary Content-addressable memory (TCAM)
• Value is accessed by a key, which consists of not only “0” and “1”,
but also “don’t care” bits.
• Very expensive
• High power consumption
• O(1) constant time lookup!
• Used for next-hop lookup (CEF table), ACL (security and QoS)
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18. Process-switching
• Recursive lookup is performed by CPU in RIB
• There is special process responsible for process-switching “IP Input”
• The following traffic is process-switched:
• Control plane
• Locally generated (not all)
• No L2 adjacency information
• ACL logging
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19. Fast-switching
• First packet for source-destination IP pair is process-switched
• IP pair and corresponding encapsulation information is added
to the cache
• Following packets are forwarding based on the entry in cache
• Deprecated
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20. Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF)
The idea is to precompute and optimize information in RIB:
• Resolve recursive lookup and get rid of useless information
• Add pointer to pre-built L2 header in Adjacency table
The new table is called Forwarding Information Base (FIB) or CEF table:
• Contains prefix, NH, outgoing interface, pointer to L2 header
• Stored in DRAM [O(1) using 256-way mtrie data structure] and TCAM
[if exists, also O(1), but much faster]
The lookup is done during the interrupt (process scheduling is not
required)
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21. CEF (cont.)
Verification:
show ip cef [ip-address [mask]] [detail] [internal]
Shows NH, outgoing interface, MPLS labels (if applicable)
Internal keyword shows pointer to Adjacency entry and hash buckets
Disable CEF:
(config)# no ip cef
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22. CEF – Adjacency table
• CEF process takes information from all L3-to-L2 mappings and builds
L2 header
• Adjacency table contains NH, interface, associated L2 Header
• Stored in RAM
• Pitfall: CEF process does not allow adjacency to age out
(clear arp won’t delete ARP entry if it can be revalidated)
• Verification:
show adjacency [detail]
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23. CEF – Adjacency types
• Cache
• Glean
• Receive
• Punt
• Null
• Discard
• Drop
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24. CEF on hardware-based platforms
• CEF basically allows to forward traffic without CPU
• Depending on platform there can be zero, one or more ASICs.
• The same applies for TCAM
• All L3 switches have TCAM, only some routers have it
• That’s why generally speaking L3 switches forward traffic faster than routers
• TCAM stores not only FIB, but ACL and QoS rules, the allocation is
predefined though
• On some platforms you can change allocation profile
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25. CEF on hardware-based platforms (cont.)
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RIB
ARP Cache
Other L2
information
FIB
(CEF Table)
Adjacency
table
TCAM
RAM
ASIC

26. CEF – Load balancing
• Routing protocols can install several routes for the same prefix
• How will CEF decide where to send packet?
• CEF is doing load-balancing per-flow
• By default, it takes source-destination IP pair, feeds it to the
hashing algorithm, returns the number of the bucket
• Buckets are allocated automatically per NH, depending on the
traffic share count in RIB
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27. CEF – Load balancing (cont.)
Verification:
show ip cef [ip [mask]] internal – shows NH-to-bucket distribution
show ip cef exact-route src-ip dst-ip – shows NH and interface for
source/destination IP pair
Change load balancing method (not recommended):
(config-if)# ip load-sharing per-packet
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28. CEF polarization
• Hash algorithm is deterministic, meaning that for the same
source/destination IP pair the bucket (outgoing link) is the same.
• Result is that some links can be underutilized (especially if we have
chain of routers with ECMP).
• One possible solution is to include L4 ports in hashing (if
supported):
(config)# ip cef load-sharing algorithm include-ports [source
[destination]]
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29. Static Routing
• The way to install an entry in RIB manually
• Usually overrides entries installed via dynamic routing protocols
• Advantage: gives full control over path selection in your network
• Main disadvantage: huge administrative burden
• Syntax:
(config)# ip route prefix mask [NH-IP | interface [NH-IP]] [distance]
[track track]
• Verification:
# show ip route [static]
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30. Static Routing (cont.)
There are three different ways to configure where the traffic should
go for specific prefix:
• By specifying next-hop IP address
• By specifying outgoing interface
• By specifying both
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31. Static Routing to next-hop
• Recursive lookup is required to find outgoing interface
• On multipoint interfaces resolution of next-hop IP address is
required (ARP cache, Frame Relay/ATM mapping)
• Static route is installed into RIB only if recursive lookup is
successful (outgoing interface was found)
• It will stay in RIB even if next-hop is covered only by valid default route
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32. Static Routing to outgoing interface
• Recursive lookup is not required because we know outgoing
interface
• On point-to-point interface we can send the packet right away
• On multipoint interface first we need to find L2 address for
destination IP
• For every new destination IP addressin the packet we will install entry in ARP
cache
• It can still work if Proxy Arp is enabled (which is enabled by default in IOS)
• Static route is installed into RIB only if line protocol (for outgoing interface) is
up
• Use only for point-to-point interfaces!
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33. Static Routing to outgoing interface and NH
• Recursive lookup is not required because we know outgoing
interface
• On point-to-point interface we can send the packet right away
• On multipoint interface first we need to find L2 address for next-
hop IP address
• Static route is installed into RIB only if line protocol of outgoing
interface is up
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34. Floating static routes
• Floating static route is a route that has AD higher than default and
is not installed into RIB under normal operation, because there is
another preferred path
• Once primary path fails floating static route can be installed
• For example:
• Primary static default route with AD 1 and tracking (based on IP SLA) or BFD
• Secondary static default route with AD 2 or higher
• Once tracking object/BFD goes down, primary route is deleted from RIB and secondary
route is installed
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35. Recursive lookup for static routes - exercise
• R1 has one interface up/up with IP in subnet 188.1.12.0/24.You configurethe following:
Question: Which static routes will be installed in RIB?
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36. Recursive lookup for static routes - rule
Answer:
Rule:
If the best route for the next hop also covers the entire address space
of the static route under the question, it will NOT be installed.
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37. Additional Resources
• Inside Cisco IOS Software Architecture (Russ White) book
• IP Routing FAQ
• Switching Paths
• Load Balancing with CEF
• Troubleshooting load balancing with CEF
• CAM vs TCAM
• CEF polarization
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38. Questions?
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